]mW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY; 

OR, 

THE  FAKMER'S  BOOK 


OF 


PRACTICAL    INFOEMATION 


ON 


AGRICULTURE,  STOCK  RAISING, 

FRUIT  CULTURE,  SPECIAL  CROPS, 
DOMESTIC  ECONOMY  &  FAMILY  MEDICINE. 


BY 


CHARLES  W.  DICKERMAN, 

MEMBER   OF   THE    PE.NV.    AORIcrLTfRAL   SOCIETr.NrHE    AMERICAN    POMOLOOICAL   SOCIETY, 
AND   THE    PENNSTLVA.VIA    HORTICCI.TfKAL   SOCIETY. 


ASSISTED    BY 

Hon.     CHARLES     L.     FLINT, 

Sucretjxr.v   M:iss.   St.-ite  Board  of  Agriculture, 

AND    OTHER  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURAL  WRITERS. 


ILLUSTRATED     WITH     ONE     HUNDRED    AND    FORTY     ENGRAVINGS 
<  ■  »  •  > 


ZEIGLER,   McCURDY  &  CO., 

PHILADELPHIA,    Pa.;    CINCINNATI,    Ohio;    CHICAGO,    III.; 

ST.  LOUIS,  Mo.;  and  SPRINGFIELD,  Mass. 

1870. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1869,  by 

CHARLES  W.  DICKERMAN, 

In    the  Clerk's  Office   of   the    District    Court   of  the    United    States   for   the   Eastern 
District   of   Pennsylvania. 


S.    A     GEORGE, 

ELBOTROTVl'ER.  STEREOTYPER,  AND  PRINTER, 

124  N.  SEVS.N'TU  STREET,  FHILAD£LPUIA. 


TO 

JOHK    JOHjSTSTOF, 

OF    GEXi;VA.    X.    V. 

THE    VETERAN     PROMOTER    OF    ALL     AGRICULTURAL 

IMrROVEMENT    IN    THIS    COUNTRY, 

THIS    VOLUME    IS 

DEI»ICATED    WITH    THE    SINCERE    ADMIRATION    OF. 

THl-:  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


^  0  one  at  this  day  doubts  the  importance  of  agricultuial 
information.  Knowledge  in  this  department  is  not  only 
power,  but  it  is  wealth,  iudividual  and  national.  That 
system  of  cultivation  which  produces  two  blades  of  grass 
or  two  kernels  of  grain  where  only  one  grew^  before ;  which 
produces  two  quarts  of  milk  or  two  pounds  of  meat  in  place 
of  one,  must  not  only  be  a  benefit  to  each  iudividual  pro- 
ducer, but  of  immense  advantage  to  the  country'  and  the  world. 
Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  past  twenty  years. 
Underdraining,  improved  machinerj-,  the  better  understanding 
of  the  rotation  of  crops,  and  the  application  of  manures,  and  the 
improvements  in  the  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  have  all  helped 
to  raise  Agriculture,  from  mere  drudgery,  to  an  important 
science.  And  improvement  must  still  continue.  Only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  great  body  of  farmers  have  adopted  the 
advanced  position  in  modern  agriculture.  The  great  mass  of 
farmers  are  still  laboring  under  the  disadvantages  of  a  false  and 
ruinous  system  of  agriculture,  without  knowing  just  how  to 
better  their  position.  It  is  the  duty  of  those  who  do  know,  to 
bring  their  knowledge  to  the  use  of  these  their  brethren  in  toil. 
Much  of  the  best  talent  of  the  country  is  devoted  to  this  object. 
Agricultural  colleges  are  springing  up  on  every  hand.  Men  of 
genius,  of  the  best  scholarship,  of  great  scientific  attainments, 
are  devoting  their  lives  to  the  work  of  bringing  forth  the  secrets 
of  the  soil.    Enterprising  j'oung  men  of  good  abilities  are  putting 

their  hands  to  the  plow,  and  the  plow  to  the  furrow,  resolved  to 

(iii) 


IV  PREFACE. 

leave  the  mark  of  improvement  on  the  work  of  the  farm.  The 
labor  of  the  farmer  is  thus  elevated.  What  has  always  been 
claimed  by  a  few,  will  soon  be  acknowledged  by  all,  that  the 
prosperity  of  a  country  depends  upon  the  intelligent  cultivation 
of  the  soil. 

In  this  land  of  schools,  where  evei'y  child  can  have  an  educa- 
tion, knowledge  is  easily  disseminated.  Improved  methods  of 
culture  can  be  spread  broadcast  over  the  land  by  means  of  books 
and  paper-s.  For  these  reasons  American  farmers  are  more 
intelligent  than  the  same  class  in  any  other  country.  .  Few- 
farmers  are  now  so  ignorant  as  to  scoff  at  agricultural  informa- 
tion. They  desire  it,  and  welcome  it.  The  trouble  has  been 
and  is,  that  it  is  not  given  them  in  a  form  adapted  to  their  wants. 
There  have  been  many  technical  and  scientific  works,  containing 
most  valuable  information,  but  in  language  not  readily  under 
stood.  These  works  are  very  largel}"  theoretical,  and  the  practical 
is  not  so  distinctly  separated  as  to  be  easily  applied. 

The3^  have  performed  a  noble  service,  for  without  the  informa- 
tion they  have  contained,  but  little  advance  would  have  been 
made. 

The  agricultural  papers  come  down  more  nearly  to  the  wants 
of  the  farmer,  and  we  advise  every  farmer  to  take  some  agricul- 
tural paper.  They  furnish  many  useful  hints  and  valuable 
suggestions,  and  serve  to  interest  the  younger  members  of  the 
family  in  the  labors  of  the  farm.  But  agricultural  papers  are  not 
wholly  satisfactory.  Of  course,  each  number  can  refer  to  only  a 
limited  variety  of  subjects,  and  a  farmer  may  take  the  paper  foi 
years  before  he  gets  information  upon  the  very  subject  ne  wishes 
most  to  know  about.  Again,  much  that  is  in  these  papers  is 
crude.  Many  theories  are  given  that  have  not  been  sufficiently 
tried,  and  must  be  received  with  the  greatest  caution.  The  records 
of  carefully  conducted  experiments  are  the  most  valuable  part  of 
these  papers,  if  the  farmer  has  the  wisdom  and  patience  to  study 
them,  and  apply  their  principles  to  his  practice. 


PREFACE.  V 

There  is  another  class  of  agricultural  books,  b\'  our  best 
writers,  ou  specific  subjects,  the  objection  to  them  being  their 
cost.  In  order  to  make  a  book,  a  great  deal  is  put  in  that  is 
curious  and  interesting,  but  not  practical.  For  instance,  one  of 
our  best  writers  has  recently  published  a  book  on  "  Wheat  Cul- 
ture," which,  while  it  contains  nearl}^  all  that  is  practically 
worth  knowing  about  the  plant,  is  so  full  of  other  matters,  as  to 
be  called  by  the  editor  of  one  of  our  agricultural  papers,  "  The 
Romance  and  Curiosities  of  Wheat  Growing."  It  is  just  the 
avoidance  of  these  supertluitics  which  is  aimed  at  in  the  present 
work,  while  all  the  practical  information  is  retained.  To  obtain 
information  on  all  the  subjects  treated  of,  it  would  be  necessary 
for  the  farmer  to  purchase  books  upon  drainage,  manures,  imple- 
ments, wheat  culture,  grasses,  sheep-husbandry,  milch  cows  and 
dairy  farming,  horses,  cattle,  fruit  culture,  market  gardening, 
and  numberless  other  books,  large  and  small,  requiring  much 
money  to  purcJiase,  and  much  time  to  read 

To  make  the  present  volume  wholly  reliable,  it  has  been  aimed 
to  record  nothing  but  what  lias  been  proved  in  practice,  beyond 
a  doubt.  Mere  theor}-  has  been  rejected.  Some  valuable  ideas 
have  in  all  probability  been  thus  lost,  but  it  is  the  only  safe 
course ;  the  only  course  by  which  the  farmer  can  be  saved  from 
disastrous  mistakes.  The  results  of  practice  in  different  sections 
and  on  different  soils  have  been  carefully  compared  with  the  re- 
corded opinions  of  the  oldest  and  best  of  our  own  writers  ;  and 
much  valuable  assistance  has  thus  been  received  from  such  able, 
careful,  and  practical  men  as  the  Hon.  Charles  L.  Flint,  Secretary 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  (to  whom  the 
reader  is  indebted  for  the  valuable  chapters  on  Agricultural  Imple- 
ments and  Dair}^  Stock,  in  this  volume ;)  John  II.  Klippart,  of  Ohio ; 
S.  Edwards  Todd,  (tf  New  York;  Professors  Norton  and  John- 
ston,of  Yale  College;  J.  J.  Thomas,of  Alban3^,NeAY  York;  Norman 
J.  Coleman,of  St.  Louis,Mo.;  Lewis  F.Allen,  of  New  York;  Robert 
Stewart,  M.  D.,  Y.  S.,  author  of  "  The  American  Farmer's  Horse 


Vi  PREFACE 

Book ;"  Henry  S.  Randall,  L.L.  D.,  author  of  "  The  Practical 
Shepherd ;"  George  H.  Dadd,  V.  S. ;  Andrew  S.  Fuller,  Peter  B. 
Mead,  and  Dr.  C.  W.  Grant,  of  New  York ;  George  Hussman,  of 
Mo. ;  Edmund  Morris,  of  New  Jersey  ;  Donald  G.  Mitchell,  of  New 
Haven,  Conn. ;  Charles  B.  Williams,  of  Va. ;  Joseph  B.  Lyman, 
of  La. ;  Fearing  Burr,  Jr.,  of  Boston,  author  of  "  The  Field  and 
Garden  Vegetables  of  America  ;"  Marshall  P,  Wilder,. Robert  M. 
Copeland,  Joseph  Breck,  and  Edward  S.  Rand,  of  Boston ; 
Patrick  Barry,  of  Rochester,  New  York ;  L.  L.  Langstroth,  of 
Ohio,  and  many  others.  To  all  these  gentlemen  the  author 
tenders  his  most  sincere  acknowledgments. 

In  writing  this  volume,  the  author  has  kept  steadily  in  view 
the  requirements  of  the  East,  the  West,  and  the  South  with 
her  fields  newl}^  opening  to  agricultural  enterprise.  That  it  will 
fully  meet  the  wants  of  every  farmer  is  too  much  to  expect ;  but 
that  it  will  more  fully  meet  them  than  any  other  single  volume 
is  his  hope  and  belief.  With  the  sole  desire  that  it  may  be  of 
permanent  value  to  his  brethren  of  the  Plow,  the  author  commits 
it  to  the  Press. 

Near  Philadelphia,    ) 
October  1,  1868.    j 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE 3 

INTRODUCTION : 19 

CHAPTER    I. 

DRAINAGE. 
What  Soils  need  Drainage — Signs — Effects  of  Stagnant  Water  upon  various  Crops — Shortens 
the  Working  Sea.son — Shortens  the  Ripening  Season — Effects  of  Drainage — Removes 
Stagnant  Water  from  the  Surface — Removes  Surplus  Water  from  under  the  Surface — 
Lengthens  the  Working  Seasou — Deepens  the  Soil — Warms  the  Under  Soil — Equalizes 
the  Temperature — Prevents  Injuries  by  Frost — Prevents  Injury  from  Drought — Increases 
the  Effect  of  Manures — Prevents  Rust  in  Wheat  and  Rot  in  Potatoes — Other  advantages 
— Material  for  Drains — Open  Drains — Brush — Stoue  Drains — Tile — Why  the  best — Depth 
of  Drains — Draining  Tools — Time  to  make  Drains — Laying  out — Digging^ — Mains — 
Minors — Joints — Heads  —  Outlets — Obstructions —  Uow  discovered  —  How  remedied — 
Ditching  Machines — Mole  Drains,  etc  ,  etc. — Draining  Prairie  Laud... 31-46 

CHAPTER     II. 

PLOWING. 

Objects — Pulverization — Wet  Soils — Deep  Plowing — Shallow  Plowing — Increase  your  Acre^ 
Lapped  Furrow  Slices — Double  Furrow  Slices — Flat  Furrow  Slices — Trench  Plowing — 
Benefits  of  Trench  Plowing — Subsoil  Plowing — Benefit.-^ — When  not  applicable — Fall 
Plowing — Winter  Plowing — Spring  Plowing — Which  the  best — Why — Stubble  Plowing 
— Plowing  Clay  Soils — How  to  Plow — Heavy  and  Light  Plows — Breaking  Prairie — 
Harrowing — Rolling — Clod  Crushing 47-51 

CHAPTER     III. 

MANURES. 
Waste  of  Manures — One  Thousand  Dollars  a  Year  to  waste — Liquid  Manure — Human  Excre- 
ment— How  to  save  it — Its  value — The  Barnyard — More  waste — Urine — Manure  Wells- 
Soiling — Horse  Manure — Liability  to  "  fire  fang" — Loss  of  Ammonia — Its  value — How  to 
prevent  it — The  Piggery — Hen  Dung — Liquid  Manure  alone  valuable — Application  to 
the  Soil — Surface  Manuring — Fall  Manuring — Spring  Manuring — Protected  and  unpro- 
tected Manures — Peat — Muck — Straw — Leaves — Bones,  and  how  to  Dissolve  them — Dead 
Horses,  etc. — Ashes — Sawdust — Soot — Soap — The  Sink  Spout  and  Privy — Red  Clover  as  a 
Manure — Other  Green  Manures — Their  value — Plowing  them  under — Make  the  most  of 
your  Manure — When  to  use  Fertilizers — Guano,  the  same  thing  as  Hen  Dnni; — Lime — A 
lecessity — Its  application — Gypsum — Plaster  of  Paris — Do  Fertilizers  exhaust  the  Soil — 
fjomposts — Drainage  necessary  to  give  effect  to  Manures — Last  words 52-09 

vii 


VI 11  CONTENTS. 

P&AB 

CHAPTER    lY. 

FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 
Amount  of  Capital  invested  in  them— Improvements — One  Plow  to  a  town — The  Carey  Plow 
— Shovel  Plow— Implements  for  preparing  the  Land— Tree  Sawing  Machines — Stump 
Pullers  and  Stone  Lifters — Drainage  and  Draining  Implements — Plows  and  Plowing  — 
Draright— The  Doe  Plow— Its  general  application — Deep  Tiller  Plows — Telegraph  Plow- 
Cylinder  Plow— Mead's  Conical  Plow— Sod,  Stubble,  and  Side  Hill  Plows— Steel  Plows-- 
Their  advantages— Collins  Plow— The  Subsoil  Plow — Its  great  usefulness — Other  Plows 
— Dr.  Grant's  New  Trenching  Plows — Plows  for  the  Prairie  Farmer — Skinner's  Gang 
Plow — Steam  Plow — Comstock's  Spader — Harrows — Geddes'  Harrow — The  Hinge  Har- 
row—  Share's  Harrow— Horse  Hoes-Cultivators— Sulky  Cultivator — Clod  Crusher— 
Rollers— Cooper's  Lime  Spreader— Drills — The  advantages  of  Drilling  in  most  Crops — 
The  Star  Drill — Seed  Sowers — Weeding  Hoes — Allen's  "Weed  Killer" — Implements  for 
Harvesting— The  rapid  march  of  improvements — Number  of  Mowing  Machines  manu- 
factured— Their  progress  towards  perfection — The  Buckeye — Woods — Other  Mowers — 
The  Hay  Tedder — Its  remarkable  sncces.s — Horse  Rakes — Forks — Horse  Forks — Reaper 
Trials — Self  Rake  Reapers — Autumatic  Binders — Combined  Mowers  and  Reapers — Pre- 
servation and  care  of  Implements  —  Valuable  directions — Threshing  Machines — Corn 
Shellers— Hay  Fodder  and  Root  Cutters— Cider  and  Grape  Mills 70  152 

CHAPTER    y. 

GRAINS. 
Wheat  CuLTURte.  Its  importance — The  corner  stone  of  Wheat  Culture — Drainage — Soils — 
Clay — Limestone — Sandy  Soils — Mistake  in  Prairie  Farming — Manures  required — Clover 
Fallows — Cost  of  Manuring  with  Clover — Its  value — Lime,  Ashes,  Salt,  etc., — Relative 
value  of  each  to  the  Wheat  Crop — Fattening  the  Soil — Thorough  Pulverization — Sheep 
vs.  Cattle — Preparing  the  Soil  for  Wheat — Deep  Cultivation — Mellowing  the  Soil— Sow- 
ing— Early  and  Late  Sowing — The  Depth — Amount  of  Seed  to  the  acre — Drilling  in  the 
Seed — Can  be  done  earlier — Less  Seed  required — Uniformity  secured — Other  advantages 
— Harrowing  Wheat  in  the  Spring — Chess,  Grass,  and  Weeds — Time  to  Harvest  Wheat — 
Signs  of  Ripening — Reaping — Cradling  —  Raking — Binding — Stacking — Grain  Caps- 
Spring  Wheat — Special  directions — Selection  of  Seed  Wheat — Carelessness  in  selecting 
Seed  the  great  bane  of  Agriculture — Qualities  of  Good  Wheat — Varieties  of  Wheat — Their 
Qualities  described — If  not  properly  selected  and  carefully  cultivated  the  best  Wheal 
will  degenerate  —  Smut  —  Rust  —  Mildew — Ergot — Insects.  Rtk.  Soils — Preparation — 
Manures — Sowing — Harvesting — Selectioa  of  Seed.  Barlet,  Buckwheat,  Oats.  Varieties 
— Soils  be.st  adapted  to  their  Culture — Their  place  in  the  rotation  of  Crops — Manures  to 
be  applied — Preparation  of  the  Soil — Harvesting,  etc.,  etc.  Indian  Corn.  The  Staple 
Crop — Cotton  no  longer  King — Soil — Autumn  Plowing — Manures — Lime — Salt — Guano — 
Ashes — Bones,  etc. — Preparing  the  Seed — Time  to  Plant — Corn  Planters  or  Drills — Culti- 
vation— Southern  and  Western  Method.s — How  can  they  be  improved — Corn  for  Fodder — 
Topping  condemned — Harvesting — Huskings-^Raising,  selecting  and  preserving  Seed 
Corn — Varieties — Broom  Corn — Legal  Weights  of  Grains,  Roots  and  Seeds  in  different 
States — Number  of  Seeds  to  the  pound  of  different  Grains  and  Grasses 153-1S2 

CHAPTER    yi. 

GRASSES. 
Purposes  for  which  Grass  is  cultivated — Hay — Pasture — Thirty  Species  of  Agricultural  value 
— Varieties  of  Grass  described — Their  relative  value — Red  Clover — Time  fbr  Seeding  Clover 
— Quantity  of  Seed  per  acre — Cutting  and  Curing — Early  vs.  Late  Cutting — Curing  in  one 
day — Cutting  for  Seed — Hay  Caps — Clover  as  a  Manure — Time  to  Sow  Grass  Seed — Early 
Spring  vs.  Fall  Sowing — Quantity  of  Seed  per  acre — Too  small  a  variety  of  Seed  usually 
sown — Twenty  varieties  in  natural  sod — Mixtures  recommended — Tables — Top  dressing 
Grass  Lands — Seeding  wet  Prairie — Red  Top  vs.  Slough  Grass — Improvement  of  Pas- 
ares — Selection  of  Grass  Seed — Raise  your  own  Seed IS.'^-lSo 


COXTEXTS.  IX 

CHAPTER    VII. 

ROOT  CROPS.  PASH 

The  best  Farming  implies  a  Culture  of  "Roots" — Roots  for  Stock  in  Winter — Relative  value 
of  Roots  aud  Cora — Where  Roots  caa  be  raised  to  advautage — Soil — Preparation — Ma- 
nures— Turnips — Ruta  Bas,'a^ — Jlangolds — Carrots — General  Cultivation — Harvesting; — 
Storing — Feeding — Careful  seleptiou  and  preparation  of  Seed — Drilling  vs.  Sowing — 
Profits.  Potatoes.  General  use — Preparation  of  the  Soil — Manures  and  their  applica- 
tion— Planting  whole  or  cut,  large  or  small,  in  Hills  or  Row.s — Cultivation — Harvesting 
— Storing — Varieties — Characteristics  of  a  good  Potato  —  Description  of  thirteen  good 
varieties — Sweet  Potatoes 196-208 

CHAPTER     VIII. 

SPECIAL  CROPS  AND   ROTATION   OF  CROPS. 

CoTTos.  Its  great  importance — Cheap  Cotton  means  Cheap  Clothing — Three  classes  of  soils 
— Cotton  State.s — Division  of  a  Cotton  Plantation — Plowing — Planting — The  Seed — Circle 
Plowing — Marking  off — A  cheap  Marker — Distance  to  Plant — Drilling  in — Dropping  by 
hand — Rules  of  Dr.  Cloud — Fertilizers — The  best  and  their  application — Cultivation — 
First  Plowing — Bringing  to  a  stand — Keeping  out  the  Weeds — Care  for  the  Laborers  and 
Stock — Picking — When  to  commence — Directions  of  J.  B.  Lymau — Ginning,  Baling,  and 
Marketing — Suggestions — A  common  Gin  House — Home  Manufacture — Diseases — Insects 
— Certain  methods  of  preventing  their  ravages — Cotton  Seed — Oil  Cake.  Rice  Culture. 
Tobacco.  Does  itexliaust  the  Soil — Faulty  methods  of  Culture — Soil — Preparation — Sub- 
soiling — Manures  the  life  of  the  Crop — What  Manures — The  Seed  Bed— How  much  Seed — 
Transplanting — Cultivation — Enemies — Suckers — Worms — Toppint, — Indications  of  Ri- 
pening— Harvesting — Yrost — Curing — Artificial  Curing — Bibb  &  Co.'s  Apparatus — Sweat- 
ing. Hops.  Soil — Underdrainiug — Position — Preparation  of  the  Soil — Fertilizers — Run- 
ners—  Transplanting  —  Planting  out — Sets — Distance — New  and  improved  method  of 
Training — The  Hop  Lou.se — Prevention — Gathering — Drying — Storing.  Hemp.  Its  Cul- 
tivation. Fl.AX.  Where  raised  to  advaut:;ge — Soil  required — Prepaiation  must  be  thor- 
ough— Manures — Place  in  a  Rotation — Weeding — Mowing  vs.  Cradling — JRippling — 
Retting — Pools — Seed — Sorghum — For  Sugar — For  Syrup  only — Is  it  piofltftble — Cultiva- 
tion— JIanufaoture.  Maple  Scoar.  Plant  Maple  Tree.* — Profits  large  in  proportion  to 
the  expense — How  to  Tap  Trees — New  methods  of  Boiling  the  Sap.  Beet  Roots  pok 
Spoar.  Amount  of  Sugar  imported — Economy  of  raising  Beets — Cost  of  Crop — Amount 
of  Sugttr — Cost  of  Manufacture — Great  Profits  to  the  Producer — Cheap  Sugar — Value  of 
the  Crop  in  a  Rotation — Improvement  of  Land  and  Stock — How  to  go  about  it — Combina- 
tion— Soil  and  Climate — Manures — Preparation  of  the  Soil — Sowing — Gathering — When 
to  gather — Storing — Pits — Manufiicture  of  Sugar — Beet  Pulp — Seed — How  to  secure,  clean 
and  save  the  best  Seed — Rotation  of  Crops  aud  JIanures — The  adaptation  ol  Stock  to  the 
Soil  and  Crops,  and  General  Management  of  Crops — Theoi-y  of  Rotation — Agricultural 
Chemistry — .Analysis  of  Crops — Of  Manures — Necessity  of  Rotation — Rotation  of  Manures 
— Replacing  the  Constituents  removed  by  the  Crops — Adaptation  of  Manures  to  the 
soil — To  the  Crops — Stock — What  Stock  to  keep — Neat  Cattle — Sheep — Pigs — Adaptation 
of  Stock  to  the  Soil  aud  Crops — '"Keep  nothing  but  the  be«t" — Improve  what  you  have 
— How — Keep  all  in  good  condition — One  too  many — Consume  the  Crops  on  the  Farm — 
"Why  does  Kirmiug  Pay  no  better" — Mixed  Husbandry — Rotations  again — Systems  of 
Rotation — Phace  of  Wheat  in  the  Rotation — Corn — Oats — Clover — Other  Grains — Grasses 
—Hoots-— Other  Crops — Rotation  on  Prairie  Soils — On  Plantations— General  Management 
of  Crops — The  best  Market , 209-36J 


X  CONTENTS. 

PART  SECOND-STOCK    RAISING. 

CHAPTEE    IX. 

HOUSES  AifD  MULES.  PAGB 
The  Horsk.  How  to  Breed— Selection  of  the  Stud — TreHtment  of  the  Sttid— Selection  of  'ne 
Mare— Treatment  of  the  Mare— Care— Kindness— The  Foal— How  to  Traia— Gentling — 
Vices  the  result  of  Treatment— Profit  of  Early  Training— Breaking— Rarey's  System — 
How  to  Feed  a  Horse — Stables — Grooming — Working — Kindness  vs.  Harshness — No  Vices 
—How  to  Buy  a  Horse — Points — How  to  S(  11  a  Horse — Truthfulness — Duty  of  the  Horse 
owner — A  Draught  Horse — Mares  rs.  Geldings — Uses  of  the  Horse — Anatomy  of  the 
Horse.  Diseases  of  the  Horse — Symptoms  and  Remedies.  Diseases  of  the  Bodbs — 
Diseases  o'  the  Feet — Diseases  of  the  Glands  and  Membranes  of  the  Nose — Diseases  of 
the  Eye — Dispases  of  the  Muscles  and  Tendons — Diseases  of  the  Skin  and  Ears — Diseases 
of  the  Brain  and  Nervous  System — Diseases  of  the  Teeth  and  Mouth — Diseases  of  the 
Throat — Diseases  of  the  Chest  and  Lungs — Diseases  of  the  Stomach  and  Bowels — Dis- 
eases of  the  l<iver  and  Urinary  Organs — Diseases  of  the  Heart  and  Blood — Insects  and 
Poisons — Fractures — Shoeing — Table  of  Remedies,  and  how  to  prepare  them — How  to 
give  Medicines.  Mules.  Their  Usefulness — Mules  vs.  Oxen — Mules  w.Horses — Breed- 
ing— Training — Breaking — "Obstinate  as  a  Mule" — Fault  in  Training — Kicking — Kind- 
ness— Feeding — Diseases  and  Remedies.... .". 265-  339 

CHAPTEE     X. 

CATTLE. 
Breeding — Crossing — Selection — Pure  Bred — Adaptation.  Our  Dairy  Stock.  The  Buttei 
Dairy — Qualities  desired — Quality  rather  than  quantity — "  Native  Stock" — "  Jerseys" — 
Good  qualities  for  the  Butter  Dairy — Great  yield  of  "Lady  Milton" — Grades — The 
"  Brittany""  Cow — The  Poor  Man's  Cow.  The  Milk  Dairt.  Quantity  instend  of  qual- 
ity— Feeding  aud  Management — Shorthorns — Crosses — The  "  Sixth  Duke  of  Thorndale" 
— "  Aurora  2d" — "The  Ayrshires" — Milking  qualities — "Flora" — "  HonestJohn — A  good 
Cross  with  the  common  Stock — Beef  qualities^Dutch  Cows — "Kerry  Cows"— Races — 
Breeds — Fa*nilies — Improving — Pure  Bred  Males — The  Family  Cow — Jersey  and  Brit- 
tany— The  Raising  of  Calves — Hay  Tea — Care  and  Feeding — The  Heifer — Time  of  drop- 
ping the  first  Calf — Feeding  and  General  Management  of  Dairy  Stock — Grass — Hay — 
Roots — Wafer-steamed  Food — Stall  Feedint,- — Soiling — Regularity.  Working  Cattle. 
Oxen  vs.  Horses — Training — Advantages — The  Devons — Herefords — Ayrshires — Holsteins 
— Improved  Stock — How  to  get  it — Pure  Bred  Bulls — Breeding  Cows — Care  and  Manage- 
ment— Bulls — Care  and  Treatment — Working  Bulls — A  New  Plan — Rearing  Calves — Beef 
Stock — Feeding  Stock — "Keep  them  Growing" — Shelter — Stall  Feeding — Sciiling — Six 
.  Advantages— Directions  forSoiling — Summer  Soiling — Winter  Soiling — Cutting  and  Cook- 
ing Food — Six  Advantages — Cheap  Proces.s — Diseases  of  Cattle — Remedies — Diseases  o( 
Milk  Cows — Remedies — Operations 340-40j 

CHAPTEE    XI. 

SHEEP,  SWINE,  AND  OTHER  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 
Sheep  Husbandry,  by  H.  S.  Randall,  LL.D.— Profits  of  Sheep  Husbandry— Sheep  vs.  Cattle— 
.Mutton — Wool — Common  Breeds — Merinos — Crossing — Cotswolds — South  Downs — Lei- 
cesters — Other  Breeds — Points — Breeding — "None  but  the  best" — Pure  Breeds — Rams — 
Ewes  —  Spring  Management  —  Tagtjing —  Lambing — Docking  — Castrating — Washing — 
bhearing  — Shearing  Machine  —  Selection  and  Branding  —  Culling — Ticks— Maggots — 
Educating  Rams — Wea.-.ing  and  Fall  Feeding  Lambs — "Well  Summered  is  half  Win- 
tered"— Fall  Feed  and  Shelter  foi  Ewes — Coupling — Herding — Winter  Management — 
Shelter — Sheep  Barns — Plan  for  Sheep  Barn — Winter  Feed — Water — Salt — Exercise — 
Turnips — Barn  Management — Unclaimed  Lands  for  Pasturage — Grass — Corn — Turnips — 
Lambing  on  the  Range — Shelter — Directions  of  Hon.  Sam.  P.  Boardman.  Diseases  op 
Bhefp.     Grub  in  the  Head — The  Scab — Foot  Rot — Other  Diseases.     Swjnb.     "  What  are 


,  CONTEXTS.  XI 

PAQB 

the  l)«st" — Chester  Whites — Berkshires — Suffolks — Other  Breeds — Crosses — Poiuts — The 
Sow — Farrowiui; — Care  of  Piirs — Feediug — Cooking  Food — Western  methods  of  Feeding 
"  Ke<?p  them  Growiug" — The  Piggery — I'lau  of  a  Piggery — Diseases  of  Swiue,  with 
Symptoms  aud  Remedies — Castrating — Spaying — Abortion.  Goats.  Cashmere — An- 
gora— Wool — .Milk — Goats  o*.  Sheep — Feeding — Diseases.  Doos.  Curs — Expense — Dam- 
age done  to  Shi-ep — Worthlessuess — Nine  oat  of  every  Ten  should  be  killed — Good  Dogs 
•—Watch  Dogs — Shepherd's  Dog — More  good  pogs  wanted — Diseases 406-468 

CHAPTER    XII. 

POULTRY  AND  BEES. 

PoLi.TRV.  Hens — Profits  of  Keeping — Advantages — "The  little  Pile  of  Manure"' — Hens  vs.  Hoga 
— Eggs — Poultry  on  a  large  scale — The  Metropolitan  Farm — Four  Thousand  Fowls — Poul- 
try raised  Cheaper  than  Beef — How — Good  Breeds — Shelter — How  to  build  a  Poultry 
Bouse — Feeding  and  Water  in  Winter — Setting — Raising  Chicks — Breeds — Hamburgs — 
Game  —  Cochins  —  Brahroas — Polands — Leghorns — The  Hen  Fever — Don't  get  it — Buy 
Mcderately — Changing  Cocks  Yearly — It  Pays — Estimates  of  a  Poultry  Keeper — Turkeys 
— How  to  keep  them  at  home  to  Lay — Care  of  young  Turkeys — How  to  Fatten — Bronze 
Turkeys — Fowls  in  Horse  Stables,  etc. — Ducks — Water — Eggs  by  tlie  Ponud — Breeds — 
Rouen — Aylesbury — Geese — Setting — Bremen  or  Embeden.  Bees,  thkfr  Habits  a.vd  ' 
Management.  Great  Interest  as  a  Study — Profit  the  Object  in  this  Book — The  Queen — 
Drones — Workers — Pollen — Propolis — Wax — Combs — Brood  Comb — Cells — Queen  Cells — 
Worker's  Ceils — Droue  Cells — Ilouey — Honey  Plants — Enough  on  every  Farm — Hives — 
The  Old  Scyle — The  Langstroth  Hive — .Movable  Corabs  the  Great  Secret  of  Success  in  Bee 
Culture — Hooey  Board — Other  advantages  of  the  Langstroth  Hive — Spring  Manage- 
ment— March — Opening  Hives — Cleaning — Water — Feeding  Rye  Flour  for  Brood — Inter- 
esting Experiments  of  Mr.  Langstroth — Position  of  Hive.s — April  Management — Feediug 
Destitute  Stocks — May — Hives  for  Swarms — Rearing  Queens  for  Artificial  Swarming — 
Summer  Management— June— Natural  Swarms — ludications  of  a  First  Swarm — Swarm- 
ing Boards — Hiving — Handling  Bees — Sweetened  Water — Bee  Hat — After  Swarms — Indi- 
cations— Management — Returning  to  the  Old  Stock — Prevention  of  Swarming — Artificial 
Swarming — Its  Advantages — Preparation  of  Hives — Dividing  the  Bees — Changing  Loca- 
tion— Second  Method  of  Artificial  Swarming — July  Management — Shade  and  Yeutilatioa 
—Removing  Drone  Brood  and  Destroying  Drones — August — Second  Honey  Harvest — 
Failure  of  Supplies — Robbing — Loss  of  Queen — Fall  Management — September — Surplus 
Honey — October — Feeding — Uniting  Weak  Stocks — November — Successful  Bee  Feeding — 
Mrs.  Tupper's  Method  of  uniting  Weak  Colonies.  Wi.vter  Management.  December — 
Wintering  Bees  in  a  Bee  House — A  Cellar  the  Best — Burying  Bees— Wintering  In  the 
open  air — Upward  Ventilatiun — January — Cleauing  the  Hives  and  supplying  Watei — 
February — Feeding  Destitute  Stocks — Box  Hives — Directions  for  making  and  using  them 
— Itallaa  Bees 471-^19 


xii  CONTENTS.  , 

PART    THIRD-FRUIT    CULTURE. 

CHAPTEE    XIII. 

ORCHARD  CULTURE.  Paoe 

A  Thrifty  Orchard  easily  secured — The  Nursery — I'laating  Seeds — CnttiDgs — l,ayers — Dresa- 
iug — Plauting  out — Cultivation— Budding — Grafting  —  Pruuiug  — Objects  of  Pruning— 
Methods  of  Pruning  to  accomplish  special  objects — Transplanting 51»--5:55 

CHAPTEE    XIV. 

APPLES,  PEARS,  AND  QUINCES. 
Apples — Soil — Situation — Plauting,  Transplanting,  and  Cultivation — Pruning — Annual  Bear- 
ing— Stock  in  the  Orchard — Best  Varieties  for  the  Whole  Country — Select  Varieties  for  the 
New  England  States — Select  Varieties  for  the  Middle  States — Select  Varieties  for  the 
Northwest — Summer,  Autumn,  and  Winter  Apples — Select  Varieties  for  the  Southwest 
— Select  Varieties  for  the  Southern  States — Select  Varieties  for  the  Gulf  States — Gathering 
and  Preserving  the  Fruit — Table  of  nearly  fifty  Varieties  of  Apples,  with  time  of  Ripen- 
ing, etc.,  etc.  Pears.  Soil  and  Situation — Pears  on  Pear  Stncks-Ou  Quince  Stocks — 
Planting,  Transplanting  and  Cultivation — Pruning — The  Quince — Varieties  adapted  to 
Quince  Stocks — Woodhuds  and  Fruit  Spurs — Thinning — Picking,  Ripening,  and  Pre- 
serving— List  of  thirty  Varieties,  time  of  Ripening,  Section  to  which  they  are  adapted, 
etc.,  etc 536". 548 

CHAPTEE    XY. 

PEACHES,  PLUMS,  CHERRIES,  AND  APRICOTS. 
Easily  Cultivated — Stocks  from  Seeds.  The  Peach.  Soil  and  Situation — Planting — Orchard 
Cultivation — Budding — Pruning — Trimming — Borers — Tables  of  Select  Varieties  adapted 
to  different  Sections  of  the  country — Varieties  approved  by  the  American  Poinological 
Society.  The  Plum.  Propagation — Soils  and  Situation — Budding — Varieties — The  Cherry 
— Soil — Situation — Budding — Varieties — The  Apricot — Cultivation— Varieties '540-587 

CHAPTEE    XVI. 

DISEASES  AND    INSECTS   INJURIOUS  TO  FRUIT. 

Diseases  the  Result  of  Bad  Management  or  Neglect — The  Blight — Remedy — Stagnation  oi 
Sap — Cause  and  Remedies — Winter  Killing — Prevention — Warts  and  their  Remedy — 
Mildew — Gummed  Fruits — Remedy — The  Yellows — Cause  and  Cure.  In.sects.  The 
Borer — How  to  be  rid  of  him — The  Tent  Caterpillar — A  Terrible  Foe — Prevention  and 
Destruction — The  Canker  Worm — Destruction  of  the  Moth — Preventive  and  Destructive 
Measures — The  Apple  Worm — How  to  destroy  them — The  Slug — The  Curculio — Various 
Methods  of  destroying  them — The  Pigs  will  help  yon — Also  the  Birds 558-  563 

CHAPTEE    XVII. 

GRAPE    CULTURE  AND   WINE  MAKING. 

Corner  Stones  of  Grape  Culture — Vineyard — Culture — Soil — Situation — Preparation  of  the  Soil 
— Fertilizers — Propagation — Raising  your  own  Vines — A  few  Cuttings  from  the  Nursery 
— Packing  Cuttings — Planting  Cuttings — Layers — Transplanting — Laterals — Tendrils^ 
Cutting  Back — Final  Plauting — Results  of  five  years — Orape  Growing  Contagious — De- 
mand for  Cuttings — Pruning  and  Training — The  Trellis — Horizontal  Arms — Alternate 
Renewal — The  System  explained  and  illustrated — Objections  answered — Profits  from  a 
Vineyard — George  Hussman's  Vineyard — The  Lakeview  System  of  Trellis  and  Training 
—Cultivation  in  the  Vineyard — Covering  the  Vines  or  "laying  down"  for  Winter — Gath- 
ering— Packing — Marketing  and  Keeping — Garden  Culture — Nearly  every  one  can  have 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAOS 

par — Pickles — Summer  Drinks — Soaps— Washing  Recipes — Cleaning  FurnUure— Clean- 
ing Paint — Preservins^'  Furs — Family  Glue — Tooth  Powder — Restoring  Colors — A  Candle 
to  Burn  all  night — How  to  make  Good  Butter — Coloring  Butter -Putting  Down  Butter — 
To  keep  Summer  Butter — To  Deodorize  Jlilk 6S5-728 

CHAPTER    XXII  I. 

THE    FAMILY    PHYSICIAX. 

iseases  Come  to  All — Simple  Remedies  efBcacious  in  the  first  Stages — Preventive  Treatment 
— Arrestive — Curative — The  First  the  most  Important — Foundation  of  Disease  laid  ia 
Infancy — The  l[otlier"s  Care — Terrible  Consequences  of  Ignorance^Advice  to  Mothers  — 
Dr.  King's  Twenty-four  Rules  for  the  Care  of  Infants — Teething — Thrush  ;  Symptoms, 
Treatment,  and  Remedies — Convulsions — Fits — Treatment — Worms — Symptoms — Remd- 
dies — Summer  Complaints — Easily  arrested  if  Treated  at  ouce — Treatment — Infantile 
Remittent  Fever — Treatment — Scarlet  Fever,  Scarlatina,  Canker  Rash— Symptoms, 
Treatment,  Remedies — Jleasles — Treatment — Lung  Fever — Croup — Treatment — Hooping 
Cough — Treatment — Colds — How  Prevented — Hbw  Cured — Fevers  iu  General — Symp- 
toms and  Treatment — Fever  and  Ague — Typhus  Fever — Typhoid  Fever — Brain  Fever 
— Diseases  of  the  Eyes — Quinsy — Symptoms,  Treatment,  and  Remedies-*-Broncliitis — 
Catarrh— Diseases  of  the  Lungs — Oxygenized  Air — Diphtheria — Symptoms  and  Treat- 
ment— lafl&mmation  of  the  Stomach — Gastritis — Pleurisy — Inflammation  of  the  Bowels — 
Dysentery — Inflammatory  Rheumatism — Apoplexy — Sun  Stroke — AsUima — Ueartbui n — 
Cholera  Morbus — Costiveness — Headache — Dyspepsia — Scrofula— Piles — Sutfocation  from 
Drowning  or  otherwise — Simple  Rules  for  Recovery — The  use  ol  Liquors — Exorcise 
— Benefits  of  Exercise — Modes  of  Exercise — Time  for  Exercise — Simple  Rules  in  regard 
to  Exercise— Sleep — How  and  when  to  Sleep — Simple  Rules  in  regard  to  Sleep—Pre- 
scriptions for  the  various  Diseases  named .^^ 729--746 

DICTIONARY  OF   THE  WORDS   USED   IN    THIS  VOLUME 747 

INDEX _ 7« 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Frontifipiece. 

A.  splendid  steel  engraving  by 
Sartain,  from  a  painting 
from  life  by  Moran.  Painted 
and  engraved  expressly  for 
this  work. 

The  building  in  the  back 
ground  is  a  bank  Bam,  the 
ground  plan  and  description 
of  which  will  be  found  at 
page  621. 

The  side  buildings  are  sheds, 
as  recommended  and  ex- 
plained in  Chapter  III. 

The  pump  in  the  centre  is  the 
manure  pump,  the  use  of 
which  is  enforced  in  the 
Chapter  on  Manures.  The 
stock  is  all  grouped  to- 
gether in  the  yard,  although 
we  of  course  recommend  se- 
parate yards  and  stables  for 
the  horses  and  sheep.  The 
horses  represented  are  car- 
riage horses  ;  we  could  not 
spare  the  farm  team  from 
their  work  long  enough  to 
have  their  pictures  taken. 

1  Round  Tile. 

2  do.        do. 
S  Sole  Tile. 

4  Horseshoe  Tile. 

5  Pl2)e  and  Collar  Tile. 


6  The  Span.   ■ 

7  Stone  Drain, 

8  do.       do. 

9  Drained  Field. 

10  Draining  S7)ovel, 

11  do.         do. 

12  do.      Spade. 

1 3  do.         do. 

14  do.      Scoop. 

15  do.         do. 

1 6  do.         do. 

17  Tile  La?/er. 

18  Peat  Cutter. 

19  Peat  Tiles. 

20  Shovel  Plow. 

21  T?-ee  Sawing  Machine, 

22  Stump  Puller. 

23  Grapple. 

24  Stone  Lifter. 

25  Doe  Plow. 

26  Deep  Tiller  Plow. 

27  Telegraph  Plow. 

28  Aliens  Cylinder  Plow. 

29  Mead:s  Cone. 

30  Mead! 8  Conical  Plow, 

31  Double  Mouldboard 

Plow. 

32  Swivel  Plow, 


XVI 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XVll 


83  Iron  Beam  Plow. 

34  Collins  Plow. 

35  Collins  Plow. 

36  Subsoil  Plow. 

37  Dreer's  Cast  Steel  Plmv. 

38  Skinners  Gang  Plow. 

39  Geddes  Harrow. 

40  Improved  Hinge  Harrow. 

41  Shares  Harrow. 

42  Knoxs  Horse  Hoe. 

43  Sidkey  Cultivator. 

44  Aliens  Clod  Crusher. 

45  Coopers  Lime  Spreader. 

46  Buckeye  Mower. 

47  Star  Drill. 

iq  [Z)anver'5  ;Sfee<f  Sower. 

50  ^ZZe/i '«  "  TTeec^  Z^i7?er." 

51  T^/ie  Montgomery  Fork. 

52  TAe  iTorse  Fork. 

53  Self- Locking  Rake. 

54  T^ocZ'5  Mower. 

55  T^Ae  J.mencayi  5a?/  T^ecZ- 

der. 

56  xSI^ee?  Tbo^A  Horse  Rake. 

57  TFbocZ's  Self-Raking  Rea- 

per. 

58  Wheelers  Thresher. 

59  Pi^^s'  Thresher  and  Sepa- 

rator. 

60  Southern  Corn  S  heller. 

61  Universal  Fodder  Cutter. 

62  Excelsior  Root  Cutter. 

63  Hutchinson's   Cider  and 

Wine  Mill. 

64  ^yeZ  Fanning  Mill. 

65  Cotton  Marker. 

66  PZrtx  (7o7/i5. 

67  Universal  Cotton  Qin. 


68  0?c?  Black  Hawk. 

69  Stallion      "  Draco 

Prince.''^ 

70  Rareys  Method  of 

Horse  Taming. 

71  jSeacZ   q/"    -4z^ra7'a    2cZ, 

Shorthoi'n  Cow. 

72  "XafZ^  M/toTi." 

73  "Abraham." 

74  "  /S'iir^/i  X)z*A:e  o/  TAw/i- 

cZa/e." 

75  "Flora." 

76  "  Honest  John." 

77  Z)z<^c/i  (7o'f(;. 

78  Hereford  Bull. 

79  Merinos. 

80  Merino  Ewes. 

81  Meriiio  Ram. 

82  Leicester  Ram. 

83  South  Downs. 

84  Sheep     Shearing    Met- 

chine. 

85  Sheep)  Barn. 

86  Suffolk  Boar. 

87  Improved     Prince    Al- 

bert. 

88  Chester  Wliite  Pigs. 

89  Chester  White  Boar. 

90  Piggery. 

91  Cashmere  Goat. 

92  Shepherd  Dog. 

93  Black  Bantam. 

94  Sumatra  Game  Fowls. 

95  Game  Cock. 

96  Clipper  Game. 

97  Poidtry  House. 

98  Cochin  China  Fowls. 

99  Silver  Laced  Bantams. 
100  Brahma  Fowls. 


XVIU 


ILLUSTEATIOXS. 


101  Brahma  Fowls. 

102  /Silver  Hamhurghs. 

103  White  Dorking  Fowls. 

104  Grey  Dorkings. 

105  Created  Ducks. 

106  Wild  Turkeij. 

107  Bronze  Turkeys. 

108  Bremen     or     Embeden 

Qeese. 

109  Dog  Churn. 

IIU  Movable  Comb  Hive. 

111  Honey  Comb  and  Bees. 

112  Frontispiece    to     Fruit 

Cidture. 

This  beautiful  Colored  Plate 
is  the  admii'ation  of  all  be- 
holders. The  upper  cluster 
of  grapes  is  the  Concord, 
the  most  widel}^  cultivated 
grape  in  America.  The  lower 
cluster  is  the  ti'ansparent 
lona,  undoubtedly  the  finest 
grape  ever  grown  in  the 
United  States. 

The  apple  next  this  cluster  of 
grapes  is  the  Gravenstien  ; 
tiien  comes  the  Orange 
Quince,  the  Louise  Bonne 
de  Jersey  and  Bartlett 
Pears,  and  the  Blackberry. 

Going  back  on  the  middle  tier 
of  fruits  we  have  repre- 
sented the  Cherry  Currant, 
Early  York  Peach,  Apricot, 
and  Golden  Plum. 

Above  these  are  the  Cranber- 
ry, Houghton  Gooseberry, 
Crawford's  Late  Peach, 
Strawberries,  and  Cherry. 
Each  one  of  these  fruits, 
drawn  and  colored  from 
life,  represent  the  most  per- 


fect specimens  to  be  ob- 
tained. We  deem  this  Fruit 
Plate  not  surj.assed  b}'  any 
ever  published  in  this  coun- 
try. 

113  How  to  Cut  a  Bud. 

114  Budding. 

115  Budding. 

116  A  Bud  Set. 

117  One    Year     from    the 

Bud. 

118  Toncjue  Graft. 

119  Wedge  Graft. 

120  Saddle  Graft. 

121  Illustration  of  Filming . 

122  A     Peach     Tree     well 

Fruited. 

123  Setting  a  Cutting. 

124  Layering  the  Vine. 

125  Planting  the  Vine. 

126  Planting  the  Vine. 

127  Fanning  Shears. 

128  Grafting  Chisel. 

129  Pruning  Saw  and  Chtf 

sel. 


130 
131 
132 
133 


134 
135 
136 
137 
138 
139 
140 
141 


Pole  Pruning  Shears. 
Fruit  Ladder. 
Garden  Vine. 
Grape   Vines  and  Trel- 
lis. 
Garden  Vine. 
R.  Island  Greening. 
Cluster  of  Grapes. 
Free  Fruit  Box. 
Plan  of  Farm  House. 
Plan  of  Farm  House 
Lahore}' s  Cottage. 
Plan  of  Barn. 


I]SlTEODUCTIO:sr. 


AGRICULTURAL     LITERATURE 

BY  HON.  CHARLES  L.  FLINT. 


tGRICULTURAL  Literature !"  we  can  imagine  we  hear 
the  reader  exclaim;  "wliat  has  the  barnyard,  the  cart 
horse,  the  milk  pail,  the  plough,  or  the  corn  field, 
^^  homely  objects,  interesting,  no  doubt,  but  by  no  means 
literary,  to  do  with  literaiare?"  Much,  let  me  tell  you.  More 
than  appears  at  first  sight,  for  in  these  subjects  are  found  the 
results  of  scientific  knowledge,  of  the  great  and  immutable 
truths  of  chemistry,  of  physiology,  of  the  laws  of  breeding,  of 
mechanics,  of  botany,  of  entomology,  in  fact,  of  every  science 
and  of  many  arts. 

What  literature  has  done  for  theology,  for  astronomy,  for  all 
the  sciences  that  elevate  and  adorn  humanity,  she  is  ready  to 
do  for  Agriculture,  the  art  of  arts,  to  which  we  owe  all  the 
comforts  of  civilized  life. 

Says  the  editor  of  the  ^^ Rural  WorlV : — ■ 
'■^ Book  Farming — what  is  it?     It  is  simply  the  best  farming 
put  in  books — yours,  reader,  if  it  is  the  best.     A  fool  cannot 
wTite  a  book ;  an  able  man   must  do  it — not  a  man  of  mere 

19 


'>0  INTRODCJCTION. 

accomplishments  or  learning — but  one  versed  in  the  business 
he  writes  upon.  It  is  thus  that  we  have  books  by  the  best 
men  in  all  the  departments.  These  make  our  literature — and 
to  be  opposed  to  them,  is  to  be  arrayed  against  knowledge, 
against  schools  and  newspapers.  "What  is  thought  of  the  man 
who  opposes  education  ?  And  what  is  education,  but  to  learn 
to  know  a  thing?  If  the  prejudiced  reader,  (prejudiced  against 
book  farming,)  knows  how  to  trim  his  vine,  he  is  the  man,  if  he 
has  words 'for  it,  to  write  a  book  on  the  subject — the  very  man 
we  want,  for  we  are  after  facts,  after  the  best  mode.  And  yet 
this  would  be  called  'book  farming.'  It  is  mere  prejudice, 
depend  upon  it." 

It  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  encouraging  signs  of  the 
present  period,  in  the  history  of  Agriculture,  that  it  has  been 
able  to  call  the  highest  talent  to  its  aid,  and  that  men  of  science, 
m  all  departments,  have  devoted  their  lives  to  investigations 
designed  to  promote  its  progress.  We  can  remember  the  time 
when  even  farmers  themselves  were  quite  indifferent  to  the 
assistance  which  scientific  investigations  could  offer  them.  All 
improvements  were  regarded  merely  as  innovations,  and  were 
looked  upon  with  distrust,  not  to  say  contempt.  Farm  work 
was  done  in  the  old  customary  way,  or  if  any  change  was  made, 
it  was  only  with  a  vague  hope  of  gain.  No  sound  principle 
was  followed  in  either  case. 

Happily,  those  days  have  parsed.  Men  of  the  hightest  at- 
tainments in  science  now  vie  with  each  other  in  their  efforts 
for  the  advancement  of  agriculture,  and  the  practical  farmer  i.« 
ready  and  anxious  to  avail  himself  of  their  teachings.  Me 
chanical  ingenuity,  too,  has  brought  its  tribute  in  the  form  of 
newly  invented  machines  of  inestimable  value.  Progress  has 
fairly  begun,  and  it  must  continue  as  long  as  the  mind  of  man 
can  devise  and  his  hand  can  execute. 


IXTRODUCTIOX.  21 

No  one  who  has  carefully  watched  this  progress  in  Agricul- 
ture, for  the  last  few  years,  can  have  failed  to  observe  that  it  is 
constantly  growing  more  scientific,  thdugh  not,  perhaps,  less 
practical.  Its  standard  is  continually  becoming  ^jiigher.  It  is 
now  the  aim  of  all  intelligent  farmers  to  unite  science  and  prac- 
tical skill.  These  two  powers  are  not  antagonistic,  but  each 
will  aid  the  other,  and  by  their  help  we  may  make  ourselves 
familiar  with  the  mysteries  of  nature  and  remove  the  worst 
difficulties  which  have  beset  the  farmer  in  his  work.  The 
thinker  in  his  closet,  the  chemist  over  his  crucibles,  and  tho 
earnest  experimenter  in  the  field,  are  laboring  together  for  the 
discovery  of  truth,  and  it  is  only  by  their  united  efforts  that 
the  highest  truth  can  be  obtained. 

The  tendency  of  the  age  is  to  change.  All  educational  sys- 
tems are  changing.  Scholastic  and  monastic  education  i  \an- 
ishing,  and  even  purely  literary  culture  is  waning  to  make  way 
for  more  practical,  more  active,  more  scientific  instruction,  an 
instruction  which  shall  have  a  more  direct  bearing  upon  the 
work  of  everyday  life,  and  the  time  will,  perhaps,  come,  'when 
even  the  children  in  our  common  schools  will  be  taught  to 
recognize  and  to  know  by  sight  all  the  stones  upon  which  tbev 
tread,  all  the  plants,  and  animals,  and  reptiles,  and  birds,  and 
insects  which  are  to  be  found  in  their  neighborhood,  so  thai 
they  will  go  better  prepared  to  the  higher  schools  of  science. 
The  study  of  nature,  in  a  word,  will  lie  nearer  the  foundation 
of  our  school  system,  and  so  permeate  all  our  higher  institutes 
of  instruction  till  our  literature  becomes  more  agricultural  in 
its  character,  for  what  branch  of  natural  history  is  not  linked 
and  interwoven  with  the  farm  itself,  and  what  better  prepara- 
tion could  there  be,  for.  that  practical  training  which  our  age 
demands?  The  time  may,  indeed,  come,  when  mathematics. 
when  geometry,  when  astronomy,  will  be  taught  by  men  who 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

are  trying  practically  to  draw  lightning  from  the  skies,  and  to 
devote  knowledge  to  some  use,  rather  than  to  the  purpose  of 
merely  training  the  liuman  mind. 

Agricultural  literature  is,  of  course,  utilitarian.  It  would  be 
of  little  account  if  it  were  not.  It  is  an  important  guide  to 
develop  the  boundless  resources  of  our  soil,  and  it  will  always 
be  valued  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  aids  to  improvement  in 
practice.  Much,  of  it  may  still  be  crude.  We  are  groping 
along  in  ihe  dark,  but  it  is  not  dilficult  to  see  that  a  brighter 
day  is  dawning.  Science  and  mechanic  art  are  solving  one 
problem  after  another ;  a  better  system  begins  to  prevail,  and 
we  are  led  to  hope  that  the  time  will  come  when  we  shall  knoAv 
practicall}?"  and  positively  what  we  are  to  do,  and  how  to  do  it, 
when  every  process  of  the  farm  will  be  conducted  with  greater 
certainty  of  results,  Avhen  practice  itself  will  have  more  of  the 
exactness  which  is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  applied  sciences. 

It  is  the  true  province  of  agricultural  literature  to  indicate 
the  processes  and  to  record  the  triumphs  of  science  and  me- 
chanic ait  as  applied  to  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  to  bring 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  farmer  all  the  suggestions  and  dis- 
coveries of  the  chemist,  the  geologist,  and  the  botanist,  which 
can  be  useful  to  him,  to  make  known  the  results  of  experi- 
ments by  which  new  theories  of  culture  are  tested,  and  to  show 
how  the  highest  knowledge  may  be  applied  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  common  processes  of  agriculture,  thus  aiding  the 
ceaseless  struggle  to  meet  the  ever  increasing  demands  of 
growing  populations.  It,  records  both  the  failures  and  suc- 
cesses of  the  past,  and  teaches  alike  by  both. 

Take,  for  example,  the  principles  of  breeding.  The  stock 
grower  needs  to  keep  a  clear  and  definite  aim  in  view,  and  to 
understand  the  surest  means  of  attaining  it.  The  experience 
of  anyone  man   will  go  but.  a  little  way  toward  acquiring  a 


/ 

INTKODUCTIO^r.  \.  23/ 

kuowiedge  of  these  principles.  Indeed,  a  life-long  expei ienoe, 
without  the  aid  of  the  acquisitions  of  others,  would  fail  to 
arrive  at  it.  Now,  we  know,  that  vast  achievements  have  been 
made  in  this  direction.  Long  continued,  extensive,, and  careful 
observation  has  established  many  facts,  and  discovered  physi- 
ological laws  from  which  sQund  principles  have  been  deduced. 
Others,  no  doubt,  still  lie  hidden  from  us,  so  that  what  we  do 
not  know,  may  far  exceed  tW  aggregate  of  what  we  know,  but 
to  ignore  what  has  been\fixed''and  acquired  by  laborious  experi- 
ment and  observation,  AVould  be  like  setting  sail  upon  a  vast 
and  unknown  ocean  without  chart  or  compass.  Now  these 
facts  of  vital  importance  to  the  interests  of  Agriculture  must 
inevitably  be  lost  unless  Recorded,'  land  thus  saved  from  ob- 
livion, and  Agricultural  Literature  has  done  this. 

A  faithful  record  of  an  experiment  in  Agriculture,  well 
planned  and  carefully  conducted,  is  a  valuable  addition  to  our 
stock  of  knowledge,  and  contriioutes  to  the  substantial  progress 
of  the  art.  In  this  especially  our  modern  agricultural  literature 
differs  from  the  ancient.  Tile  agricultural  literature  of  the 
ancients,  includiug  that  of  Grreecd  and  Rome,  extends  over  a 
period  of  more  than  eight  ceiituries.  Jn  literary  merit  and- in 
social  estimation  it  may  have  pxcelled  lour  ov^n,  but  it  is  some- 
what remarkable  that  in  all  these  eight  hundred  years,  which 
have  transmitted  to  us  maiiy  volumes  of  great  interest  and 
value  relating  to  Agriculture,  we  seek;  in  vain  for  any  sign  of 
real  progress.  We  find  a  piactice  liiat  is  careful,  exact,  and 
saving,  but  it  is  the  same,  age  after /age;  no  new  imDleraents 
are  adopted,  no  old  custon^  abandio|ied  for  better.  We  may 
search  every  page,  from  Cato  to  Palladius,  a  period  of  nearly 
five  hundred  years,  but  there  is  no  (mention  of  auy  improve- 
ment in  system  or  advance  of  any  kind,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
whole  of  that  long  period  added  as  much  to  the  real  productive 


24  INTEODUCTION. 

power  of  the  farmer  as  has  been  gained  within  the  last  ten 
years  of  our  own  history. 

In  English  agricultural  literature,  we  find  many  marked  and 
striking  evidences  of  progress.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
works  of  the  present  century.  Within  this  time  the  minds  of 
all  have  been  awakened  to  a  wonderful  activity.  Scientific 
men  have  developed  important  theories,  which  experience  has 
proved  to  be  true,  while  cultivators  of  the  soil  have  done  their 
part  by  careful  observation,  and  discoveries  have  followed  one 
another  in  quick  succession.  Every  step,  moreover,  has  been 
recorded.  Every  new  machine  invented,  and  every  new  pro- 
cess carried  through  to  success,  has  been  published  to  the  world, 
and  thus  we  have  a  multitude  of  works  by  which  a  flood  of 
light  is  thrown  upon  every  department  of  farm  economy. 

Scientific  discoveries  in  Agriculture  are  the  property  of  the 
intelligent  farmer  everywhere,  and  those  made  abroad  have  had 
a  material  and  important  influence  in  promoting  the  advance- 
ment of  practical  agriculture  among  us.  No  one  who  desires 
to  be  even  moderately  skilful  and  successful  can  dispense  with 
the  use  of  books  relating  to  his  calling.  It  is  much  to  the 
credit  of  the  present  time  that  old  prejudices  against  books 
upon  farming,  which  are  the  recorded  experiences  of  careful 
observers  and  experimenters,  are  fast  giving  place  to  a  generous 
appreciation  of  the  labors  of  the  inventor,  the  chemist,  the 
geologist,  the  entomologist,  the  botanist,  and  the  practical  man 
who  tries  experiments  and  records  results. 

For  some  years  after  the  public  mind,  in  this  countrv,  began 
10  discard  its  narrow  prejudice  against  the  use  of  books  on 
farming,  we  relied  chiefly  upon  the  mother  country.  English 
works  on  Agriculture  were  our  only  resource.  These  were  not 
in  all  respects  adapted  to  our  climate,  our  soil,  and  our  cir- 
cumstances, and,  notwithstanding  their  great  value  for  many 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

purposes,  their  directions  and  suggestions  often  misled.  Ewu 
when  based  upon  sound  practice,  it  was  not  a  practice  with 
which  most  of  us  were  familiar,  and  hence  it  was  far  less  valua- 
ble to  us  than  if  it  had  passed  through  the  crucible  of  the 
practical  American  brain.  The  only  means  of  removing  these 
difficulties  was  the  creation  of  an  agricultural  literature  of 
our  own  ;  and  this  we  shall  accomplish  by  patient  labor.  We 
have  begun  to  think,  to  experiment,  and  to  record  results.  By 
the  publication  of  agricultural  periodicals  and  books,  and  by 
means  of  our  agricultural  societies,  national,  state,  and  local, 
the  results  of  our  labors  are  made  known  to  all  who  (jare  to 
learn  them,  and  our  agricultural  literature  is  assuming  tlie 
dignity  and  importance  which  it  deserves  as  the  instrument  and 
aid  of  the  most  important  material  interest  of  a  great  and 
powerful  nation,  capable,  from  its  extent  and  boundless  re- 
sources, of  becoming  the  granary  of  the  world. 

We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  farming  can  ever  cease  to  be 
practical,  or  that  such  a  state  of  things  would  be  desirable,  if 
possible.  But  it  is  certainly  becoming  more  a  matter  of  study 
and  science.  No  amount  of  information  can  do  away  with  the 
necessity  of  hard  work,  but  a  knowledge  of  principles  and  the 
application  of  scientific  laws  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
farmer.  When  these  are  well  understood,  and  when  sound 
reasoning  and  close  calculation  are  substituted  for  that  i.iixture 
of  tradition  and  guess-work,  which  once  guided  all  farm 
operations,  we  may  expect  to  lighten  labor  and  shorten  its  pro- 
cesses while  we  continually  increase  its  products. 

Agriculture  cannot  be  made  profitable  simply  by  securing 
good  crops  and  abundant  products  ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  take 
into  consideration,  also,  the  judicious  employment  of  the  capi- 
tal invested,  the  expenses  to  be  incurred,  the  wages  to  be  paid, 
the  prices,  and  the  varying  state  of  the  market.     These  matters 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

have  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  general  results,  but  they 
do  not  come  directly  within  the  cognizance  of  science,  and 
actual  experience  is  necessary  for  the  solution  of  the  questions 
continually  arising  in  regard  to  them.  He  who  depends  wholly 
u])on  books,  even  if  he  be  well  read  and  have  thoroughly  mas- 
tered the  general  and  well  established  principles  of  his  occupa 
tion,  may  fail  from  want  of  this  experience.  But  this  is  far 
from  showing  that  no  advantage  is  to  be  derived  from  well 
selected  b5oks.  It  is  unreasonable  to  expect  that  tact  and  busi- 
ness ability  can  be  obtained  from  any  amount  of  study  and 
reading.  Experience  itself  does  not  always  give  them.  To  a 
great  extent  they  seem  to  be  intuitive  and  innate,  and  though 
familiarity  with  business  affairs  may  sharpen  the  wits  and 
quicken  the  perception,  it  does  not  always  mature  the  judgment 
or  create  the  skill  which  commands  success  in  the  market. 

Practice  and  experience  in  the  field  should,  therefore,  be  re- 
garded as  an  essential  part  of  an  agricultural  education.  But  the 
farmer  should  not,  for  these  reasons,  depreciate  the  aid  he  may 
gain  from  the  man  of  science,  the  man  of  letters,  or  the  faithful 
and  accurate  experimenter.  The  revelations  of  science  will  bring 
ever  new  and  ever  varied  instruction  to  his  mind.  From  year 
to  year  he  may  improve  his  practice,  thus  attaining  greater  and 
greater  results ;  and  no  limit  can  be  set  to  his  upward  progress. 
A  simple  record  of  experiments,  carefully  made  and  well  de- 
scribed, will  give  him  material  for  much  improvement.  By 
the  exercise  of  judgment  and  discrimination  he  may  separate 
the  good  and  useful  from  what  is  of  doubtful  utility,  and  what- 
ever he  thus  gets  is  so  much  positive  gain.  The  actual  results 
of  an  experiment  are  facts  from  which  truth  itself  may  be  ex- 
tracted. They  are  not  mere  vague  conclusions,  or  the  opinions 
or  reflections  of  another,  they  are  that  which  induced  and  ena- 
bled him  to  reflect. 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

It  rniist  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as  scieniifio  investigation  nad 
advanced  in  modern  times,  it  has  brought  its  contributions  to 
Agriculture  from  a  great  variety  of  sources,  each  of  which 
brings  something  peculiar  to  itself.  Chemistry  has  explained 
the  composition  of  soils  and  manures.  Botany  has  solved  the 
mysteries  of  plant  growth.  Vegetable  and  Animal  pliysiology 
have  lent  invaluable  aid.  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and,  indeed,  all 
the  sciences,  have  done  their  share,  and  the  farmer  has  only  to 
use  the  knowledge  so  lavishly  thrown  out  before  him. 

In  considering  the  value  aud  uses  of  a  high  standard  of  Agri- 
cultural Literature,  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  it  tends  to 
create  enthusiasm,  and  must  exert  a  powerful  influence  to  draw 
and  to  keep  the  young  upon  the  farm,  and  to  stimulate  them 
to  con-itant  efforts  to  attain  greater  excellence  and  success. 
In  this  view,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  ovvr-estimate  the  value 
and  practical  importance  of  well  selected  works  on  agricultural 
and  horticultural  subjects.  AVhen  any  one  begins  to  read 
what  has  been  written  by  others  about  any  pursuit,  and  to 
reflect  upon  the  facts  and  theories  he  finds  stated,  when  he 
learns  the  results  of  investigations  and  experiments,  and  sees 
the  labor  and  care  bestowed  upon  them,  he  will  soon  become 
interested  himself.  As  he  proceeds  his  interest  will  grow  into 
enthusiasm,  and  this  enthusiasm  will  give  him  a  love  for  his 
occupation  and  a  strong  desire  to  elevate  it  and  attain  a  high 
position  in  it.  Hence,  he  will  gain  vigor  and  energy  which 
will  insure  success. 

The  young  farmer,  like  other  men,  is  subject  to  these  influ- 
ences. If  he  work  in  his  calling  with  enlightened  views,  look- 
ing at  its  scientific  and  theoretical  side  while  attending  to  its 
practical  labors,  he  will  acquire  the  strong  interest  in  it,  and 
love  for  it  which  is  so  essential  to  success.  His  enthusiasm 
will  keep   him   upon   the   farm,   and   carry    him   through  its 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

labors,  and  he  will  be  able  gradually  to  infuse  into  otters  the 
spirit  by  which  he  is  himself  animated.  Enthusiasm  is  conta- 
gious, magnetic,  and  all  powerful.  If  scientific  investigation 
and  well-written  books  on  Farming  and  Gardening  had  done 
nothing  more  than  create  a  love  for  rural  pursuits,  they  would 
have  rendered  an  invaluable  service  to  mankind.  This  they 
have  done  already,  and  the  feeling  they  have  excited  is  con- 
stantly growing.  We  find  to-day,  in  our  farming  community, 
a  more  earnest,  spirit  of  inquiry  and  more  interest  in  agricul- 
tural pursuits  than  at  any  former  period,  and  these  alone  will 
lead  us  steadily  and  surely  to  higher  results. 

And  what  an  influence  the  progressive  character  of  an  Agri- 
cultural Literature  has  exerted  in  another  direction !  It  has 
attracted  the  interest  and  awakened  the  kindliest  sympathies  of 
the  wealthy  and  educated  classes.  Men  who,  by  their  energy 
and  foresight,  have  acquired  property  or  position,  who  once 
saw  little  in  the  hard  realities  of  farm  life  but  drudgery  and 
mechanical  routine,  and  looked  with  pity  upon  the  farmer  as 
one  compelled  to  toil  without  intellectual  culture,  shut  out, 
almost,  from  the  amenities  of  life,  have  been  led,  by  the  fascina- 
tion which  this  class  of  writings  has  for  cultivated  minds,  to  find 
in  farming  ample  scope  for  the  highest  intellect,  and  prob- 
lems worthy  of  the  greatest  efforts  of  human  genius.  This 
kindly  sympathy  has  elevated  the  farmer  in  the  social  scale, 
given  his  occupation  the  character  and  dignity  of  an  intellec- 
tual pursuit,  and  introduced  him  to  a  common  brotherhood 
with  men  of  culture,  science,  and  social  position.  And  so  it 
Bhoulc'  be.  Agriculture  is  the  mother  of  us  all.  'Agriculture 
feeds ;  to  a  great  extent  it  clothes  us ;  without  it  we  should 
not  have  manufactures,  we  should  not  have  commerce.  They 
all  stand  together  like  pillars  in  a  cluster,  the  largest  in  the 
centre,  and  that  largest  is  Agkiculture  I" 


Fig.  6.    The  Span. 


Fig.  7.        Stoxe  DraIxs.         Fig 

29 


HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAT. 


CHAPTER    I. 


DRAINING. 


^Jl  NDERDRAINING  will  improve  three  fourths  ot  the  land 
now  under  cultivation  in  this  country ;  and  full  one 
half  will  abundantly  pay  for  the  expense.  Drainage 
deepens  the  soil,  assists  vegetation,  lengthens  the  season 
for  labor  and  vegetation,  precludes  the  necessity  for  replanting 
prevents  the  freezing  out  of  winter  crops,  promotes  the  absorp- 
tion of  fertilizers,  supplies  air  to  the  roots  of  plants,  improves 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  crops  and  tends  to  prevent  drought. 
These  are  facts  established  beyond  all  doubt,  by  multiplied  ex- 
periments in  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union.  The  lesson  this 
reads  to  every  farmer  is,  Drain  your  wet  lands. 

The  best  of  all  materials  for  drains  is  the  round  oi  pipe 
tile.  See  Figs.  1  and  2.  Sole  tiles.  Fig.  3,  are  more  expensive 
ftmd  more  difficult  to  lay,  and  not  as  good  as  the  pipe  tile. 
Horseshoe  tiles,  Fig.  4,  should  never  be  used.  The  pipe  tile  is 
mproved  by  having  a  collar,  Fig.  5  ;  but  this  can  be  dispensed 
Niih.  by  putting  a  thin  piece  of  board  or  slate  under  and  a  strip 
)f  turf  over  each  joint,  to  steady  it  until  its  position  is  secured. 

Where  tiles  are  scarce  and  high,  and  stones  are  plenty,  resort 

'31 


32  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

may  be  had  to  stone  drains,  which,  if  properly  constructed, 
answer  a  very  good  purpose. 

Where  peat  can  be  had  for  the  digging,  very  good  tiles  can 
be  made  from  it.  Brush  drains  hardly  pay  for  the  making,  and 
open  drains  are,  as  a  general  thing,  a  disadvantage  rather  than 
an  improvement,  as  the  expense  of  digging  is  the  same ;  they 
take  up  a  large  portion  of  the  land,  render  farming  operations 
difficult,  afford  a  harbor  for  muskrats  and  other  pests,  are 
liable  to  be  tread  in,  or  prove  pitfalls  for  cattle,  promote  the 
growth  of  rank  grasses  and  noxious  weeds,  and  must  be  dug 
over  every  year. 

The  Depth  of  Drains,  of  whatever  material  constructed, 
should  never,  in  the  Northern  States,  be  less  than  three  feet, 
and  if  the  soil  is  easily  worked,  four  feet,  while  in  the  Southern 
States,  where  the  frosts  do  not  penetrate  the  ground,  the  depth 
may  be  lessened  to  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet. 

What  lands  require  Draining,  and  how  it  shall  be  deter 
mined,  are  questions  we  must  answer  before  going  further 
Evidently  swamps,  marshes,  and  all  visibly  wet  lands,  require 
drainage  before  they  can  be  profitably  cultivated.  All  hig 
lands  holding  too  much  water  at  any  season  of  the  year, 
require  drainage.  Most  useful  plants  are  drowned  by  being 
overflowed,  even  for  a  short  time,  and  injured  by  stagnant 
water  about  their  roots.  Lands  in  which  planting  is  delayed 
in  the  spring,  by  reason  of  their  wetness,  require  drainage.  In^j 
the  Northern  States  nearly  two  weeks  may  be  gained  by  thor' 
ough  drainage,  an  advantage  which  only  those  can  appreciate 
who  have  been  obliged  to  haul  their  manure  over  soft  ground, 
plow  their  land  when  too  wet,  and  then  find  the  season  too 
short  to  mature  their  crops,  and  all  because  of  a  surplus  of 
?,6[d  water  in  the  soil.  Land  on  which  water  stands  and  freezes 
in  the  winter  should  be  drained.  , 


DRAINING.  33 

In  all  these  cases,  thorough,  drainage  will  abundantly  pay. 

As  we  have  before  hinted,  nearly  all  land  will  be  improved 
by  drainage ;  for  the  expense  is  a  permanent  investment,  a 
brush  drain  will  last  ten  to  fifteen  years,  a  well  laid  stone  drain 
twenty  to  forty  years,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  a  perfect  tile 
drain  may  not  last  one  hundred  years.  In  all  this  time  the 
crops  are  improved  both  in  quantity  and  quality, 

A  distinction  can  be  made  in  view  of  crops  to  be  raised,  as 
land  that  is  too  wet  for  root  or  grain  crops,  may  do  admirably 
for  grass,  and  it  is  often  well  to  keep  such  lands  permanently 

I  in  grass,  maintaining  their  fertilit}'-  by  top  dressing  or  by  occa- 
sional plowing  and  re-seeding  in  the  fall.  The  indications  of 
too  much  moisture  are,  in  grass,  the  growth  of  rushes  and 
weeds ;  if  it  be  in  grain,  there  "will  be  frequent  spots  of  sparse, 
low,  and  sickly  looking  stalks.  Root  crops,  in  too  wet  soils, 
instead  of  growing  straight  down  plump  and  even,  divide  into 
numerous  small  fibres  just  below  the  surface.  Our  corn  fields 
are  yellow  and  sickly,  and  our  cribs  filled  with  nubbins  fiom 
the  effects  of  too  much  water  in  the  soil. 

Drains  should  be  laid  as  far  as  practicable,  directly  down  Ae 
slopes.  A  fall  of  three  inches  in  one  hundred  feet,  is  all  that  is 
absolutely  necessary,  and  this  can  be  secured  on  almost  any 
field,  however  level  it  may  seem  to  the  eye.  The  best  means 
of  determining  the  slope  is  with  the  span.  Fig.  6.  This  may  be 
made  of  lath  or  inch  boards,  and  should  be  sixteen  and  one  half 
feet  wide  at  the  base.  When  set  upon  a  perfectly  level  floor, 
and  the  plumb  line  applied  at  the  top  the  line  will  croas  the  bar 
in  the  centre,  put  a  block  just  one  inch  thick  under  one  foot 
and  mark  the  bar  where  the  line  now  crosses  it,  this  denotes  a 
fall  of  one  inch  to  the  rod.  This  operation  repeated,  if  done 
with  care,  will  give  a  sufficiently  accurate  measure  for  the 
whole  work  of  laying  out  and  constructing  the  drains. 


84  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FAEM    PAY. 

Next  determine  carefully  the  number  a,nd  position  of  tbo 
drains.  This  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  operation.  A  few 
general  rules  will  aid  you.  As  far  as  possible  tbe  drains 
should  run  parallel  with  the  inclination  of  the  slope.  When 
laid  three  feet  deep  they  should  be  forty  feet  apart;  i<n  sandy  or 
light  soils,  they  should  never  be  less  than  four  feet  deep,  and 
may  be  sixty  feet  apart.  If  other  lands  drain  into  the  field, 
there  should  be  a  three-incb  drain  at  the  head  across  the  whole 
field  with  which  the  smaller  drains  should  be  connected.  For 
convenience  we  will  call  these,  head  drains,  or  headers  and  sub 
mains  or  minors  ;  and  the  large  drain  into  which  they  all  enter, 
the  main  drain.  If  there  are  marshy  places  lower  than  the 
stream  into  which  the  drainage  must  be  carried,  they  may  be 
drained  into  wells  dug  at  their  lowest  points.  If  you  have  no 
outlet  in  your  own  field,  after  it  is  drained  into  one  main  drain, 
it  may  be  carrii'd  under  a  highway  or  a  neighbor's  field  to  some 
outlet,  without  great  expense.  If  possible,  there  should  be  but 
one  general  outlet  for  the  whole  system  of  drains,  as  the  outlets 
are  the  most  exposed  portion  of  the  whole  work.  Having 
determined  the  proper  point  for  an  outlet,  the  whole  work  can 
be  directed  towards  this  point. 

Fig.  9  represents  an  irregular  field,  which  it  seemed  impossi- 
ble at  first  sight  to  drain  thoroughly,  and  as  it  illustrates  the  i 
general  principles  of  drainage,  we  shall  describe  it  in  detail,  A 
was  a  sluggish  stream  almost  stagnant ;  at  the  bottom  of  the 
field,  h  a  knoll  some  nine  or  ten  feet  in  height,  cc  an  entirely! 
useless  swamp,  d  the  main  drain  laid  about  forty  feet  from  the! 
brook,  EE  the  minor  drains  sixty  feet  apart,  and  entering  the 
main  drain  at  an  angle  to  prevent  obstructions,  jf  wells  into! 
which  the  northwest  and  southeast  corners  were  drained.     It 
was   thought  at  first  that   the   southeast  corner   could  not  be 
drained,  but  on  applying  the  span,  it  was  found  that  there  wa-^i 


^ 


'R 


DRAINING.  37 

a  fall  of  six  inches  in  one  thousand  feet,  and  by  deepening  the 
drains  in  the  same  proportion  a  fall  of  twelve  inches  was 
obtained,  and  during  a  very  dry  summer  the  well  was  dug  and 
filled  with  cobble  stones,  and  the  minors  connected  with  it. 
One  drain  which  could  not  be  connected  with  the  main  was  car- 
ried under  the  highway,  and  connected  with  the  brook  at  a 
lower  point.     The  expense  of  draining  this  field  of  eighteen 

acres  was,* 

9600  1^  and  2  in.  pipe  tiles  at  15.00,  say  1.50.00 
3400  4  iu.  "      "     '•  45.00,    "  150.00 


The  expense  in  cash     S300.00 
51  days,  work  of  4  men,  6  days,  work  of  1  yoke  of  oxen. 

The  stones  used  in  filling  the  wells,  were  dug  out  of  the  drains, 
and  thrown  to  one  side  for  that  purpose.  Much  of  the  work 
was  done  at  odd  spells  during  two  years.  The  increase  in  the 
crop  paid  the  cash  expense  in  two  years,  and  the  drainage  is  a 
permanent  improvement  for  fifty  years  to  come.  If  a  peat  bog 
had  been  at  hand,  a  substitute  for  the  clay  tiles  could  have  been 
procured  for  less  than  half  the  above  cash  expense.  After 
careful  measurement  the  positions  for  the  drains  should  bo 
staked  out. 

In  opening  the  drain,  a  plow  may  be  run  through  both  ways, 
to  turn  over  the  turf  and  loosen  the  soil,  and  a  sub-soil  plow 
may  be  often  used  to  advantage  for  this  purpose,  unless  pipe 
tiles  without  collars  are  to  be  used,  when  the  turf  should  be 
carefully  cut  in  sods  and  laid  quite  to  one  side,  for  use  in 
covering  the  joints.  A  drain  to  be  three  feet  deep,  may  be 
commenced  two  feet  wide,  while  three  feet  will  be  necessary  for 
a  four  foot  drain.     Excavation  must  commence  at  the  outlet, 

*  Of  course  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  drains  is  shown  in  this 
figure,  but  enough  to  show  the  general  principles  adopted. 


38  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

the  maiu  draiu  being  the  first  dug  and  the  last  laid.  For  a 
stone  drain,  cut  one  side  nearly  perpendicular. 

Figs.  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  represent  a  series  of  spades  used  in 
digging  drains;  the  ordinary  shovel  and  spade  answers,  how- 
ever, for  the  first  three  feet,  but  a  narrow  spade,  like  Fig.  1-1, 
is  very  desirable  in  cutting  the  last  foot,  while  the  bottom  is 
fitted  for  the  round  tile  by  an  instrument  like  Fig.  15.  The 
instrument  represented  in  Fig.  16,  is  used  for  shaping  the 
bottom  of 'the  drain  for  sole  tiles.  Any  old  shovel  or  spade 
can  readily  be  transformed,  by  the  nearest  blacksmith,  into  the 
required  shape,  and  a  long  handle  completes  the  tool.  Much 
time  and  labor  is  saved  by  using  tools  of  the  proper  shape, 
while  it  is  necessary  that  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  be  as 
nearly  uniform  as  possible. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  main  drain  should  be  from  two  to 
four  inches  lower  than  the  minors,  in  order  that  they  may 
enter  it  from  above,  rendering  it  less  liable  to  obs^uction  at 
the  junction.  The  slopes  of  all  the  drains  should  be  as  regular 
as  possible,  which  may  be  regulated  by  the  use  of  the  span, 
Fig.  6.  After  completing  the  trenches,  laying  the  pipe  and 
collar  tile  [Fig.  5)  is  a  simple  operation  of  fitting  one  over  the 
other,  commencing  at  the  highest  point  in  all  cases.  With 
simply  the  pipe  tile  a  small  bit  of  shingle,  slate,  or  thin  board, 
should  be  put  under,  and  a  sod  of  turf  over  each  joint,  to  hold 
them  in  place  and  prevent  their  settling,  or  the  loose  soil  wash- 
ing in  at  the  joints.  The  earth  will  soon  harden  so  as  to  obvi- 
ate the  necessity.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  openings 
as  nearly  opposite  as  possible,  in  order  that  there  may  be  no 
obstruction  to  the  water.  (With  an  instrument  like  Fig.  17, 
tile  can  be  laid  very  rapidly.)  Joint  tiles  should  be  used  at  the 
junction   of  the   drains.      The   most   accurate    measurements 


Fuj.   10. 


Fuj-  11 


Fi.j.  1-2. 


Fbj.  13. 


Fuj.  14. 


Fiij.  15. 


J'/jy.  16. 


39 


\  DRAINING.  41 

^;llOuld  be  kept  in  order  that  the  junctions  may,  at  any  tune, 
be  ascertained  and  rieadily  opened  should  obstructions  occur. 

In  covering  the  drain,  the  first  foot  of  earth  should  be  put  in 
carefully,  so  that  there  may  be  no  displacement  of  the  tiles. 
Never  fill  in  with  stones,  as  is  the  custom  with  many.  The 
water  will  enter  at  the  bottom,  and  the  water  level  be  lowered  to 
the  bottom  of  the  drain.  In  clay  soils  auger  holes  should  be 
bored  through  the  clay  to  some  other  soil  at  distances  of  not 
more  than  one  hundred  feet.  If  there  is  no  header  used,  {see 
Plate  9,)  the  upper  ends  of  the  drains  should  be  carefully  pro- 
tected with  a  brick  or  stone,  in  order  that  no  soil  may  be 
washed  in,  and  particularly  that  neither  moles,  mice,  or  snakes, 
may  find  lodgment  in  them. 

Of  stone  drains,  only  two  styles  that  we  have  ever  seen,  are 
worthy  of  consideration  in  these  pages.  In  the  one  represented 
in  Fig.  7,  the  bottom  is  filled  with  cobble  stones  for  a  few 
inches.  These- are  packed  in  with  the  pestle,  forming  a  pretty 
solid  foundation.  Flat  stones  are  then  set  up  against  one  side, 
which  is  cut  nearly  perpendicular,  other  flat  stones  are  leaned 
against  these  from  the  opposite  side,  the  joints  being  broken  su? 
in  laying  shingles.  If  the  fall  is  made  uniform,  the  cobble 
stones  packed  evenly  and  hard,  and  the  joints  well  broken, 
these  form  very  serviceable  and  durable  drains.  Where  the 
scones  are  to  be  had  for  the  drawing,  they  are  often  the  most 
economical.  Fig.  8  represents  a  drain  made  wholly  of  flat 
stones,  and  explains  itself.  "Where  the  soil  is  firm,  so  that  the 
stones  will  not  be  swallowed  up,  these  make  an  excellent  sub 
stitute  for  tile  drains. 

Where  a  peat  bog  is  at  hand,  peat  tiles  may  be  made  to 
answer  the  purposg  of  clay  tiles.  An  open  drain,  from  four 
to  six  feet  deep,  should  be  cut  into  the  swamp  for  a  short 
distance,  and  the  surplus  water  removed.     The  upper  surface 


42 


HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FAKM    PAY. 


may  thea  be  removed  to  tlie  barn  yard,  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  of  the  top  being  useless  for  tiles.  The  simplest 
method  of  cutting  out  the  peats  is  to  lay  out  a  plot,  say  twenty 
feet  square  on  one  side  of  the  drain,  then,  with  a  sharp  spade, 
out  this  into  strips,  six  inches  wide  from  the  drain,  and  these 
crosswise  again  eighteen  inches  long;  then  commencing  inside 
the  ditch  cut  out  these  peats  at  a  depth  of  six  inches.  The  peats 
will  thus  be  six  inches  square  and  eighteen  inches  long,  but 
will  shrink  in  drying  to  about  four  by  twelve  inches.  The 
inside  of  these  peats  rcinst  be  hollowed  out  as  soon  as  cut, 
and  carefully  laid  out  on  boards  to  dry,  with  the  hollow 
down. 


Fifr.  IS.— Peat  Cutter. 


Fig.  19.— Peat  Tiles. 


An  instrument  for  cutting  peat  tiles  is  shown  at  Fig.  18, 
This  cuts  the  peats  and  hollows  them  at  the  same  time,  Fig.  19, 
and  can  easily  be  made  from  a  stout  piece  of  sheet  iron.  Drains 
are  sometimes  made  by  piling  brush  in  the  bottom  of  the 
trenches,  and  filling  up  with  stones,  but  we  doubt  whether  such 
drains  last  long  enough  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  ditching. 
They  furnish  a  home  to  all  sorts  of  burrowers,  who  soon 
obstruct  them.  This  brings  us  to  speak  of  the  Obstructions 
TO  Drains.  As  we  have  before  hiated,  aU  sorts  of  burrowers 
infest  carelessly  constructed  drains.  If  the  outlet  is  not  pro- 
tected;  toads,   frogs,    snakes,    muskrats,    moles,  and  a  host  of 


DRAINIXG.  48 

creeping  things  will  soon  take  possession  of  them  and  render 
them  worse  than  useless ;  but  carefully  protect  the  upper  ends 
J  of  the  drain  with  bricks  or  flat  stones,  cover  the  joints  with 
turf,  or,  in  stone  drains,  with  flat  stones,  and  put  an  iron  grating 
over  the  outlet,  and  you  may  feel  pretty  secure  against  obstruc- 
tions.    But  the  further  precaution  (as  we  have  before  stated) 
should  be  taken  of  accurately  marking  the  entrance  of  each 
:   minor  to  the  main,  so  chat  if  there  are  obstructions  their  posi- 
■   tion  may  be  ascertained.     The  outlet  should  be  of  stone  so  as 
not  to  be  easily  destroyed. 

If  it  is  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  bed  of  the  stream  into 
which  it  enters,  a  basin  should  be  dug,  in  order  that  all  sedi- 
ment from  the  drain  may  be  deposited  in  it  and  not  set  back 
into  the  drain.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  hard-burneJ 
tiles,  as  the  crumbling  of  one  tile  will  obstruct  a  whole  drain, 
as  will  also  a  carelessly  laid  tile.  Roots  obstruct  cobble  stone 
and  brush  drains,  but  can  hardly  penetrate  hard-burnt  tiles  or 
Hat  stones. 

The  Drainage  of  Swamps  sometimes  requires  very  dif- 
lerent  treatment  from  that  previously  described.  If  the  wettest 
I  >art  of  the  swamp  is  about  the  edges,  a  deep  trench  should  be 
cut,  not  through  the  center,  but  around  the  outside,  with  an 
outlet  at  the  lowest  practicable  point ;  after  this  drain  has  done 
its  work  of  removing  the  surface  water,  shallower  drains  may 
be  laid  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  apart,  and  if  the  soil  is  clayey- 
auger  holes  should  be  bored  down  to  the  gravel  beds.  These 
auger  holes  should  be  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  current  of  the 
drain.  Thus  far,  we  have  been  instructing  the  farmer  to  con- 
.-truct  drains,  with  the  means  always  at  his  command;  we 
now  come  to  the  description  of  the  various  Draining  Ma- 
chines in  use  in  different  parts  of  <  ur  country. 

The   Mole   Plow  works  well  in  stiff  clay  soils  free  from 


44  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM   PAY. 

obstructions.  It  consists  of  a  long  wooden  beam  and  stilts, 
but,  instead  of  the  share,  has  a  long,  thin  iron  shank,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  is  a  short,  pointed  bar  of  iron,  two,  three,  or 
four  inches  square,  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  permits.  This 
machine  can  be  dragged  through  clay  at  a  depth  of  from  three 
to  four  feet,  by  means  of  a  capstan  and  chain  and  a  pair  of 
horses  or  oxen,  or  by  putting  on  five  or  six  yoke  of  oxen.  It 
leaves  a  narrow  channel  like  a  mole  run,  whence  its  name.  A 
somewhat  similar  machine  has  been  used,  (and,  we  believe,  may 
yet  be  perfected,)  which  also  draws  in  the  tile  after  it.  A  short 
section  of  trench  is  first  dug,  and  then  the  tiles  are  strung  on  a 
vope  and  drawn  through  after  the  plow,  and  then  the  rope 
removed.  We  believe  this  to  be  entirely  practicable,  and  we 
urge  the  propriety  of  continued  experiments  upon  our  western 
prairies  until  the  idea  is  brought  to  perfection.  There  are 
various  machines  which  cut  a  ditch  two  feet  deep,  leaving  the 
last  half  of  the  ditching  still  to  be  done  by  hand. 

In  many  hard  limestone  soils,  where  a  regular  system  of 
drainage  is  impossible,  there  are  points  at  which  wells  might  be 
sunk  and  filled  with  cobble  stones. 

If  these  wells  reach  a  substratum  of  poroms  soil  they  will 
drain  quite  an  extent  of  ground.  Experiments  are  required  to 
prove  the  practical  economy  of  this  system  of  drainage. 

The  size  of  Drain  Tiles  is  an  important  consideration,  as 
prices  increase  with  the  size.  The  common  mistake  is  too 
large  minors  and  too  small  mains.  One  and  one  and  a  half 
inches  is  ordinarily  large  enough  for  minors,  unless  they  are  of 
great  length,  when  the  first  half  may  be  one  and  a  half,  and  the 
latter  half  two  inches.  As  the  slope  increases  the  necessity  for 
size  diminishes.  The  mains  should  be  able  to  carry  ofl'  all  the 
water  brought  by  the  minors.  But  here,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, that  one  three  inch  pipe  is  equal  to  nine  one  inch  pipes 


DRAINING 


45 


m  capacity  That  is,  all  the  water  that  can  be  brought  by  six 
one  and  a  half  inch  pipes  will  be  carried  off  b}'^  one  three  inch 
pipe.  Taking  the  plan,  Mg.  9,  the  first  six  minors  dischaige 
into  a  three  inch  main,  the  next  six  into  a  four  inch  main  or 
into  a  second  three  inch. 

Elaborate  tables  are  prepared,  by  some  writers,  to  show  how 
many  gallons  of  water  will  be  discharged  per  minute  by  dif- 
ferent sizes  of  pipe,  but  they  are  of  no  practical  value  to  the 
farmer,  as  it  is  impossible  to  calculate  the  amount  of  water  that 
they  will  be  required  to  discharge  in  any  given  time. 

The  following  tables  give  the  number  of  tiles  required  per 
acre : 


Table  Xo.  1. 


Width  be- 
tween ilrains. 
Feet. 


20 
30. 
40. 

50. 
60. 


Lcngtb  of 
drains. 
Roils. 


No.  of  13  inch 

tiles  per 

;!Cre. 


.132 


2,011. 

88 1,341. 

06 1,006. 

52 805. 

44 671. 


No.  of  IS  inch 

tiles  per 

acre. 

...1,452 
...  968 
...  726 
...  581 
...    484 


No.  of  ^>°f 

acres.  ^'"'\ 

apart. 

1 20. 

1 30. 

1 42. 

1 45. 

11 21. 

11 30. 


Table  No.  2. 

No.  of  j.^  ^j.                No.  of                  No.  of 

rods  of  '^^                  feet                    rods  of 

drain.  ""                apart.                    drain. 

125  11 42 691 

88  11 45 655 

62  21 21 2,640 

58  21 30 1,848 

1,382  21 42 1,.320 

968  21 45 l,-2.32 


That  is,  in  one  acre  with  drains  twenty  feet  apart,  there  will 
be  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  rods  of  drain  requiring 
about  two  thousand  thirteen  inch  tile. 


46  HOW   TO   MAKE    THE   FARM    PAY. 

Table  No.  3. 

No.  of  rods  No.  of  No.  of  rod  No.  of 

of  drain.  13  iiicli  tile.  of  drain.  13  inrli  tile. 

40 610  80 1,219 

50 7(32  90 1,371 

GO 914  100 1,524 

70 1,007 

Table  No.  1  shows  how  many  rods  of  drain  are  required  in 
an  acre  at  given  distances,  and  how  many  tiles  of  given  lengths 
are  required.  Table  No.  2  gives  the  number  of  rods  of  drain 
in  fields  from  one  to  twenty-one  acres,  with  drains  from  twenty 
to  forty-five  feet  apart.  Table  No.  3  shows  the  number  of 
thirteen  inch  tile  required  for  any  given  number  of  rods  of 
drain. 


Note. — We  desire  to  return  our  thanks  to  George  Jackson,  Suinrin- 
tendent  New  York  State  Drain  Tile  Works,  for  assistance  in  illustrating 
this  chapter,  and  to  recommend  to  the  farmers  of  that  section  the 
superior  hard  burned  tiles  made  by  that  Company. 


CHAPTER  II. 


PLOWING. 


HE  objects  of  plowing  are,  to  pulverize  the  soil,  to 
mingle  the  dififerent  portions,  to  kill  weeds,  to  covei 
manures,  and  to  keep  the  surface  open  and  fresn. 

The  plowing  which  accomplishes  these  objects  best,  is 
the  best  plowing.  Pulverizing  being  the  most  important,  that 
system  of  plowing  which  pulverizes  the  most  thoroughly  and 
the  deepest  is  the  best.  Gardeners  understand  this,  and  where  » 
they  wish  to  raise  fine  vegetables  and  plants,  they  work  l^he  soil 
tho^'oughly  and  deep.  Do  the  same  on  your  farms,  if  you 
have  been  plowing  twenty  acres  four  to  six  or  eight  inches 
deep,  make  it  forty  acres  by  doubling  the  depth  of  your  plow- 
ing ;  it  is  better  and  cheaper  than  to  buy  twenty  acres.  It  is 
less  work  to  raise  thirty  bushels  from  one  acre,  than  from  two 
or  three.  We  do  not  mean  by  this,  that  eight  inches  of  the 
sub-soil  is  to  be  turned  to  the  surface,  but  that  it  is  to  be  stirred 
up  and  broken  up  where  it  lies,  by  means  of  sub-soil  plowing. 
If  made  with  the  common  plow,  the  change  from  shallow  to 
deep  plowing  would  have  to  be  made  very  gradually,  as  it  will 
not  do  to  throw  more  than  an  inch  or  two  of  the  subsoil  on  the 
surface  at  a  time,  but  even  by  deepening  one  or  two  inches  each 
year,  an  entire  change  would  soon  be  effected  in  the  productive- 
ness of  our  fields.  Stronger  implements  and  teams  will  be 
needed,  but  the  increase  of  our  crops  will  soon  compensate  us 

for  the  outlay. 

4  47 


48  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

Nearly  every  farmer  m  the  country  has  a  new  farm  under 
the  old  one :  indeed  if  the  desire  for  more  land  could  be  changed 
to  a  desire  for  deeper  land,  the  number  of  acres  under  cultiva- 
tion would  soon  be  doubled.  Eoot  crops  especially  need  deep 
culture.  Those  who  plow  six  or  eight  inches  and  never  sub- 
soil, have  but  little  idea  of  the  size  to  which  carrots,  turnips, 
etc.,  will  attain,  when  they  have  room  to  reach  down.  Try  it. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  deep  plowing ;  trench  plowing  and  sub- 
soiling.  The  former  often  fails  where  the  latter  would  be  suc- 
cessful. Trench  plowing  is  deep  plowing,  and  turning  the 
subsoil  to  the  surface.  This  subsoil  is  often  hard,  cold,  and 
wet,  and  it  takes  two  or  three  seasons  of  manuring  and  cultiva- 
tion, to  render  it  productive.  It  is  this  kind  of  deep  plowing 
which  many  have  tried  and  condemned,  for  the  reason  above 
^stated.  But  subsoiling  is  deep  plowing  and  pulverizing,  and 
stirring  up  the  subsoil  without  raising  it  to  the  surface ;  this  is 
always  beneficial,  except  in  the  case  of  a  very  few  sandy  soils, 
with  no  basis  of  clay  subsoil.  Stiff  clay  soils  are  most  bene- 
fitted by  deep  plowing  after  thorough  draining,  but  when  filled 
with  water,  any  kind  of  plowing  in  such  soils  is  nearly  useless. 
A  wet  clay  cannot  be  pulverized,  any  more  than  so  much 
dough.  After  a  clay  soil  is  drained,  it  should  be  plowed  always 
in  the  fall,  in  order  that  the  action  of  the  frost  may  pulverize  it. 
The  later  in  the  fall  the  better.  Trench  plowing  on  such  land 
through  two  inches  of  snow  has  proved  to  be  the  most  success- 
ful plowing  we  have  ever  done. 

There  are  four  ways  of  plowing  sod  ground,  known  as 
lapped  furrow  slices,  flat  furrow  slices,  round  furrow  slices,  and 
trenching.  To  make  lapped  furrow  slices  with  the  common 
plow,  shorten  the  traces,  so  as  to  just  clear  the  heels  of  the 
horses  when  turning  round.  Adjust  the  guide  so  that  the  plow 
will  run  level  and  true,  directly  after  the  team.     After  turning. 


PLOWING,  49 

the  first  furrow  which  will  be  flat,  drive  the  team  close  to  the 
furrow  slice,  and  lean  the  plow  handles  to  the  left  until  the 
furrow  slice  will  just  lap  on  the  first  one  turned;  after  one 
round  has  been  plowed,  the  plow  can  be  gradually  adjusted  to 
cut  just  as  wide  or  as  deep  as  required,  although  on  new  land 
good  execution  cannot  be  done  at  a  greater  deptn  than  seven 
inches.     If  greater  depth  is  desirable,  a  double  plow  is  better. 

For  turning  flat  furrow  slices,  a  plow  with  a  narrow  base  and 
broad  at  the  top  of  the  mould  board,  is  the  most  desirable. 
The  coulter  should  be  set  so  as  to  cut  under ;  and  the  handles 
inclined  a  little  to  the  right.  The  slices  must  be  twice  as  wide 
as  their  depth.  This  style  of  plowing  is  most  suitable  for 
bushy,  rooty,  and  obstructed  pastures,  or  other  grass  lands, 
where  the  double  plow  cannot  be  used  to  advantage.  Trench 
plowing  is  done  by  putting  a  skim  plow  forward  of  the  main 
plow  on  the  same  beam,  which  removes  a  thin  sod,  and  lays  it 
upside  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  while  the  main  plow 
turns  up  ten  inches  or  more  of  the  undersoil.  This  sort  of  deep 
plowing  should  be  decided  upon  with  caution.  Except  in  light 
sandy  soils,  trench  plowing  should  be  done  late  in  the  fall.  On 
most  soils,  two  inches  deeper  each  year  is  enough.  The  excep- 
tions are  light  soils  underlaid  with  clay,  and  old  worn  soils. 

Sod  and  Subsoil  Plowing  is  done  with  what  is  commonly 
called  the  Michigan  Sod  Plow,  (an  illustration  of  which,  with 
all  the  plows,  etc.,  mentioned,  is  given  in  the  article  on  Agri- 

I  cultural  Implements,)  consisting  of  two  plows  on  one  beam ; 
the  forward,  or  skim  plow,  cutting  not  more  than  three  or  four 
iuches  deep,  and  the  rear  plow  lifting  the  under  soil  to  the 
depth  of  six  or  eight  inches,  raising  it  up,  and  laying  it  over 
the  sod,  breaking  the  soil  well,  and  leaving  a  clean  channel  for 
the  next  sod.     For  the  deep  breaking  up  of  all  sod  land,  free 

i  enough  of  obstructions,  this  is  the  best  method  of  plowing. 


50  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

How  to  Subsoil.  If  yoa  have  but  one  team,  plow  one  fur- 
row round  the  field,  or  such  portion  of  it  as  you  wish  to  plow ; 
then  hitch  to  the  subsoil  plow,  and  go  round  again  in  the  same 
furrow.  As  the  subsoiler  does  not  raise  the  earth  to  the  top, 
but  only  pulverizes  it  where  it  lies,  it  can  safely  be  run  as  deep 
as  your  team  can  draw  it.  A  span  of  horses,  or  yoke  of  oxen, 
will  draw  a  subsoiler  from  eight  to  fourteen  inches  deeper  than 
the  first  cut.  In  preparing  orchard  grounds,  the  subsoiler  is 
often  run  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  deeper  than  the  first  cut. 
When  the  plow  cuts  a  wide  furrow,  the  subsoiler  must  be  run 
twice  in  the  same  furrow.  It  is  all  the  better  to  use  the  sub- 
soiler also  in  cross-plowing.  Subsoiling  in  this  way,  for  two  or 
three  years,  will  mellow  the  ground  for  fourteen  to  eighteen 
inches  deep,  and  the  subsoil  may  then  be  turned  to  the  surface 
by  trench  plowing.  In  subsoiling,  you  must  keep  a  sharp  eye 
on  your  plow.  It  is  of  little  use  to  subsoil  wet,  heavy  lands,  until 
they  have  been  under-drained.  Many  valuable  acres  would  be 
added  to  our  farms  if  we  would  underdrain  and  subsoil  these 
lands,  at  much  less  expense  than  to  buy  new  acres. 

Underdrain  as  soon  as  possible,  but  until  your  drains  are 
completed,  plow  your  wet  lands  up  and  down  the  slope,  in  nar- 
row divisions,  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  wide — not  with  flat  furrow 
slices,  which  give  the  land  no  chance  to  drain,  but  with  lapped 
furrow  slices.  After  these  divisions  are  completed,  run  the 
plow  as  deep  as  your  team  can  draw  it  through  the  middle  fur- 
rows. Then,  with  a  round-pointed  shovel,  throw  out  the  loose 
dirt  from  them,  and  you  have  free  channels  for  the  surplus 
water  to  run  off.  It  is  not  so  much  extra  work  as  it  seems,  and 
will  abundantly  pay. 

The  time  for  plowing  has  been  hinted  at  in  the  preceding 
l)ages,  but  we  would  say  distinctly,  here,  that  all  hard,  heavy 
soils,  inclined  to  be  lumpy,  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  as  late 


TLOWING.  51 

as  possible.  The  frost  will  pulverize  the  lumps,  and  the  worms, 
hid  in  their  winter  quarters,  will  hardly  have  life  enough  to 
find  their  way  back  again.  All  soils,  except  light,  sandy,  or 
gravelly  soils,  that  are  alread}^  too  porous,  had  better  be  plowed 
in  the  autumn. 

Harrowing  is  fine  plowing,  and  is  only  second  in  importance 
to  it.  The  harrow  is  designed  to  complete  the  pulverization 
of  the  soils,  and,  as  we  have  said  before,  the  more  completely 
this  is  done,  the  better,  for  many  reasons,  which  we  do  not  need 
to  state.  Be  as  particular  to  harrow,  where  the  soil  is  in  good 
condition,  as  to  plow.  Harrow  your  land  until  the  lumps  are 
gone.  Lumps  are  as  bad  as  stones.  More  so ;  for  they  hold 
plant  food,  that  the  plants  will  get  at  if  the  lumps  are  pulverized. 
If  the  harrow  will  not  do  it,  roll  it  and  harrow  it  until  the  ob- 
ject is  accomplished.  Use  the  roller  also  on  light  soils  after 
spring  plowing. 


CHAPTER    III. 

MANURES. 

EXT  to  thorough  draining,  the  great  lack,  in  American 
farming,  is  a  proper  economy  and  application  of  ma- 
nures and  fertilizers.  By  manures,  we  mean  that  pro- 
duced on  the  farm ;  and  by  fertilizers,  guano,  phos- 
phates, and  the  like.  And  no  farmer  should  buy  any  fertilizers 
until  he  saves  and  applies  his  manures.  From  extensive  ob- 
servation, we  conclude  that  not  one  farmer  in  one  hundred 
makes  the  most  of  his  manures.  The  urine  of  a  cow  is  aa 
valuable  as  her  dung  ;  and  not  one  farmer  in  one  hundred  saves 
it.  The  urine  and  excrement  of  each  member  of  the  family  is 
as  valuable  as  that  of  the  cow  ;  and  yet  it  is  not  cared  for. 

Such  waste  of  valuable  food  for  crops  cannot  be  too  strongly 
condemned. 

Our  object,  then,  in  this  chapter,  will  be  to  show  the  farmer 
how  to  save  and  apply  manure.  And  we  begin  where  there  is 
the  most  general  and  inexcusable  waste — at  the  privy.  The 
urine  and  excrement  of  each  member  of  the  family  is  abun- 
dantly sufficient  to  fertilize  a  half  acre  of  land  yearly.  The 
simplest  way  to  save  this,  where  the  vault  can  be  opened,  is  to 
cover  it  with  five  or  six  times  its  bulk  of  peat  or  muck  once  a 
week.  But  a  much  better  way,  is  to  have  a  shallow  vault,  with 
a  cemented  or  tight  board  bottom,  sloping  to  one  corner,  from 
whence  there  should  be  an  ample  drain  leading  into  a  cesspool 

at  convenient  distance  from  the  house.     Into  the  upper  corner 
52 


MANURES.  53 

of  the  privy  vault  should  run  the  drain  from  the  sink,  not  only 
to  save  the  washings  of  the  sink,  but  also  to  keep  the  vault 
washed  out,  and  to  dilute  the  urine,  which  renders  it  more 
valuable.  Of  course,  a  brick  or  stone  cesspool  is  the  most 
durable,  but  an  oil  butt,  or  hogshead,  sunk  in  the  ground,  forma 
an  economical  substitute.  The  place  may  be  hidden  from  pub- 
lic view  by  a  row  of  dwarf  trees,  pines,  or  spruces.  Near  it 
should  be  hauled  peat,  muck,  leaves,  straw — any  kind  of  vege- 
table matter — and  the  contents  of  the  cesspool  poured  on  to  it. 
For  this  purpose,  a  long-handled  dipper  may  be  constructed 
of  a  keg  or  firkin.  When  this  heap  is  thoroughly  saturated, 
fork  it  over,  haul  it  away,  and  bring  new  material.  Peat  will 
absorb  more  ammonia  than  any  other  soil,  and  is  therefore  the 
most  valuable  for  this  purpose.  The  manure  thus  made  will 
be  worth  more,  than  the  same  amount  of  the  best  barnyard  ma- 
nure. Don't  pay  a  dollar  for  fertilizers  till  you  have  made  the 
most  of  this  valuable  matter  right  at  your  elbow.  Proceed 
about  it  at  once,  for  it  is  money  wasting  every  hour  before 
your  eyes. 

The  Barnyard  must  always  be  the  farmer's  main  source  of 
supply  for  manures.  And  here,  as  in  the  previous  case,  the 
almost  universal  mistake  is  in  the  waste  of  the  urine,  the  liquid 
manure.  The  urine  of  most  animals  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as 
valuable  as  the  solid  manure ;  but  it  is  usually  allowed  to  go 
wholly  to  waste.  And,  more  than  this,  it  is  allowed  to  carry 
away  with  it  many  elements  of  fertility  fl-om  the  solid  manure. 
"We  protest,  in  the  name  of  the  hungry  lands,  against  this  waste 
j  of  vegetable  food,  of  the  best  quality.  And  we  not  only  pro 
\  test,  but  shall  give  practical  directions  for  saving  it. 

Every  farmer  should  soil  his  cattle  in  the  stables  or  in  the 
yard.  A  cow  will  produce  about  three  and  a  half  cords  of 
solid  and  three  of  liquid  manure ;  this,  absorbed  in  twice  its  bulk 


fJ4  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

of  peat  or  muck,  makes  twenty  cords  of  manure  worth  from 
five  to  eight  dollars  a  cord.  This  mixing  can  be  done  just  as 
well  in  the  yard,  as  to  shovel  the  dirt  in  and  out  of  the 
stables.  All  stables  should  have  tight  floors,  and  be  so  laid 
that  the  liquid  will  all  run  to  one  point,  where  there  should 
be  a  manure  well,  which  can  be  made  by  sinking  a  hogs- 
head, Tlie  liquid  is  made  more  valuable  by  being  diluted 
with  water,  and  the  stable-floors  should  be  washed  down 
occasionally  with  a  few  pailfuls  of  water.  The  barnyard 
should  also  be  graded  to  one  corner  or  to  the  centre,  and 
another  manure  well  sunk  at  the  lowest  point.  Every  barn- 
yard should  be  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  sheds  with  eave- 
troughs  to  carrj'-  off  all  the  rain  water,  which  would  otherwise 
wash  away  the  wealth  of  the  yard. 

Under  these  sheds,  the  solid  manure  of  all  the  animals,  to- 
gether with  the  litter  from  the  stables,  with  double  its  bulk  of 
peat  or  muck,  should  be  evenly  spread  every  week,  and  the 
liquid  manure  from  the  wells  dipped  or  pumped  over  it. 
Light  troughs  may  be  made  to  carry  it  from  the  pumps  to  any 
part  of  the  yard. 

The  liquid  manure  is  thus  not  only  saved,  but  helps  in  the 
decomposition  of  the  solid  and  prevents  it  from  becoming 
heated  or  fire  fanged.  Manure  thus  treated  will  be  doubled  in 
quantity  and  doubled  in  quality.  The  yard  should  be  kept 
well  supplied  with  peat  or  muck.  We  repeat  that  no  farmer 
can  justify  his  purchase  of  fertilizers  until  he  has  used  these 
simple  and  comparatively  inexpensive  means  of  increasing  his 
home  manufacture. 

The  Horse  stable  is  especially  apt  to  be  the  scene  of  this 
waste.     The  manure  of  the  horse  contains  a  large  amount  of 
ammonia,  (which  is  the  best  of  all  fertilizers,)  and  less  mois 
ture  than  other  manures,  and  is  therefore  much  more  likely  to 


MANURES.  56 

neat  and  becomes  fire  fanged.  When  it  becomes  heated  and 
mouldy  its  value  is  nearly  all  gone.  It  is  hardly  worth  carting 
to  the  field.  Horse  manure  should  never  be  kept  in  a  pile  by 
itself,  it  should  either  be  spread  evenly  with  the  other  manures, 
or  muck,  and  kept  moist  with  the  liquid  from  the  manure  well. 
Water  and  muck  are  the  universal  absorbents  of  ammonia,  and 
should  always  be  plentifully  supplied  to  the  manure  heap. 

The  Piggery  and  Hennery  should  also  be  kept  well  supplied 
with  peat  or  muck,  which  in  the  Hennery  should  be  kept  moist. 
The  manure,  both  liquid  and  solid,  of  fattening  pigs,  being  espe- 
cially rich,  should  be  especially  cared  for;  enough  soil  should  be 
shoveled  in  every  day  to  absorb  all  the  droppings ;  it  should  be 
protected  from  the  rain  and  sunshine ;  and  whenever  practicable 
should  be  mixed  with  the  barnyard  manure  before  spreading. 

The  pig  will  work  over  the  soil,  pulverizing  it  and  adding  at 
the  same  time  to  each  particle  the  most  valuable  fertilizing  in 
gredients  ready  to  be  dissolved  for  the  use  of  the  plants ;  for  it 
must  be  born  in  mind,  that  in  the  end  nothing  but  liquid  ma- 
nures can  be  of  any  value  to  the  plants.  The  roots  can  take  up 
nothing  but  liquids.  Every  solid  particle  must  be  reduced  to  a 
liquid  state  before  it  will  be  available  to  the  plants.  There- 
fore the  more  thorough  the  decomposition  of  the  manure  the 
sooner  and  the  more  surely  will  it  reach  the  plant ;  and  the 
more  moisture  the  manure  absorbs  the  more  readily  will  it  dis- 
solve in  the  soil  and  be  taken  up  into  the  crops. 

Barnyard  manure,  prepared  as  above,  contains  all  the  ele- 
ments of  nutrition  needed  by  any  crop. 

It  does  not  always  contain  them  all  in  sufficient  quantities 
for  a  succession  of  crops,  and  here  is  where  the  fertilizers 
come  in  as  aids.  But  before  discussing  this  subject  we  will 
speak  of  the  application  of  manures  to  the  soil. 

The  general   principle  of  application  is  that  manure  sinks 


56  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY. 

into  the  soil,  and  the  roots  catch  it  and  appropriate  it  on  its  way 
downv/ard.  Surface  manuring  is  often  very  effective,  and  ma- 
nure covered  so  deep  as  to  be  for  the  most  part  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  plants  is  valueless.  It  will  never  rise  again  to  the 
surface,  and  is  lost.  Manure  should  be  put,  then,  as  nearly  as 
possible  where  it  is  to  do  its  work. 

For  light  grasses  it  may  be  spread  upon  the  surface  and  will 
soon  reach  the  roots  which  are  near  the  surface.  Manure  for 
this  purpose  should  be  as  thoroughly  pulverized  and  as  evenly 
spread  as  possible,  and  applied  in  the  fall  before  the  frosts; 
if  green  manure  is  used,  the  unrotted  straw,  cornstalks,  etc., 
fibould  be  raked  off  with  a  horse  rake  in  the  spring.  We 
think  this  method  gives  the  best  results  of  any  on  light  grass 
lands.  Manuring  such  lands  in  the  spring  we  have  found  to  be 
very  much  less  effective. 

For  nearly  all  other  crops,  manure  should  be  well  decom- 
posed and  plowed  under,  or  thoroughly  harrowed  and  cross- 
harrowed  into  the  soil  after  plowing.  No  time  can  be  set  for 
applying  manures,  for  every  farmer  has,  more  or  less,  to  consult 
his  own  convenience  as  to  the  time. 

Having  reccommended  fall  plowing,  we  recommend,  as  far 
as  practicable,  fall  manuring  with  green  manure,  as  it  is  at 
present  managed:  but  if  we  could  persuade  every  farmer  to 
adopt  the  system  we  have  advised,  of  thoroughly  composting 
his  manures,  under  cover,  with  peat  and  liquid  manures,  often 
forked  over,  and  thus  ready  at  once  to  give  up  their  fertilizing 
elements  to  the  plants,  we  could  say  emphatically,  manure  in 
the  spring,  except  surface  manuring  of  light  grass  lands.  This 
housing  of  manure  through  the  winter  is  the  best  economy. 
By  actual  and  oft  repeated  experiments  we  have  proved  that 
manure  thus  protected  will  produce  double  the  crop  that  un- 
protected manure  will.     This  is  nearly  all  clear  gain  ;  there  is 


MANURES.  57 

no  more  expense  for  seed  or  tillage,  but  little  more  for  cartage ; 
the  only  increase  of  expense  is  in  harvesting  double  the  crop. 
Pitching  manure  and  forking  it  over  is  very  laborious  work, 
but  if  our  plan  of  mixing  with  muck,  and  keeping  moist,  is 
followed,  it  will  fork  over  much  more  easily,  and  in  the  spring 
will  be  so  thoroughly  decomposed  that  it  will  readily  fall  in 
pieces,  and  the  labor,  both  of  loading  and  spreading,  will  be 
much  lessened.  There  will  be  no  hard,  dry  lumps  to  be  knocked 
in  pieces,  or  left  like  pieces  of  brick  to  retard  rather  than  aid 
the  growth  of  the  plants.  Try  it,  if  you  are  incredulous,  on  a 
s:nall  scale  at  first,  and  you  will  find  in  it  a  new  source  both  of 
pleasure  and  wealth. 

We  wish  here  to  say  a  few  words  about  pitching  and  spread- 
ing manure.  Use  a  long  handled  dung  fork  in  loading  manure, 
using  the  handle  as  a  lever  across  the  knee.  In  distributing 
it  in  the  field,  never  dump  a,  whole  load  in  a  place.  Many 
small  heaps  are  better  than  a  few  large  ones.  They  should 
never  be  more  than  a  rod  apart.  If  the  manure  is  left  on  the 
field  through  the  winter,  do  not  leave  any  where  the  heap  stood 
in  the  spring,  as  enough  fertilizing  material  will  have  washed 
into  the  soil  at  that  spot.  If  the  manure  has  been  composted 
according  to  our  plan,  it  can  be  very  evenly  distributed,  in  spread- 
ing ;  but  if  it  has  lain  and  dried  hard,  the  laborer  who  spreads 
it  must  go  all  over  it  a  second  time  to  knock  the  lumps  in 
pieces.  Once  more  we  say,  that,  as  the  barnyard  is  the  farmer's 
main  source  of  supply,  it  is  his  bounden  duty,  as  well  as  his 
greatest  profit,  to  save  and  make  the  most  of  it.  But  there  are 
many  other  materials  on  your  farms  that  you  must  use  before 
you  can  justify  the  purchase  of  fertilizers,  and  foremost  among 
these  is  peat  or  swamp  muck.  We  shall  use  the  term  peat 
as  covering  swamp  muck  and  marsh  mud  also.  These  are  a 
valuable  amendment  to  two  entirely  opposite  kinds  of  soil,  viz: 


58  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

light,  porous,  sandy  soils,  and  heavy,  clayey  soils.  In  the  former 
the  peat  binds  the  soil  together,  acts  as  a  sponge  to  hold 
moisture,  manures,  and  gases  for  plant  food,  warms  the  soil  by 
absorbing  the  sun's  rays,  while  at  the  same  time  it  cools  more 
rapidly  at  night,  and  collects  the  dew  so  necessary  to  vegetation 
in  hot  weather.  In  clayey  soils  it  separates  the  particles  and 
renders  them  more  porous.  Its  second  source  of  value  is  as  a 
compost  with  the  manure  of  the  yard.  It  absorbs  and  retains 
the  ammonia,  the  most  valuable  element  of  manures ;  it  also 
holds  the  moisture  necessary  to  keep  the  manure  heap  from 
heating  and  becoming  fire  fanged. 

By  its  use,  and  only  by  its  use,  the  farmer  is  enabled  to  save 
the  liquid  manure.  We  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that,  properly 
composted  with  one  half  its  bulk  of  solid  and  liquid  stable 
manure,  it  makes  an  article  each  cord  of  which  is  equally 
valuable  with  any  cord  of  the  original  manure. 

The  excavation  and  preparation,  then,  of  the  peat,  is  an  im- 
portant matter. 

Every  man's  circumstances  must  determine  the  time  and 
manner  of  getting  out  peat.  The  month  of  August,  is  all  things 
considered,  the  best  time.  But  most  farmers  will  have  to  put  it 
off  till  winter,  as  labor  is  cheaper,  and  there  is  less  hurry  with 
other  matters  on  the  farm.  It  should  be  thrown  into  a  pile 
upon  loose  boards,  and  covered  with  loose  boards,  leaving  it  to 
the  action  of  the  air  for  several  months  before  it  is  carted  to  the 
yard.  An  excavation  should  be  begun  at  the  border  of  the 
marsh  in  the  autumn,  and  continued  into  it  sufficiently  wide 
for  a  cart  path,  and  the  muck  thrown  out  in  piles  on  each 
side.  By  the  succeeding  autumn  this  will  be  seasoned  enough 
to  cart  away,  and  can  sometimes  be  done  on  the  surface,  or 
waiting  until  the  grdund  is  frozen,  can  be  readily  hauled  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  barnyard.     It  is  better  to  get   out  enough  ai 


MANUKES.  59 

one  time  to  last  for  several  years,  and  have  it  convenient  for 
constant  use. 

Red  Clover  is  one  of  the  most  convenient,  effectual,  and 
economical  fertilizers  that  can  be  used  for  improving  the  fer- 
tility of  an  impoverished  soil.  Its  long  tap  roots  reach  down 
into  the  soil,  absorbing  fertilizing  influences  that  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  ordinary  vegetation,  and  bringing  them  to  the  surface 
to  form  the  stem  and  leaves.  These  roots  make  the  soil  more 
porous  than  before,  and  in  decay  leave  a  large  amount  of  vege- 
table matter  for  the  food  of  the  succeeding  crop.  Its  leaves 
absorb  a  large  amount  of  ammonia  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
if  plowed  under  at  the  proper  time,  this  is  all  secured  for  the 
soil.  For  plowing  under  sow  the  large  clover  and  plow  it 
under  when  it  is  ripe,  just  as  the  blossoms  begin  to  change 
color.  Do  not  be  tempted  to  cut  the  crop  for  hay.  Lime  or 
plaster  should  usually  be  sown  with  the  clover  in  small  quanti- 
ties, and  on  many  lands  this  is  all  the  fertilizing  that  is  needed. 
It  is  always  an  economical  and  valuable  aid  to  the  barnyard. 
On  many  barren  hill-sides,  red  clover,  plowed  under,  will  effect  a 
change  in  the  soil  which  no  other  fertilizer  could  produce  so 
quickly  or  so  economically. 

Every  thing  that  can  make  manure  should  be  saved.  Leaves, 
litter,  chip-dirt,  saw-dust,  ashes,  bones,  waste  salt,  soot,  should 
all  be  put  into  the  compost  heap.  Soap  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  fertilizing  matter.  In  a  barrel  of  good  soft  soap  there 
is  enough  to  produce  a  half  a  ton  of  good  hay,  or  several 
bushels  of  grain.  After  this  soap  has  been  through  the  wash 
tub,  it  is  more  valuable  than  before.  It  is  in  the  very  best 
possible  condition  to  be  applied  to  the  soil,  yet  it  is  usually 
suffered  to  run  off  into  some  slough  hole  or  stream  and  wasted. 
Construct  your  privy  vault  on  the  plan  we  have  advocated,  and 
run  the  sink  spout  into  it,  for  such  waste  is  inexcusable. 


go  HOW  TO   MAKE  THE   FARM   PAY. 

Wood  ashes  is  a  very  valuable  manure,  and  much  of  it  can  be 
saved  at  home.    They  are  nearly  as  valuable  after  being  leached 
as  before,  if  they  are  used  immediately.     The  longer  they  stand 
after  being  leached  the  less  valuable  they  become.      They  are 
most  valuable  for  sowing  on  grass  lands,  and  for  cereal  grains. 
They   give  stiffness  and  strength  to  the  straw;   one  hundred 
pounds  of  ashes  being  suflacient  for  the  production  of  three 
thousand  pounds  of  good  straw.     When  sown  they  should  be  a 
little  wet,  or  else  sown  on  a  misty,  damp  day,  or  they  will  blow 
away.     When  used  on  potatoes  they  should  be  thrown  evenly 
all  around  the  hill,  where  they  will  reach  all  the  roots.     When 
sown  on  any  root-crops,  care  should  be  taken  to  put  as  little  as 
possible  in  contact  with  the   leaves   or   stems.     There  is   no 
danger  of  using  too  much  ashes;  but  their  use  should  always  be 
accompanied  by  manure,  muck,  or  the  turning  under  of  clover. 
Ashes  mixed  in  the  compost  heap  assist  in  the  decomposition 
of  elements,  which  would  otherwise  be  useless,  without  destroy- 
ing their  efficacy.     We,  therefore,  advise  this  method  of  appli- 
cation, except  when  sown  on  grasses  and  cereal  grains.     Ashes 
give  compactness  to  light,  sandy  soils,  and  render  heavy  clay 
soils  light  and  friable.     About   the  best  use  to  which    ashes 
can  be  put  on  the  farm,  is  in  dissolving  bones.     Put  a  layer 
of  ashes  in  the   bottom   of  a  barrel,  then  a  layer  of  bones, 
then  another  of  ashes,  and  so  on  until  the  barrel  is  full,  then 
keep   the  ashes  wet  with  soap-suds,  but  not  wet   enough  to 
leach. 

Never  deposit  ashes  in  any  bin,  box,  or  barrel,  until  more 
than  a  week  after  they  have  been  taken  from  the  fire.  Many  a 
barn  and  farm-house  has  been  destroyed  by  neglecting  this 
precaution.  The  bottom  of  a  dry  cellar  is  a  good  place  to  keep 
wood  ashes,  but  a  bin  of  brick  or  stone  is  better.  If  put  out 
doors  they  should  be  at  a  distance  from  any  building  or  fence. 


I 


MANURES.  61 

Rnd  covered  with  loose  boards.  Most  insurance  policies  are 
forfeited  by  keeping  ashes  in  wooden  vessels. 

Bones  are  the  very  cream  of  manures.  Our  best  crops  are  all 
the  time  going  into  bones.  Some  way  should  be  contrived  to 
get  it  back.  There  are  large  manufactories  where  bone  dust  is 
prepared,  but  the  best  part  of  the  bone  is  boiled  out,  and  the 
remainder  is  adulterated  with  shells,  lime,  plaster,  marl,  sand, 
etc.,  and  sold  for  sixty  dollars  per  ton.  Never  buy  any  of  this 
stuff.  Put  a  molasses  hogshead  in  your  back  yard,  cover  the 
bottom  with  peat,  muck,  or  mellow  soil,  cover  this  again  with 
ashes  four  or  five  inches  deep,  into  this  throw  all  bones  from 
the  kitchen,  and  all  that  you  can  hire  the  small  boys  to  collect 
for  you  at  ten  or  fifteen  cents  a  bushel.  All  the  large  bonea 
should  be  broken  before  they  are  put  in.  When  there  are  eight 
or  ten  inches  of  bones,  cover  them  with  ashes,  then  soil,  or 
muck,  then  a  thin  spreading  of  plaster.  Let  this  mass  be  wet 
with  soap  suds  occasionally.  The  alkali  of  the  ashes  dissolves 
the  bones,  and  the  muck  and  plaster  absorb  the  gases.  Contract 
at  the  slaughter  house  for  the  skulls  and  other  bones,  and 
furnish  a  sugar  hogshead  to  receive  them. 

When  there  is  a  large  quantity  they  must  be  crushed  by 
machinery,  an  ordinary  grain  mill  with  horses  will  grind  one 
thousand  pounds  per  hour.  The  ground  bone  of  commerce  sells 
for  three  dollars  per  Imndred,  and  the  bones  a  farmer  would 
collect  and  grind  would  be  worth  twice  as  much.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  bones  contain  enough  phosphate  of  lime  for  twelve 
thousand  pounds  of  hay.  The  finer  they  are  ground,  and  the 
more  thoroughly  they  are  mingled  with  the  soil,  the  better. 

Some  farmers  can  secure  spent  tan  bark  near  home,  and  at 
little  expense.  It  should  never  be  used  on  light  or  porous  soils. 
The  true  way  to  use  it  is  as  a  litter.  It  should  be  put  under 
cover  until  dry  and  then  spread  in  the  stables,  or  the  pig  pen. 


62  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

It  will  absorb  and  retain  a  large  amount  of  liquid  manure.  It 
makes  excellent  bedding  for  all  animals  except  sbeep,  as  it  gets 
into  their  wool.  When  used  in  the  piggery  it  makes  a  most 
valuable  top  dressing  for  grass  or  grain.  In  the  preparation  of 
the  soil  for  root-crops,  tan  bark  prepared  in  this  way  will  supply 
an  abundance  of  those  salts  essential  to  their  rapid  and  luxuriant 
growth.  .The  same  remarks  apply  to  saw  dust,  turning  shav- 
ings, planing  mill  shavings,  etc.  They  should  never  be  put  into 
the  stable  wet. 

The  carcases  of  dead  animals  should  never  be  left  for  the 
crows  to  pick.  Cover  the  carcass  six  inches  deep  with  muck, 
and  allow  it  to  decompose,  which  will  take  six  months  or  a 
year.  It  may  be  placed  within  sight  of  the  house,  as,  if  covered 
thoroughly,  the  muck  will  absorb  all  the  ammonia  and  other 
gases.  Watch  it  a  little  at  first,  to  see  that  dogs  and  crows  do 
not  uncover  it.  After  having  lain  through  a  summer,  fork  over 
the  mass,  and  throw  out  the  bones,  add  a  half  bushel  of  plaster 
and  another  load  of  earth,  and  leave  it  another  month  or  two ;  ic 
is  then  fit  for  use  and  worth  more  than  an  equal  bulk  of  barnyard 
manure.     It  should  be  spread  very  thin  and  well  harrowed  in. 

Other  green  crops,  besides  clover,  are  turned  in  for  manure, 
although  we  consider  clover  the  best  when  it  is  to  be  turned  in 
on  the  land  where  it  is  grown.  Indian  corn  and  buckwheat 
come  next  in  value  for  this  purpose.  When  fields  are  at  a 
distance  from  the  barnyard,  this  is  often  a  most  economical 
method  of  manuring.  Four  things  must  be  observed  in  raising 
green  manures.  Those  plants  must  be  used  whose  seed  is 
cheap;  which  are  sure  to  succeed  and  grow  very  fast,  which  are 
deep  rooted,  and  contain  no  substances  which  will  be  injurious 
to  the  succeeding  crop.  Usually  five  or  six  bushels  to  the  acre 
of  lime,  plaster,  or  ashes,  should  be  sown  with  the  seed,  or  just 
before  the  crop  makes  its  appearance  on  the  surface.     Vetch  and 


MANURES.  6H 

while  hipine  are  valuable  oq  all  except  limestone  soils,  turiiips 
are  good  on  all  soils,  either  plowed  under  or  fed  to  sheep  on  the 
»  land,  Spurry  is  valuable  on  sandy  soils,  as  it  grows  fast,  and 
two  or  three  crops  can  be  secured  in  a  season. 

There  are  many  plants  which  can  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
both  annual  and  perennial,  the  latter  having  the  advantage  of 
saving  the  seed  after  the  first  season.  In  plowing  under  crops 
OQ  the  soil  where  they  are  grown,  a  chain  is  attached  to  the  end 
of  the  whiflfletree  of  the  off  horse,  or  if  oxen  are  used,  to  a  stick 
bolted  into  the  plow  beam  for  the  purpose,  and  the  other  end 
hitched  to  the  beam  near  the  standard ;  this  will  draw  the 
plants  into  the  furrow  to  be  covered  up  by  the  furrow  slice. 

We  take  the  following  from  the  transactions  of  the  New 
York  State  Agricultural  Society  on  Husbanding  Manures  : 

"  Where  sufficient  has  been  reserved  for  arable  lands,  barn- 
yard manure  may  be  spread  upon  pastures  and  meadows  under 
the  following  restrictions.  If  spread  early  in  the  spring  on 
pastures  for  immediate  use,  it  should  not  be  the  droppings  of 
that  species  of  animals  intended  to  be  placed  in  the  pastures. 
Coarse  manures  should  never  be  spread  upon  meadows  in  the 
spring.  It  may  be  evenly  spread  on  meadows  any  time  after 
harvest,  and  bushed  in.  When  spread  the  atmosphere  should 
indicate  the  absence  of  high  winds,  the  approach  of  rain,  or 
damp  weather.  On  rapidly  sloping  lands,  a  heavy  top  dressing 
should  be  applied  near  the  summit.  No  manure  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  surface  of  bill-sides  in  winter,  when  the  ground  id 
frozen,  as  it  will  be  likely  to  be  washed  away." 

"  On  farms  whose  principal  staple  is  grain,  where  the  straw 
is  in  excess  in  the  barnyard,  it  should  be  spread  profusely, 
trodden  down  by  the  cattle,  mixed  with  their  droppings,  kept 
moist  with  liquid  manure  from  the  manure  tank,  and  thus 
thoroughly  decomposed  before  it  is  applied  to  the  soil,  else  the 


(34:  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAK.M   PAY. 

Straw  of  the  crop  will  be  in  excess  of  the  grain.  Where  there 
is  a  scarcity  of  straw,  muck,  leaves,  tan  bark,  and  sawdust,  will 
take  its  place  as  absorbents,  and  stall  feeding  resorted  to. 
Where  there  are  many  sheep,  they  should  be  kept  under  sheds, 
with  small  yards  attached. 

"  By  the  use  of  peat,  muck,  etc.,  for  soiling,  the  straw  may  be 
saved  for  food,  cut  up,  mixed  with  feed,  thoroughly  wetted  and 
allowed  to  stand  a  few  hours  before  being  fed,  for  which  pur- 
pose it  is  twice  as  valuable  as  for  litter. 

"  In  this  way  a  larger  number  of  animals  can  be  kept  upon  the 
farm,  and  a  much  larger  mass  of  manure  made.  Ilorn  piths, 
from  the  tanneries,  waste  from  the  woolen  mills,  scraps  from 
the  shoemakers,  charcoal  from  the  pits,  and  all  vegetable  sub- 
stances, should  be  secured  by  the  farmer  for  his  crops." 

It  is  often  desirable  to  use  liquid  manures  for  special  crops, 
gardens,  etc.  It  can  always  be  made  by  soaking  barnyard 
manure  in  several  times  its  bulk  of  water,  or  by  diluting  urine 
with  three  or  four  times  its  bulk  of  water. 

After  having  saved  and  made  the  best  application  of  all  his 
home  manures,  the  farmer  may  be  justified  in  purchasing 
fertilizers  as  aids,  but  seldom  as  a  main  reliance.  When 
tempted  to  pay  sixty  dollars  for  guano,  look  carefully  to  see  if 
the  same  amount  of  money  cannot  be  better  invested  in  the 
barnyard,  in  permanent  improvements  w^hich  will  enable  you, 
for  years  to  come,  to  save  the  liquid  manure.  Where  sixty 
dollars  is  wanted  for  bone  flour,  calculate  if  a  much  better  arti- 
cle than  the  article  of  commerce  cannot  be  made  at  home  for 
less  money.  If  poudrette  calls  for  money,  ask  yourself  if  a  less 
amount  of  money  will  not  make  the  improvements  we  have 
suggested,  by  which  the  privy  and  sink  spout  shall  be  made  to 
contribute  their  valuable  supplies  for  many  years  to  come. 
For  every  dollar  you  think  of  putting  into  super-phosphates, 


MANURES.  65 

can  you  not  haul  a  load  of  muck  to  your  privy,  piggery,  or 
barnyard?  When  you  cannot,  we  recommend  the  use  of 
fertilizers.  We  have  no  doubt  of  their  value  ;  and  first  among 
them,  by  common  consent,  is  guanOy  or  the  droppings  of  sea 
fowl,  which  has  been  accumulating  for  ages  on  certain  islands 
of  the  sea.  In  its  pure  state  it  is  one  of  ihe  most  powerful  of 
fertilizers,  and  should  never  be  ajiplied  successively  to  land, 
unless  with  barnyard  manure  or  green  crops  plowed  under,  as 
it  will  force  such  large  crops  as  to  exhaust  the  soil.  The  best 
and  safest  way  to  apply  guano,  is  to  dissolve  it  in  water,  a  few 
pounds  to  a  barrel  of  water,  and  apply  it  with  a  dipper,  but 
this  cannot  be  done  on  any  extensive  scale,  and  it  must  usually 
be  sprinkled  by  hand.  In  either  case,  care  must  be  taken  that 
it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  leaves  or  stems.  If 
applied  before  planting,  a  handful  should  be  sprinkled  over  an 
area  of  at  least  eighteen  inches,  around  where  the  hills  are  to 
stand,  and  dirt  sprinkled  over  it.  It  is  useless  to  drop  a  hand- 
ful in  a  place  or  to  leave  it  uncovered.  Indeed  it  is  positively 
injurious  when  applied  in  this  way,  and  many  crops  of  Indian 
corn  have  been  spoiled,  and  guano  broifght  into  disrepute  by 
such  a  course.  Many  fields,  at  a  distance  from  the  barnyard, 
may  be  kept  in  a  state  of  fertility  by  the  application  of  guano, 
alternating  with  the  plowing  under  of  clover  or  other  green 
crops.  We  cannot  recommend  the  practice  of  sowing  it  broad- 
cast and  harrowing  it  in  until  it  becomes  much  cheaper  than  ii 
now  is.  Hen  manure  is  of  the  same  nature  as  Peruvian 
guano,  and  when  the  droppings  of  the  hens  are  absorbed  in 
peat  or  muck,  an  article  is  formed  worth  more,  pound  for  pound, 
than  the  adulterated  guano  of  commerce. 

Fish  guano  is  the  product  of  the  millions  of  fish  that  are 
caught  every  year  along  our  coasts,  the  oil  being  extracted 
from  them  by  steam ijig  and  pressure.     It  contains  much  phos- 


,j(3  now    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

phaie  of  lime  and  ammonia;  composted  with  salt  marsli  mud, 
these  fish  are  a  valuable  fertilizer. 

Lime  is  a  necessity  in  Agriculture.  If  the  soil  is  destitute 
of  it,  it  must  be  supplied.  Of  itself  it  gives  no  fertility,  but  it 
assists  in  decomposing  the  organic  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil, 
in  fixing  and  retaining  the  ammonia  of  the  manures,  in  destroy- 
ing the  acidity  of  the  soil,  (the  worst  foe  to  productiveness,)  in 
pulverizing  granitic  soils,  in  lightening  heavy,  clayey,  peaty 
soils,  and  in  other  ways  is  a  valuable  assistant  to  the  farmer. 
When  a  large  amount  is  to  be  used  upon  a  field,  it  may  be 
dropped  in  small  heaps,  and  slacked  by  tlie  air,  rain,  and  dew, 
and  spread  with  shovels,  but  where  only  ten  or  twenty  bushels 
are  applied  to  the  acre,  it  should  be  more  thoroughly  slacked. 
This  may  be  done  by  spreading  it  on  the  cellar  bottom  about 
one  foot  deep,  and  let  it  air-slack  for  a  few  weeks,  forking  it 
over  every  few  days,  and  sprinkling  a  little  water  on  the  large 
chunks.  AVe  advise  spreading  it  on  the  cellar  bottom,  as  much 
the  best  place,  but  if  not  convenient,  a  covered  shed  Avill 
answer  the  purpose.  If  it  is  to  be  sown  with  a  machine,  the 
(lint  and  stones  should  all  be  raked  out.  Cooper's  lime 
spreader,  or  some  other  machine  of  like  character,  spreads  it 
more  evenly  than  it  can  be  done  by  hand,  and  is  equally  useful 
in  sowing  ashes  or  plaster.  {See  fig.  45.)  The  best  plan  is  to 
sow  fresh  slaked  lime,  in  the  finest  possible  condition,  and 
immediately  harrow  it  in  throughly.  Do  not  plow  it  under. 
The  amount  of  lime  to  be  sown  to  the  acre,  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment.  A  few  bushels  to  the  acre  cannot  injure 
any  soil.  On  dry  clay  or  peaty  soils,  it  may  always  be  used 
bountifully  with  good  effect.  Underdraining  is  th,e  first  requi- 
site for  wet  clays  and  manures,  and  fertilizers  are  wasted  until 
this  is  done.  When  the  proportion  of  vegetable  matter  m  a 
soil  is  so  great  that  crops  of  grain  go  mostly  to  straw,  a  liberal 


MANURES.  67 

top  dressing  of  lime  will  rectify  the  evil,  and  improve  both  the 
quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  grain. 

All  old  pastures  and  grass  lands  may  be  improved  by  the 
application  of  lime  or  ashes,  as  a  top  dressing.  Our  western 
prairies,  long  cropped,  will  improve  by  liming.  As  we  have 
said,  when  the  soil  is  acid,  a  liberal  supply  of  lime  will  destroy 
the  acidity,  and  thus  supply  food  for  plants.  It  may  be  applied 
to  potatoes,  and  other  root  crops,  on  almost  any  soil,  with  good 
efiect.  If  lime  is  needed,  and  is  near  at  hand,  supply  it  bounti- 
fully, but  if  lime  is  not  plenty,  apply  a  few  bushels,  say  ten  or 
fifteen  each  year,  rather  than  a  large  amount  at  once.  None  of 
it  will  then  be  lost.  The  heavier  the  soil,  (except  when  wet,) 
the  larger  the  quantity  of  lime  that  may  be  sown.  On  light 
and  sandy  soils,  the  application  of  ten  or  fifteen  bushels  per 
acre  once  in  five  years,  alternating  with  the  plowing  under  of 
green  crops,  is  often  all  the  manuring  that  is  necessary  to  keep 
them  in  fertility,  although  an  occasional  dressing  of  barnyard 
manure,  well  composted  with  muck,  is  still  better.  A  few  cau- 
tions are  necessary  in  regard  to  the  use  of  lime.  Do  not  apply 
water  too  fixst  when  slacking.  Do  not  use  uuslacked  lime. 
Keep  it  near  the  surface.  Mix  it  well  with  the  soil  by  harrow- 
ing. When  applied  to  growing  crops,  be  careful  not  to  bring 
it  in  contact  with  the  leaves  or  stems.  Sprinkle  it  thinly  all 
about  the  plants,  and  not  in  small  heaps. 

Gas  lime,  which  is  often  thrown  away  and  wasted  at  the  works, 
is  the  most  valuable  of  all  fertilizers.  In  compost  with  strawey 
manure,  or  mixed  with  barnyard  manure  when  it  is  applied  to 
the  soil,  it  is  better  than  fresh  lime,  as  it  comes  from  the  puri- 
fiers powdered  and  highly  charged  with  a;nmonia. 

Gypsum,  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphate  of  Lime  ;  substan- 
tially the  same  article  under  three  different  names,  is  an  im- 
portant addition  to  our  already  large  list  of  fertilizers. 


f53  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

It  should  be  ground  very  fine,  the  finer  the  better,  as  it 
must  be  dissolved  before  it  can  aid  the  growth  of  plants.  It  is 
used  as  a  top  dressing  on  pastures,  grass,  grain,  and  growing 
crops.  The  nature  of  the  soil,  as  Avith  other  fertilizers,  deter- 
mines its  value  as  a  fertilizer.  A  soil  already  full  is  not  bene 
fitted  by  more;  an  exhausted  soil  cannot  be  expected  to  be- 
come fertile  by  its  application  alone,  but  it  will  greatly  aid 
barnyard  manure;  cold,  wet  soils  must  be  underdrained  before 
it  will  benefit  them.  But  farms  either  sandy,  gravelly,  or 
loamy,  if  also  well  dunged,  are  greatly  benefitted  by  plastering. 
Manuring  a  poor  soil  with  nothing  but  lime  or  plaster  is  simply 
folly.  Using  plaster  with  manures  is  wisdom.  Do  these  fer- 
tilizers exhaust  the  soil?  *  Such  is  a  very  common  opinion.  We 
reply,  nothing  put  into  a  soil  can  exhaust  it.  It  is  the  increased 
crops  that  are  taken  off  the  soil  that  exhaust  it.  Barnyard 
manure  or  green  crops  should  always  alternate  with  any  of  the 
fertilizers.  Whatever  may  be  the  article;  guano,  bone  flour, 
poudrette,  superphosphate,  or  gypsum;  remember  you  pay  a 
very  large  price  for  a  very  impure  article  and  only  use  it 
where,  after  the  most  careful  economy,  your  home-made  ma- 
nures fail  to  be  sufficient.  In  applying  any  of  these  fertilizers, 
care  should  be  taken  that  they  are  thoroughly  incorporated  into 
the  soil.  Pulverizers,  such  as  efiective  harrows,  clod  crushers, 
and  subsoilers,  assisted  by  thorough  drainage,  may  be  made  of 
greater  benefit  than  all  the  guano  that  is  imported. 

Before  leaving  this  subject,  we  will  give  our  idea  of  the 
proper  formation  of  the  compost  heap.  When  it  is  desirable 
to  form  a  compost  heap  of  weeds,  straAv,  litter,  leaves,  etc.,  with 
muck,  without  the  addition  of  much  dung,  ashes  and  lime,  or 
plaster,  should  be  sprinkled  in  at  the  rate  of  a  bushel  to  each 
layer.  We  recommend  the  long  narrow  heap  rather  than  the 
round  one.     Spread  muck  at  the  bottom  six  inches,  then  litter 


MANURES.  69 

or  yard  manure  six  inches,  sprinkle  witli  plaster,  and  cover 
with  muck.  Continue  this  until  the  pile  is  three  feet  high. 
If  dung  is  added  in  any  large  proportion  it  must  be  forked 
over  to  prevent  heating.  One  cord  of  muck  exposed  for  one 
year  to  the  action  of  air  and  frost,  ten  bushels  leached  ashes 
and  five  bushels  crushed  bones,  is  an  excellent  compost  for  the 
garden  or  orchard.  Any  thing  that  will  decompose  is  valuable 
in  the  compost  heap. 

Our  last  words  on  this  subject  are,  save  every  thing,  solid  or 
liquid,  that  will  make  manure ;  pulverize  it  as  thoroughly  as 
possible,  incorporate  it  thoroughly  with  the  soil,  and  abundant 
crops  will  rise  up  to  reward  you  for  your  care  and  labor. 

NoTK. — The  ashes  should  be  added  to  the  compost  heap,  at  the  last 
forking  over,  just  before  spreading.  If  added  before,  they  will  tend  to 
liberate  valuable  elements  which  will  make  their  escape. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FARM     IMPLEMENTS. 

HE  amount  of  capital  now  invested  in  farm  implements  in 
fiNB  I  the  United  States,  bj  a  reasonable  estimate,  exceeds  five 
(^A^  hundred   million    dollars.      No    argument   therefore    is 

^  needed  to  show  the  importance  of  its  being  well  invested. 
The  difference  in  economy,  between  working  at  a  disadvantage 
with  poor  tools,  and  the  use  of  the  modern  appliances  to  lighten 
labor  and  save  time,  is  clear  to  every  farmer,  of  even  ordinary 
comprehension. 

There  was  a  time  in  the  earlier  history  of  this  courtrj'-,  and  it 
(jontinued  with  little  change  to  within  the  memory  of  persons 
still  living,  when  labor  was  cheap,  when  strong  limbs  and  the 
power  of  endurance  were  the  requisites  chiefly  sought  for  in  the 
man  on  the  farm,  and  when  his  work  was  paid  for  as  so  much 
brute  physical  force.  Thought  and  skill  found  higher  rewards 
in  other  callings,  and  the  practical  farmer  was  held  to  be  suffi- 
ciently well  informed  if  he  was  able  to  hold  a  plow,  to  mow,  to 
sow,  and  to  reap. 

When  labor,  or  the  physical  force  necessary  to  carry  on  the 
simple  operations  of  the  farm,  could  be  obtained  so  easily,  a' 
limited  variety  of  implements  was  enough  to  satisfy  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  times. 

It  was  the  custom  for  years,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  for 
any  one  owning  a  plow  to  go  about  and  do  the  plowing  for 
a  considerable  extent  of  territory.     A  town  often  paid  a  bounty 

70  r  J 


FARM    IMPLEMEN'TS.  71 

to  any  one  who  would  buy  and  keep  a  ])low  in  repair  lor  the 
purpose  of  going  out  to  work  in  this  way.  4'he  old  wooden 
plow  then  in  use  was  so  massive  and  clumsy  that  it  requirei] 
a  strong  and  well  fed  team  to  move  it  through  the  soil;  a  heavy, 
muscular  man  to  press  it  into  the  ground ;  another  to  hold,  jind 
another  to  drive.  Other  implements  were  of  a  similar  rude 
description,  and  the  various  processes  on  the  fai'in'wcrc  conducted 
iu  a  manner  that  was  traditional,  handed  down  from  l\uher  to 
son,  each  one  adhering  to  his  prejudices  in  the  strongest 
manner.  Besides  the  plow  there  was  the  ruae  iind  heavy 
spade,  the  clumsy  wooden  fork,  and  now  and  then  a  harrow. 

As  the  plows  in  use  were  made  chiefly  at  the  bhicksiuitli's 
shop,  without  patterns,  they  assumed  an  almost  infinite  variety 
of  forms,  scarcely  any  two  being  precisely  alike.  Still,  now 
and  then  a  maker  of  a  little  more  than  ordinary  skill  would  gain 
a  local  reputation  which,  in  some  cases,  spread  bevoiid  the 
limits  of  his  native  village,  and  toso;ne  extent  over  the  country. 
Kence  we  hear  of  the  "  Carey  plow,"  in  somewhat  general 
use,  the  particular  form  varying  almost  as  much  as  the  skill 
and  efficiency  of  each  small  manufacturer  or  blacksmith  wliw 
made  it.  This  had  a  clumsy  wrought  iron  share,  a  standard 
made  of  wood,  and  a  wooden  mould  board,  often  plated  over  in 
a  rough  manner  -with  pieces  of  tin,  sheet-iron,  or  pieces  of  old 
saw  plates.  The  handles  were  upright,  and  held  in  place  l)y 
two  pins.  A  powerful  man  was  required  to  hold  it,  and  at 
least  double  the  strength  of  team  now  used  to  do  the  same  or 
better  work.  The  "  bar-side  plow  "  and  the  "  bull  plow"  were 
other  forms  that  gained  some  general  reputation,  while  the 
"shovel  plow"  was  in  use  in  the  Southern  States.  In  this,  a 
rough  hewn  stick  served  for  a  beam,  with  another  stick  framed 
into  it,  upon  the  end  of  which  a  piece  of  iron,  sliapod  like  a 
sharp  pointed  shovel,  was  fastened.     Two  rcjugh  handles  were 


72  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

nailed  or  pinned  to  the  sides  of  the  beam,  with  a  draught  iron 
at  the  forward  end  of  the  beam.  This  plow,  in  a  greatly 
improved  form,  is  still  extensively  used  there.     {Fig.  20.) 

In  attempting  to  convey  some  idea  of  the  wonderful  improve- 
ments which  have  been  effected  in  the  implements  of  the  farm 
within  the  last  fifty  years,  it  will  be  convenient  to  group  them 
under  several  heads,  according  to  the  work  they  are  designed 
to  accomplish;  such  as  the  Cleaning  and  Preparation  of  the 
Land,  Sowing  the  Seed,  and  Harvesting  the  Crops. 

Implements  fos  Preparing  the  Land. — The  preparation 
of  land  for  crops  varies  with  the  state  and  character  of  the 
soil,  the  object  being,  in  all  cases,  to  secure  a  texture,  or 
mechanical  condition,  most  favorable  to  plant  growth.  The 
soil  must  be  mellow,  so  that  the  roots  and  the  air  can  penetrate 
it  freely.  The  processes  most  commonly  required  are  clearing, 
draining,  ploughing,  harrowing,  and  rolling,  (for  which  the 
contrivance  shown  at^ij.  21  is  very  convenient.) 

Clearing  is  required  in  a  new  country,  or  where  new  land  or 
woodland  is  to  be  cultivated.  Cutti^ig  down  and  removing  the 
timber  and  brushwood  is  simple  enough,  but  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty has  always  been  to  free  the  land  from  stumps  and  stones, 
which  often  present  very  serious  obstacles  to  after  cultivation, 
increasing  the  labor  and  expense  at  every  step.  Various  simple 
powers  have  been  devised  to  effect  this  end,  by  means  of  which 
a  powerful  leverage,  or  purchase,  is  gained,  so  as  to  raise  a 
stump  or  a  stone  of  several  tons  weight  with  comparative  ease. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  cheapest  forms  of  the  stump  puller 
is  shown  in  the  annexed  cut.  [Fij.  22.)  For  stumps  of  ordinary 
size  it  is  very  convenient.  It  is  so  well  illustrated  as  hardly  to 
need  any  explanation.  For  pulling  the  tangled  masses  of 
roots  of  bushes,  etc.,  a  simple  and  powerful  grapple  is  very 
n.seful.     {Fig.  23.) 


I 


F',(j.  20.     Shovel  Tloav. 


J^-^ 


-     Tl 


*^:^**iifei;«>#i^i|- 


ii'/*/.   21.      TKEE   SaAVIXO    M.\(  hi\7-. 
73 


4 
FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  75 

For  lifting  and  removing  stones,  we  have  found  nothing  equal 
to  the  Stone  Lifter,  as  shown  in  the  adjoining  figure.     Fi<j.  24. 

This  machine  is  easier  to  manage  and  less  wearing  upon  the 
team  than  the  two-wheel  machine,  while  the  double  gearing  at 
liie  top  gives  it  great  power.  We  have  seen  a  lad  of  fifteen 
lift  a  stone  of  three  tons  from  its  natural  bed  with  this  power- 
ful machine,  while  a  single  yoke  of  cattle  was  sufficient  to 
move  it  off  to  be  dumped  into  the  foundation  of  a  wall  or  else- 
where. The  two-wheeled  lifters,  when  heavily  loaded  and 
moving  over  uneven  surfaces,  cause  unnecessary  wear  and  tear 
upon  the  cattle.  There  is  no  patent  npon  this  arrangement 
The  castings  are  easily  made,  and  the  wheels  and  wood  work 
can  be  constructed  by  any  wheelwright  or  carpenter. 

T!ie  next  operation  in   the  way  of  preparing  the  soil  for  cul- 
I    tivation  is  that  of  drainage,  which  lies  at  the  very  foundation 
'    of  all  good  husbandry  on  many  classes  of  soils  which  are  sub- 
jected to  tillage.      The  importance  of  drainage,  the   various 
processes  b}'  which  it  is  to  be  effected,  the  implements  required, 
are  fully  explained  in  the. chapter  devoted  to  the  subject. 

Plows  and  Plowing. — We  come  now  to  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  operations  of  the  farm,  that  of  plowing, 
and  here  it  is  that  the  earliest  improvements  of  modern 
agricultural  mechanics  have  been  displayed.  The  Plow  has 
probably  passed  through  more  changes  and  transformations 
than  any  other  implement  of  the  farm.  It  has,  from  tlie  first 
dawn  of  civilization,  been  regarded  as  the  emblem,  the  great 
central  figure  and  type  of  agriculture,  and,  indeed,  of  civiliza- 
tion itself.  The  fact  that  the  anci':Mits  had  many  forms  of  the 
plow,  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  uses,  shows  the  estima 
tion  in  which  it  was  held  as  compared  with  all  other  imple- 
ments, for  simple  and  rude  as  its  construction  must  have  been, 
as  compared  with  the  higlily  finished  plows  of  our  own  times. 


* 
76  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

we  know  that  they  had  plows  with  colters  and  without,  witti 
wheels  and  without  them,  with  mould  boards  and  without  them, 
with  broad  painted  shares  and  with  narrow  ones,  plows 
adapted  to  light  soils,  and  others  adapted  to  clays. 

The  Koman's  idea  of  a  plow  Avas  that  of  a  movable  wedg^, 
but  he  did  not  comprehend  the  necessity  of  combining  the 
principles  of  the  wedge  and  the  screw  which  modern  science 
has  applied  to  the  mould-board,  and  on  which  most  of  its  im- 
provements have  been  based. 

It  is  apparent  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  draught  of 
the  plow,  or  the  strength  of  team  required,  is  due  to  friction 
in  the  soil.  The  cutting,  raising,  and  turning  over  of  the  turf, 
are  comparatively  easy  if  the  mould-board  is  properly  con- 
structed. The  friction  itself  is  somewhat  increased,  to  be  sure, 
by  the  weight  of  the  plow,  and  this  in  turn  is  somewhat  in- 
creased by  the  weight  of  the  furrow  slice  as  it  is  lifted  from  its 
bed,  but  the  draught  is  not  increased  by  an  increase  of  speed, 
since  this  does  not  add  to  the  friction,  which  remains  nearly  the 
same  on  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  on  the  land  -side  and 
between  the  furrow  slice  and  the  mouldtboard,  whether  the 
motion  be  fast  or  slow.  Now  modern  improvement  has  aimed 
to  overcome  the  friction  and  resistance  by  an  improved  con- 
struction of  the  mould-board,  and  by  the  use  of  better  mate- 
rials, for  it  is  now  well  settled,  by  practical  experiment,  that 
the  draught  depends  l^ss  on  the  weight  of  the  plow  itselr 
than  on  its  constructian.  The  draught  is  not  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  of  weight,  and  hence,  though  some  have 
objected  that  our  modern  plows  were  too  heavy,  as  'com- 
pared with  those  in  use  half  a  century  ago,  it;  is  universally 
admitted  that  they  require  much  less  strength  of  team  to  do  far 
better  work. 

"Every  farmer  is  aware  that   no  one  form  of  plow  can  be 


A', 


F'kj.  22.     Stump  Puller. 


^m^ 


F'kj.  24.    Stoxe  Lifter. 


77 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  7d 

adapted  lo  all  circumstances.  The  form,  size,  weight,  and 
material,  must  necessarily  vary  with  the  infinite  variety  of 
soils  and  situations  where  a  plow  is  to  be  used.  Science,  to 
be  sure,  has  demonstrated  that  "the  mould-board  should  be 
composed  of  straight  lines  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  with 
continually  increasing  angles  to  the  line  of  the  furrows,  and 
these  lines  are  severally  straight,  convex,  and  concave,"  and 
Ransome,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  modern  plow 
makers,  says  of  the  rule :  "Although  no  one  form  of  mould- 
board  will  or  can  be  applicable  to  every  variety  of  soil  and 
circumstance,  there  is  no  description  oi  soil  for  which  a  perfect 
mould-board  may  not  be  made  by  this  rule  in  some  of  its  modi- 
ficatious."  Many  plow  manufacturers  in  this  country  mako 
a  great  variety,  some  as  many  as  a  thousand  or  twelve  hundred 
different  kinds  and  sizes,  and  on  more  man  a  hundred  different 
and  well  defined  principles.  It  is  quite  impossible,  of  course, 
to  do  justice  to  them  all  by  even  an  allusion  to  their  compara- 
tive meritv*.  A  plow  best  adapted  to  breaking  sod  land  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  be  best  adapted,  also,  to  plowing 
stubble,  and  the  best  stubble  plow  would  not,  perhaps,  be  a 
good  sod  plow.  Still,  some  plows,  though  not  the  best  at 
either,  are  very  good  at  both.  In  other  words,  some  are 
adapte  1  to  a  wider  range  of  circumstances,  and,  as  the  farmer 
cannot  always  have  both,  it  is  often  the  best  economy  to  choose 
one  that  will  do  good  work  in  a  great  variety  of  soils,  one  that 
is  well  adapted  to  the  widest  range  of  usefulness. 

Among  the  plows  eminently  adapted  to  the  general  pur- 
poses of  farm  work,  that  known  as  the  "  Doe  Plow"  has 
reached  a  high  degree  of  popularity  in  many  parts  of  New 
England.  This  favorite  plow  was,  at  first,  manufactured  at 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  but  is  now  made  by  Whittemore, 

"Belcher  &  Co.,  at  Chicopee  Falls,  Massachusetts.     It  received 
6 


so  now    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

tlic  first  premium  of  the  New  England  Agricultural  Society,  at 
Providence,  in  1867,  as  a  just  recognition  of  its  quality  as  a 
plow  for  general  work. 

The  series  of  plows  known  as  the  Deep  Tiller,  {fig  26,) 
now  manufactured  by  the  Ames  Plow  Company,  of  Boston,  is 
designed  to  embrace  a  variety  of  sizes  and  forms  of  the  mould- 
board,  adapted  to  every  kind  of  soil  and  peculiarity  of  a  varied 
agriculture. 

The  mould  board  is  formed  by  a  series  of  straight  lines,  hori- 
zontally or  in  the  direction  of  the  movement  of  the  furrow 
slice,  but  admits  of  all  the  variations  required  to  produce  a 
longer  or  a  shorter  mould-board,  of  a  gentler  or  a  more  abrupt 
curvature,  with  straight  or  more  or  less  concave  lines  laterally, 
as  different  soils  or  practices  may  demand.  The  mould-boards 
have  a  combination  of  curved  lines  and  planes,  having  aia  equal 
bearing  upon  the  furrow  slice,  and  receiving  an  even  polish 
upon  their  entire  face,  giving  the  furrow  slice  an  equal  and 
complete  twist  in  turning  over,  laying  it  in  the  desired  position, 
and  in  a  mellow  and  disintegrated  condition  for  the  reception 
of  the  harrow. 

For  stubble  land  and  stiff  soils  the  same  firm  manufacture 
what  is  known  as  the  "  Telegraph  No.  3,"  {Jig.  27,)  which  is 
considered  an  improvement  upon  the  Deep  Tiller,  in  the  form 
of  the  standard  mould-board,  and  in  securing  the  beam  to  the 
plow  by  a  clasp  instead  of  a  bolt.  This  plow  cuts  a  furrow 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  wide  and  eight  inches  deep,  lay- 
ing it  flat  and  smooth.  Both  these  plows  received  the  highest 
premium  of  the  New  England  Agricultural  Society  at  the  trial 
of  plows  at  Amherst,  in  May,  1868,  as  the  best  in  their  re- 
spective classes. 

Another  form  of  mould-board  is  found  in  Allen's  "Cylinder 
Plow."     {Fig.  28.) 


Foj.  -I').    DoK  Tlow, 


•n^^^ 


'WC>U\-KHll« 


Foj.  2G.    Deei'  TiLLEii  Plow 


Fig.  -21.    Telegraph  Plow. 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  83 

Here  a  second  or  smaller  front  plow  is  attached  to  ilie 
plain  cylinder  plow.  By  this  arrangement  the  top  sod  is  first 
cut  and  thrown  into  the  furrow,  where  it  is  completely  covered, 
leaving  the  plowed  surface  light  and  easily  worked  by  the 
harrow  into  a  mellow  seed  bed.  It  gives  a  general  idea  of 
what  is  known  as  the  Michigan  or  double  mould-board  plow. 
The  mould-board  is  made  of  a  curvature  to  fit  a  perfect 
cylinder,  and  the  plow  is  named  from  the  principles  on  which 
it  is  constructed. 

The  "  Conical  Plow,"  invented  and  made  by  Solomon  Mead, 
a  practical  plowman,  of  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  is  another 
instance  of  the  adaptation  of  the  various  parts  of  the  plow  to 
mathematical  principles.    {Fig.  29.) 

The  mould-board  is  made  to  fit  the  frustrum  of  a  cone  with  the 
base  or  larger  end  forward.  A  block  of  wood,  rounded  ofl:'  in 
the  form  of  a  cone,  will  fit  closely  to  the  surface  of  the  mould- 
board  from  the  highest  point  to  within  about  two  inches  <.»f  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  wing  of  the  share.  The  angle  of  the  share, 
for  two  or  three  inches  of  the  cutting  edges,  is  so  slight  that 
some  inches  of  the  furrow  slice  are  completely  separated  before 
it  rises  much.  This  gives  an  easy  separation  of  the  furrow 
slice,  since  it  rises  slowly  and  gradually  at  first  till  it  reaches  a 
point  higher  up  on  the  mould-board,  where  a  more  abrupt 
curve  hastens  it  over.     {Fig.  30.) 

By  this  form  of  the  mould- board,  the  furrows  are  more 
thoroughly  pulverized  and  crumbled  up,  than  when  the  board 
is  made  to  fit  the  straight  surface  of  a  cylinder.  The  surface 
of  the  board  of  the  conical  plow  is  neither  concave  nor  con- 
vex in  a  horizontal  plane,  so  that  the  friction  between  the  board 
and  the  furrow  slice  is  uniform,  no  greater  in  one  place  than 
another.  It  cleans,  therefore,  more  readily  than  a  concave 
board  can  do,  and  the  wear  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  su: 


34  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

face.  The  draught  of  this  plow  is  easy,  and  in  light  and 
medium  soils  it  leaves  the  surface  eyen  and  mellow.  Being 
short  on  the  sole  it  is  well  adapted  to  stony  land.  It  is  remark- 
ably evenly  balanced,  and  in  stubble  land  it  scarcely  requires 
holdino-.  This  shows  the  plow  to  be  made  on  true  mechanical 
principles. 

A  plow  has  been  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  opening 
drills  to  plant  corn  or  potatoes,  and  for  ridging  up  for  certain 
kinds  of  vegetables  or  root-crops.  {Fig.  31.)  It  is  a  double 
mould-board,  as  shown  in  the  foregoing  cut,  and  throws  the 
furrow  out  both  ways.  It  has  often  been  found  convenient  in 
digging  potatoes. 

A  plow  is  often  required  for  side  hills,  or  rough  and  un- 
even land  where  the  ordinary  plow  cannot  readily  be  worked. 

"What  is  called  the  Swivel  plow,  {jig.  32,)  is  used  for  this 
purpose,  the  mould-board  being  constructed  double,  and  so  as  to 
revolve  from  one  side  of  the  standard  and  beam  to  the  other, 
making  a  right  or  left  hand  plow  at  pleasure,  while  the  team  is 
in  the  act  of  turning  at  the  end  of  the  land.  The  hook  being 
lifted  it  turns  of  itself,  or  with  only  a  slight  efibrt,  from  one 
side  to  the  other.  The  plowman  may  begin  on  the  lower  edge 
of  a  side  hill,  and  turn  his  furrows  all  down  the  slope,  or  he 
may  begin  on  one  side  of  a  level  field,  and  lay  his  furrows  all 
one  way,  and  so  avoid  the  dead  furrow  in  the  centre  and  the 
ridging  on  the  sides.  Now  that  the  mowing  machine  has  be- 
come so  universal,  it  is  quite  important  to  keep  the  land  level, 
and  hence  the  Swivel  plow  is  coming  into  general  use  upon 
well  managed  farms. 

This  plough,  manufactured  by  the  Ames  Plow  Company  of 
Boston,  received  the  medal,  or  highest  premium,  of  the  Ne«r 
England  Agricultural  Society,  at  the  great  plow  trial  at  Am 
herst,  in  1868. 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  8'^ 

In  a  fine,  sticky  mould,  like  the  black  friable  soils  ol  the 
prairies  of  the  West,  none  but  steel  plows  can  be  used,  for  ilio 
reason  that  no  others  will  "scour,"  or  run  clear.  In  some 
sections  the  soil  seems  like  putty  in  its  adhesive  properties, 
while  often  a  very  fine  quartz  sand  will  rough  up  the  polished 
surface  of  even  a  steel  plow,  if  made  of  ordinary  sheet  or 
cast  steel,  and  not  high  tempered  or  sufficiently  hardened. 

Sheet  steel  plows  have,  therefore,  been  in  use  on  the 
prairies  of  Illinois  and  other  adjoining  States  for  the  last  forty 
years,  having  been  introduced  as  a  matter  of  necessity.  The 
first  steel  plow  was  made  there  by  John  Lane,  near  Lockport, 
Illinois,  the  sheet  being  taken  from  saw- mill  Saws  and  welded 
together  to  get  a  sheet  broad  enough  for  a  mould-board.  This 
plow  scoured  in  the  heavier  prairie  soils,  and  was  a  great 
and  decided  advance  upon  all  iron  and  wooden  mould-boards 
hitherto  in  use.  Sheets  of  spring  or  blistered  steel  we^e  after- 
wards rolled  out,  and  thousands  of  j^lows  were  made  from 
them,  the  plow  makers  forming  them  with  the  hammer  on  the 
anvil. 

But  even  cast  steel  plows  made  in  this  manner  were  found 
to  be  defective.  They  could  not  be  uniformly  tempered.  Many 
of  them,  therefore,  would  not  scour  perfectly  and  run  clean 
The  process  of  hammering,  rolling,  and  bending,  would  produce 
a  strain  upon  the  fibre  of  the  steel.  It  would  stay  in  .sliape 
only  while  it  was  cold.  It  would  warp  while  heating  to  get 
the  requisite  temper,  and  warp  still  more  while  cooling  off' again. 
Very  few,  therefore,  could  be  brought  to  a  sufficient  temper  for 
a  good  scouring  plow,  so  that  even  if  it  could  stand  the  heat  to 
produce  a  proper  temper,  the  warping  would  ruin  the  form,  so 
that  the  sections  of  the  plows  could  not  be  duplicated,  which  is 
requsite  in  order  to  supply  new  shares  in  place  of  those  broken 
or  worn  out. 


P6  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE   FARM  PAY. 

To  remedy  these  defects,  a  most  important  invention  waa 
made  by  Mr.  F.  F.  Smith,  of  Illinois,  in  1860,  that  of  casting 
plo^Y3  from  molten  steel  in  iron  moulds,  a  process  which  was 
adopted  by  the  Collins  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Collinsville, 
Connecticut,  the  same  year.  It  was  a  process  of  casting  cast 
steel,  and  hence  the  plows  are  known  as  cast-cast  steel  plows. 
{Fig.  34.) , 

Being  cast  to  form,  they  will  keep  that  form  after  receiving 
the  highest  temper.  They  can,  therefore,  easily  be  duplicated 
from  molten  cast  steel.  This  process  forms  a  hardened 
cast  steel  plow  that  the  quartz  sand,  found  in  many  prairie 
soils,  does  not  scratch.  The  sections  receive  their  temper 
kindly,  because  the  metal  is  "  set"  in  the  iron  moulds  into  which 
it  is  poured,  and  where  it  has  no  strain  upon  its  fibre.  They 
do  not  warp  in  heating  or  in  cooling,  so  that  the  parts  are 
duplicated  perfectly.  A  cast-cast  steel  plow  has  all  the  ad- 
vantages of  cast  iron,  and  hardened  cast  steel  combined. 

The  Collins  plow,  though  a  comparatively  recent  invention, 
has  rapidly  gained  popularity  and  favor,  especially  on  the 
prairie  farms  of  the  AVest.  When  tempered  hard,  it  never  clogs, 
but  clears  perfectly  in  sticky  soils,  and  hence  its  draught  is  light 
and  easy.  So  far  as  its  form  and  mechanical  finish  are  con 
cerned,  it  is  all  that  could  be  desired.     {Fig.  85.) 

Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  Collins  cast-cast  steel 
plow,  are:  First^  that  it  will  last  much  longer  than  any  other 
steel  plow.  Sheet  steel  is  often  "  cut  through"  after  a  short 
wear  in  gritty  soils:  Second^  that  it  will  scour  in  the  most  difii- 
cult  soils,  where  other  plows  fail,  the  extreme  hardness  ot  the  steel 
preventing  all  scratching,  atid  the  high  polish  enabling  it  to 
shed  the  mould,  however  sticky  it  may  be :  Third,  that  it  draws 
one  fifth  lighter  than  other  plows  cutting  the  same  width  and 
flepth :  Fourth,  that  the  share  can  be  sharpened,  or  a  new  steel 


Fig.  28.    Allex-:^  Cylixdek  Tloav, 


Fig,  30.    CoNICi^x  Plow. 

87 


I 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS.  89 

point  welded  on  as  readily  as  on  the  ordinary  plow,  hy  any 
blacksmith,  the  steel  being  perfectly  malleable,  and  working 
kindly:  Fifth,  that  any  section  can  be  duplicated  or  replaced, 
the  share,  land-side,  and  mould-board,  being  cast  in  moulds. 

Though  absolutely  essential  to  the  prairie  soils  of  the  "West,  a 
steel  plow  is  equally  servicable  on  many  other  soils,  and  many 
think  it  superior  on  account  of  its  greater  lightness  of  weight 
and  of  draught. 

The  Subsoil  Plow.  It  is  often  desirable  to  break  up  and 
loosen  the  subsoil,  to  a  greater  depth  than  can  be  done  with  the 
common  plow,  without  bringing  it  up  to  the  surface  where  its 
effect  would  be  injurious  to  vegetation.  This  loosening  up 
admits  the  air  and  the  surface  water  to  work  down  through  the 
lower  strata,  and  so  gradually  to  improve  the  whole  soil.  To 
effect  this  often  a  subsoil  plow  is  used  to  follow  in  the  furrow 
of  the  common  plow.     {Fig.  36.) 

Subsoil  plows  are  of  various  forms,  the  general  principle  of 

I    the  wedge  being  adopted  in  them  all.     Sometimes  the  same 

object  is  effected  by  a  subsoil  attachment  to  the  ordinary  plow. 

i     In  drained  soils,  and  in  soils  where  a  hard  pan  has  been  formed 

'     just  below  the  action  of  the  common  plow,  subsoiling  is  highly 

beneficial. 

A  large  variety  of  plows  are  exhibited  and  advertised  by 
inventors  and  manufacturers.  We  can  only  name  those  we  deem 
the  best.  Dreere's  steel  plow,  manufactured  at  Moline,  Illinois, 
{Jig.  37,)  has  many  good  qualities,  and  the  prairie  fixrmer  will 
not  go  amiss  in  purchasing  it ;  a  curved  iron  beam  plow,  is  a 
late  improvement  by  the  same  firm.  Dr.  C.  W.  Grant,  the 
veteran  grape  culturist  of  Ionia,  New  York,  has  perfected  a 
series  of  trenching  plows,  which,  for  preparing  ground  for  root 
crops,  and  particularly  for  orcliards  and  market  gardening,  are 
exceedingly  valuable. 


90  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

Skinner's  Gang  Plow.  In  the  wheat  regions  of  the  West, 
and  in  California,  the  Gang  Plow  has  been  introduced  and 
worked  to  advantage.  This  is  an  arrangement  by  Avhich  one, 
two,  or  more  mould-boards  are  attached  to  a  frame  with  wheels, 
filfe  plowman  riding  on  a  sulky  seat.     {Fig.  38.) 

Skinner's  Gang  Plow,  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best, 
met  with,  eminent  success  last  season,  giving  great  satisfaction 
in  many  sections  of  the  country.  This  machine  is  manufac- 
tured by  the  Ames  Plow  Company,  of  Boston.  With  two 
mould-boards,  it  requires  three  or  four  horses,  which  are 
worked  abreast.  The  point  of  draught  can  be  regulated  to 
accommodate  the  team,  and  there  is  no  side  or  down  draught  on 
the  pole.  The  plow  can  also  be  set  to  run  deep  or  shallow,  and 
be  changed  in  a  moment  without  stopping. 

The  Steam  Plow.  The  efforts  made  within  a  few  years  to 
introduce  the  steam  plow  upon  the  prairie  soils  of  the  West, 
have  not  proved  successful.  Several  trials  have  been  made  in 
the  last  ten  years,  chiefly  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  but  they  have 
been  abandoned,  and  nothing  of  any  practical  importance  has 
come  of  them.  The  success  attending  similar  efforts  in  Eng- 
land, has  been  due  to  the  use  of  fixed  engines,  working  the 
'iommon  plow  by  means  of  wire  cables.  Iron  machinery,  coal, 
and  labor,  are  cheaper  there  than  in  this  country ;  and  the  same 
appliances  that  might  be  economical  there,  would  perhaps  result ' 
in  failure  here,  so  far  as  the  saving  of  any  expense  is  concerned. 
Intelligent,  practical  farmers,  have,  at  any  rate,  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  inventions  offered  to  the  country  possess  no 
economical  advantages  over  the  simple  implements  now  in  use. 

The  opinion  is  however  still  entertained,  that  steam  plowing 

ought  to  be  practicable  upon  the  broad  stoneless  prairies  of  the 

West,  and  that  it  is  destined,  ultimately,  to  come  into  use  there 

Comstock's  Rotary  Spader.    In  the  Rotary  Spader,  a  dif 


Fi'j.  o±    sAvivEL  Plow. 


Fig.  33.    Iron  Beam  Plotv. 


FARM    nirLEMEXTS.  9c5 

ferout  principle  is  attempted.  Instead  of  plowing,  tlie  Spader 
i  is  designed  to  dig  up  ana  loosen  the  earth  to  a  sufficient  depth. 
This  has  not  as  yet  succeeded  to  any  extent  in  this  country, 
unless  we  except  the  machine  invented  for  this  purpose  by 
[Ion.  Cicero  Comstock,  of  Milwaukee.  Ilis  machine  is  some- 
vhat  complex  and  expensive,  but  it  has  been  introduced  into 
some  parts  of  the  West,  more  especially  in  Illinois,  where  it  is 
said  to  have  been  used  with  some  satisfaction. 

In  a  clear,  friable  soil,  the  Spader  will  dig  up  a  strip  of  land, 
three  feet  wide,  to  the  depth  of  eight  inches,  and  with  a  power 
of  two  or  four  horses,  will  spade  about  six  acres  a  day.  It 
seems  probable  that  a  digger,  in  some  form,  will  eventually 
supersede  the  plow,  as  it  appears  to  be  more  philosophically 
adapted  to  the  end  in  view.  It  is  proper  to  say,  that  Comstock's 
Spader  made  a  successful  trial  at  Paris  in  1867,  and  that  it  is 
now  being  introduced  into  France,  Belgium,  und  Great  Britain, 
as  the  result  of  its  success. 

Harrows.  The  harrow  naturally  follows  the  plow,  and  its 
object  is  to  effect  a  more  complete  pulverization  of  the  soil.  It 
has,  till  quite  recently,  undergone  less  changes  and  modifica- 
tions than  most  other  farm  implements ;  and,  in  fact,  many 
forms  of  the  wooden  harrow  bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  ancients,  as  illustrated  on  medals  and  sculptures.  Though 
simple,  the  harrow,  if  properly  constructed  and  worked,  is 
hardly  less  important  than  the  plow  itself. 

The  triangular  harrow  is,  perhaps,  the  most  common.  Tbe 
Geddes  Harrow,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  cut,  is  a  modification 
of  it.  It  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  frame  work,  joined  by  hinges 
in  the  centre,  so  as  to  adapt  itself  easily  to  uneven  surfaces. 
One  side  can  be  raised  to  pass  an  obstruction  without  stopping 
the  team,  and  without  interfering  with  the  operation  of  tho 
other  half.     Each    tooth    makes  its  own   impression,  and   the 


94  now  TO  :^iAKE  the  farm  pat. 

extent  and  effectiveness  of  the  work  is  dependent  in  part  upon 
tlie  number  of  teeth,  which  vary  from  twenty  to  fifty.  {Fig.  89.) 
The  Hinge  Harrow.  The  improved  Hinge  Harrow  is  an 
effective  implement  in  breaking  up  clods,  disengaging  roots, 
and  pulverizing  the  soil.  It  is  usually  made  so  as  to  take  a 
breadth  of  five  feet.     {Fig.  40.) 

Two  pieces  of  framework  are  connected  by  iron  hinges,  in 
the  form  of  common  barn  door  hinges,  extending  across  the 
frame,  and  bolted  to  each  bar,  helping  to  strengthen  the  whole. 
This  harrow  may  be  folded  double,  or  separated  into  two  parts 
for  transportation  or  other  purposes.  Take  the  Geddes  Harrow, 
either  side  may  be  lifted,  and  it  easily  adapts  itself  to  uneven 
surfaces,  as  in  passing  through  hollows,  and  over  knolls  or 
ridges,  so  that  it  is  always  at  work.  It  usually  contains  thirty 
teeth,  so  arranged  that  they  are  not  liable  to  clog.  Thu  frame 
is  made  of  white  oak  bars,  three  inches  square.  It  may  be 
drawn  by  either  end,  so  as  to  relieve  the  wear  on  the  teeth. 

This,  like  any  other  harrow,  should  be  moved  rapidly  over 
the  ground.  A  light,  sharp-toothed  harrow,  moved  quickly, 
accomplishes  far  the  best  work.  The  work  of  the  same  im- 
plement, moved  quickly  or  sluggishly  over  the  ground,  differs 
widely  in  its  results.  The  implement  should  therefore  be  com- 
pact in  form,  not  too  light,  and  furnished  with  sharp  steel- 
Dointed  teeth. 

Shares'  Harrow.  For  some  purposes,  the  form  known  as 
Shares'  Harrow,  is  superior  to  all  others.  The  advantage  of 
this  lies  in  the  form  of  the  colters,  which  are  broad  thin  blades 
of  cast  iron;  or,  what  is  far  better,  of  steel,  because  lighter,  less 
easily  broken,  and  less  liable  to  wear  dull.  These  teeth,  or 
colters,  incline  forward,  which  prevents  clogging  with  grass 
roots,  stones,  or  clods.  There  is  a  mould-board  attached  to 
and  forming  the  lower  end  of  the  colter.     This  harrow  is  six 


Fig.  34,    Collins  Plow. 


Fig.  Bo.    CoLLixs  Plow. 


VV«i^>*''-»  * 


Fig.  3G.     Subsoil  Plow. 

95 


FAUM    niPLEMEXTS.  97 

feet  wide  when  expanded,  but  may  be  closed  up  to  two  feet,  for 
transportation.  It  is  usually  made  seven  feet  long,  and  weigbs 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.     {Fig.  41.) 

For  pulverizing  the  surface  of  sod  land  we  have  found  no 
harrow  equal  to  this.  The  sharp  flat  blades,  or  teeth,  sloping 
backward  like  a  sled  runner,  cut  the  soil  very  effectively,  pass 
over  and  press  down  the  sod,  while,  at  the  same  time,  shaving 
off  and  grinding  up  finely  the  upper  surface.  A  single  passage 
of  this  implement  will  mellow  the  surface  more  than  twice  as 
deeply  as  the  ordinary  harrow;  acting  also  like  a  roller,  to 
press  and  keep  down  the  grassy  sod. 

Several  forms  of  rotary  harrows  have  been  invented,  but 
arc  not  likely  to  come  into  general  use. 

Horse  IIoes  and  Cultivators.  Anothei  class  of  imple- 
ments combine  the  principles  of  the  plow  and  the  hairow. 
These  are  the  Horse  Hoes  and  the  Cultivators,  which  have  ren- 
dered very  important  aid  both  in  the  original  preparation  of 
the  soil,  and  the  after- cultivation  between  the  rows  of  corn  or 
other  crops.     {Fig.  42.) 

One  of  the  most  useful  of  these  is  known  as  Knox's  patent, 
as  made  by  the  Ames  Plow  Company,  of  Boston.  It  is  de- 
signed to  hoe  or  cultivate  corn  and  root  crops,  cotton,  and  the 
hoed  crops  generally.  It  is  very  light,  und  easily  managed, 
with  the  draught  of  one  horse,  and  thoroughly  pulverizes  the 
surface,  cutting  up  weeds,  grass,  etc.  It  is  steadied  by  a  forward 
tooth,  or  colter,  the  two  middle  teeth  being  miniature  plows, 
which  are  easily  changed  from  one  side  to  the  other,  turning 
the  earth  from,  or  towards  the  rows,  as  may  be  desired. 

The  frequent  use  of  the  cultivator  among  hoed  or  drilled 
crops,  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended.  It  is  the  easiest  and 
quickest  way  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  It  has  been  said,  with 
much  show  of  truth,  that  one  day's  work  in  the  cornfield,  with 


98  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FAEM   PAY. 

a  horse  and  cultivator,  is  wortli  ten  with  the  hand  hoe,  and  if 
the  farmer  would  use  it  oftener,  as  often  as  once  a  week  in  a 
dry  time,  he  would  find  it  pay  in  the  result  of  the  crop.  To 
facilitate  this  work,  the  rows,  of  course,  should  run  even  and 
straight. 

The  Sulky  Cultivator  {fig.  43)  has  been  gaining  in  favor  for  the 
last  few  years,  and  will  very  soon,  no  doubt,  come  into  general 
use,  as  its  advantages  in  cultivating  corn  on  a  large  scale  become 
more  and  more  apparent.  The  driver  is  furnished  with  a  seat 
sufficiently  high  to  be  in  full  view  of  his  work,  the  forward 
shovels  being  some  feet  in  front  of  him.  This  is  made  by  Dreere 
&  Co.,  of  Moline,  Illinois.  Other  modifications  of  the  Sulky 
Cultivator  are  manufactured  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Seerated  Clod  Crusher.  The  clod  crusher  is  one  of  those 
implements  that  have  made  their  way  but  slowly  into  public 
favor,  partly  because  of  their  expense,  and  partly  because  they 
have  failed  to  be  appreciated  as  they  deserve  to  be.  But  on 
some  soils,  particularly  on  stiff  cloddy  lands,  dependent  very 
much  upon  the  season,  it  is  really  invaluable.     {Fig.  44.) 

In  a  wet  season  it  often  happens  that  strong  lands  cannot  be 
worked  to  advantage.  The  soil  turns  up  in  solid  lumps,  which 
become  as  hard  as  a  brick  when  dry.  The  clod  crusher  then 
becomes  almost  indispensable. 

On  light  land  farms,  too,  it  may  often  be  substituted  to  advan- 
tage for  the  common  iron  roller.  Like  the  roller,  it  is  usually 
cast  in  sections  kept  apart  by  washes  on  the  main  shaft.  It  pul- 
verizes the  lumpy  soil,  and  breaks  down  the  clods  much  more  i 
effectually,  while  on  lighter  soils  it  compacts  the  surface  earth.  J 
No  farmer  who  has  once  used  the  clod  crusher  so  as  to  be 
able  to  appreciate  its  many  advantages,  would  think  of  doing 
??ithout  it,  and  wherever  it  is  used  it  will  increase  in  favor. 

Cooper's  Lime  Spreader.    The  use  of  lime  as  a  manure  is 


-J 


Fig.  37.    DKEEirs  Cast-steel  CLirrtK  Teow. 


Fig.  38.    Skinner  s  Gang  Plow. 


I 


il 


FARM    IMPLEMEXTS.  101 

very  common  in  many  sections  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
wheat  growing  regions,  and  the  necessity  for  it  on  some  classes 
of  soils  is  very  generally  admitted.  It  must  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  important  fertilizers  we  have,  after  barnyard  or 
stable  manure,  and  the  judicious  application  of  it  on  a  large 
proportion  of  the  farms  of  the  country  would  be  attended  with 
beneficial  results.  It  should  be  sown  fresh  slacked,  and  in  a 
fine  condition,  and  immediately  mixed  with  the  soil  by  harrow- 
ing or  plowing.  The  better  practice  is  to  plow  first,  spread 
the  lime  upon  the  furrows  and  harrow  in. 

It  is  a  laborious  and  difficult  operation  to  spread  it  uniformly 
over  a  large  area.  Cooper's  Lime  Spreader  meets  this  difficulty 
and  does  its  work  with  perfect  evenness,  saving  a  great  deal  of 
labor  and  time.  It  may  be  worked  either  with  oxen,  horses,  or 
mules,  may  be  loaded  anywhere,  and  hauled  to  the  field  without 
waste,  where  it  may  be  put  in  operation  in  a  few  seconds.  The 
quantity  per  acre  is  easily  regulated.  The  machine  weighs  no 
more  than  the  common  ox-cart,  and  it  will  carry  as  large  a  load, 
feeds  itself,  and  crushes  and  pulverizes  all  lumps.     {Fig.  45.) 

One  man  and  team  can  do  as  much  with  this  spreader,  as  four 
men  and  two  teams  can  do  without  it,  while  the  manner  in 
which  it  performs  its  work  cannot  be  equalled  by  hand  spread- 
ing. It  is  simple,  strong,  and  durable,  the  operating  parts  being 
made  of  iron.  It  may  be  used  to  sow  ashes  and  plaster  as  well 
as  lime. 

The  Star  Drill.  The  practice  of  drilling  in  wheat  is  of 
comparatively  recent  origin,  but  the  advantages  of  it  are  now 
so  well  understood  that  few  English  farmers  would  think  of 
sowing  wheat  broadcast,  and  the  best  farmers  of  this  country 
have  adopted  it.  By  means  of  the  drill  the  seed  may  be 
dropped  and  covered  uniformly,  and,  if  in  dry  weather,  deeply. 
Sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in,  during  a  period  of  drought 


j[02  now    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

such  as  we  often  have  at  the  time  of  sowing  winter  wheat 
much  of  the  seed  will  fail  to  germinate.  The  kernels  may 
absorb  moisture  at  night,  but  the  parching  sun  dries  it  out  by 
day,  and  these  alternations  destroy  the  germ. 

Besides,  the  amount  of  seed  required  per  acre  is  considerably 
less,  and  the  liability  to  winter-kill,  by  being  thrown  out  by 
frost,  is  less.  These  and  other  advantages  of  drilling  over 
broadcast  sowing,  are  so  apparent  that  the  time  cannot  be 
far  distant  when  the  practice  will  become  quite  general,  if  not 
universal. 

The  Star  Drill  is  manufactured  by  Ewell  &  Co.,  of  Baltimore, 
Maryland.  It  combines  the  drill,  the  cultivator,  and  the  roller. 
The  seed  is  taken  from  the  seed-box  by  a  revolving  distributor, 
md  dropped  just  behind  and  in  the  furrow  of  the  plow,  and 
left  to  be  covered  by  the  next  plow.  The  openings  at  regular 
intervals  in  the  distributor  provide  for  a  continuous  stream  of 
seed,  and  the  quantity  is  increased  or  diminished  by  ihe  depth 
of  the  openings.     {Fig.  47). 

This  machine  may  be  worked  separately,  as  a  cultivator  only, 
if  the  operator  desires,  the  roller  and  seeding  apparatus  being 
readily  detached. 

Various  other  drills  are  manufactured  in  different  sections  of 
the  country  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  in  view,  and  we  strongly 
advise  their  use  on  all  grain  farms. 

Seed  Sowers.  A  great  variety  of  smaller  machines  for  sow- 
ing garden,  and  other  minute  seeds,  have  been  invented  and 
introduced.  In  principle  they  do  not  greatly  vary,  though  some 
are  no  doubt  more  efiicient  than  others. 

One  of  the  kter  inventions  of  this  class  is  known  as  the 
Improved  Danvers  Seed  Sower,  made  by  G.  E.  Herrick,  of 
^yn-ifield  Centre,  Massachusetts.     {Figs.  48  and  49.) 

It  is  to  be  recommended  for  its  simplicity  and  cheapness,  a 


Firj.   39 
Geddes'  Harrow 


I 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS.'  105 

feature  of  some  importance,  since  it  insures  its  use  in  inaiiy 
lauds,  where  a  more  expensive  machine  would  not  find  its  way. 
It  sows  onions,  turnips  and  other  similar  seeds,  with  great  uni- 
formity, and  mangolds,  carrots,  beets,  etc.,  as  we^l  as  any  machine 
I  have  examined. 

Weeding  Hoes.  The  first  American  patent  for  improv^e- 
ment  in  hoes  was  granted  in  1819,  and  for  cast  steel  hoes  in 
1827,  though  cast  steel  hoes  were  made  in  Philadelphia,  by  two 
establishments,  as  early  as  1823.  The  business  in  the  manu- 
facture of  these  and  other  small  agricultural  implements  has 
grown  up  to  immense  proportions,  employing  a  large  number 
of  hands.  For  lightness  and  high  finish,  combined  with 
strength  and  durability,  American  hoes  are  unrivalled. 

Allen's  Weeding  IIoe.  A  simple  but  effective  and  valu- 
able implement  is  a  weeding  hoe,  invented  by  Geo.  P.  Allen,  of 
Woodbury,  Connecticut.     {Fig.  50.) 

It  is  a  scuflle  hoe,  to  be  worked  back  and  forth  between  the 
rows  of  vegetables,  running  just  beneath  the  surface.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  little  implements  in  the  garden,  and  in  clean- 
ing walks.  The  zigzag  edges  of  the  blade  greatly  increase  the 
cutting  surface,  and  make  it  easy  of  operation  and  very  useful 
in  destroying  weeds.  It  is  appropriately  named  "the  weed 
killer." 

Implements  for  Harvesting.  But  by  fiir  the  mo?t 
striking  improvements  in  modern  agricultural  implements,  are 
those  connected  with  the  harvesting  of  crops,  particularly  the 
grass  crop  and  the  smaller  grains.  So  important  have  these 
become  to  the  welfare  of  society,  that  if  we  could  suppose  them 
to  be  blotted  out  of  existence,  even  for  a  single  season,  it  would 
produce  a  shock,  which  would  be  felt  all  over  the  civilized 
world.  And  yet  scarcely  more  than  fifteen  years  have  elapsed, 
since  the  practical  economy  of  mowers  and  reapers  became  an 


106  now    TO    MAKE    THE   FARM    PAY. 

established  fact,  since  their  ultimate  success  and  practibility 
was  acknowledged. 

The  number  of  mowing  machines  made,  and  in  use  previous 
to  1850,  was  probably  less  than  five  thousand.  Ketchum'a 
mower,  and  Hussey's  reaper,  were  the  pioneers,  the  machines 
tliat  did  more  to  make  it  certain  that  grass  and  grain  would 
Unally  be  harvested  by  machinery,  than  any  former  patents, 
and  yet  when  the  former  was  tried  at  the  show  of  the  New 
York  Society  at  Buffalo,  in  1848,  the  large  body  of  farmers  who 
witnessed  the  trial  were  not  prepared  to  admit  that  the  work 
accomplished  was  good  enough  to  be  even  tolerated  in  com- 
parison with  the  hand  scythes.  Some  thought  it  might  work 
in  straight  coarse  grass,  but  in  finer  grass  it  was  sure  to  clog. 

At  a  subsequent  trial  of  reapers  and  mowers,  instituted  by 
the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society  at  Geneva,  in  1852, 
seven  machines  competed  as  mowers,  and  nine  as  reapers,  but 
not  more  than  two  or  three  of  the  former  were  capable  of 
equalling  the  common  scythe  in  the  quality  of  work  performed, 
and  not  one  among  them  all,  when  brought  to  a  stand  in  the 
graSvS,  could  start  again  without  backing  to  get  up  speed.  All  the 
machines  had  a  heavy  side  draught,  some  of  them  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  wear  seriously  on  the  team.  None  of  them  could 
turn  readily  in  any  reasonable  space,  and  all  were  liable  to  tear 
up  the  sward  in  the  operation.  The  old  Manning  and  the 
Ketchum  machines,  were  the  only  ones,  as  mowers,  that  were 
capable  of  doing  satisfactory  work. 

One  or  two  of  the  reapers,  like  the  Burrall,  the  Manning,  and 
the  Seymour  &  Morgan  machines,  did  fair  work,  and  the  judges 
decided  that,  in  comparison  with  the  hand-cradle,  they  showed 
a  saving  of  eighty-eight  and  three  quarter  cents  per  acre. 
Here  was  some  gain ;  a  positive  advance.  But  still  most  of  the 
reapers  as  Avell  as  the  mowers,  did  very  inferior  w^ork;   the 


'  •./(•(\t,<^. 


Fuj.    i.-l.      KXOX'S    JIOKbE    iiOE. 


Fig.  43.    Dreer's  Sulkey  Cultivator. 


Fig.  44.     Allex's  Clod   Crusher. 

107 


FARyi   IMPLEMEXTS.  109 

draught  in  all  was  heavy,  and  some  of  the  best  had  a  side 
draught  sufficient  to  be  destructive  to  the  team. 

In  June  of  the  same  year,  1852,  twelve  reaping  machines  and 
several  mowers,  competed  at  the  trial  held  by  the  Ohio  State 
Board  of  Agriculture,  among  them  McCormick's,  patented  first 
in  1834,  and  Hussey's,  first  patented  in  1833 ;  but  according  to 
the  report  of  the  judges,  there  appears  to  have  been  no  very 
striking  superiority  in  the  merits  of  the  different  machines. 

The  importance  of  these  early  efforts  to  overcome  the  obsta- 
cles to  the  successful  operation  of  new  machinery,  will  be 
sufficiently  clear  when  we  consider  that  more  than  twenty 
million  tons  of  hay  are  annually  raised  and  cured  in  this  coun- 
try, and  that  the  grass  and  hay  crop  is  the  true  basis  of  our 
agriculture,  since,  without  it,  in  a  northern  climate,  we  can  have 
no  cattle;  without  cattle,  no  manure;  without  manure,  no  crops. 
"With  the  necessity  we  have  for  stall  feeding,  from  three  to  five 
or  six  months  of  the  year,  for  means  of  which  we  are  dependent 
mainly  upon  hay,  it  is  apparent  that,  in  an  economical  point  of 
view,  this  crop  ia  one  of  the  most  important  that  can  occupy 
the  farmer's  attention. 

From  this  time  the  inventive  genius  of  the  country  was 
stimulated  to  an  extraordinary  degree  of  activity.  Patents 
began  to  multiply,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  this  important 
branch  of  manufactures  may  be  dated  about  the  year  1855. 

Local  trials,  to  test  the  merits  of  the  various  machines,  were 
held  in  different  parts  of  the  country  nearly  every  year ;  but  five 
years  after  the  meeting  at  Geneva,  a  general  desire  was  mani- 
fested to  have  another  on  a  scale  that  should  bring  together  all 
the  prominent  reapers  and  mowers  in  the  country ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, the  United  States  Agricultural  Society  held  a  national 
trial  at  Syracuse,  N'ew  York,  in  1857.  Here  more  than  forty 
entries   of  mowers  and   reapers  were   made,    and   they   were 


no  now    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

brought  to  the  test  upon  the  field.  Striking  improvements  had 
been  made  since  the  Geneva  trial.  The  draught  had  been  very 
materially  lessened  in  most  of  the  machines,  though  the  side 
draught  in  some  of  them  was  still  objectionably  large.  In  the 
ability  to  cut  fine  and  thick  grass  without  clogging,  there  was 
manifest  progress  in  most  of  the  machines,  and  the  two  that 
stood  first  at  Geneva  had  gained  something  in  this  point,  but 
of  the  ilineteen  that  competed  as  mowers,  only  three  could 
start  in  fine  grass  without  backing  to  get  up  speed.  The  Buck- 
eye, patented  in  1856,  won  its  first  great  triumph  here,  and  re- 
ceived the  first  premium. 

New  inventions  and  improvements  now  multiplied  in  quick 
succession,  every  year  adding  to  the  list.  In  1859,  the  cele- 
brated Wood  mower  was  invented,  and  very  soon  took  a  high 
rank.  In  1804,  there  were  no  less  than  one  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  establishments  in  the  country  devoted  to  the 
manufacture  of  reapers  and  mowers,  many  of  them  of  vast 
extent,  substantially  built,  completely  furnished  with  abundant 
power,  machinery,  and  tools  of  the  finest  description,  while  tlie 
work  had  become  wisely  and  beautifully  systematized.  The 
population  directly  sustained  by  these  manufactories  exceeded 
sixty  thousand.  The  value  of  the  annual  product  exceeded 
fifteen  millions  of  dollars,  and  the  number  of  machines  made 
amounted  to  about  one  hundred  thousand. 

After  the  lapse  of  nine  years  from  the  Syracuse  trial,  it  was 
thought  desirable  to  hold  another,  which  should  be  national  in 
its  character,  machines  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  being 
allowed  to  compete;  and  this  was  accordingly  arranged  under 
the  direction  of  the  New  York  State  Society,  at  Auburn,  in 
that  state,  in  July,  1866. 

For  this  trial  the  number  of  mowers  which  entered,  single 
and  combined,  was  forty-four,  the  number  of  reapers,  thirty,  in 


Fl(j.  45.    CooPEii'5  Lime  Spkeadek. 


Fig.  40.    Buckeye  Mowee. 


wmm 


111 


.1 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS.  113 

all  seventy-four.  As  compared  with  the  machines  at  Syracuse, 
nine  years  previous,  there  was  a  decided  improvement  in  work- 
manship and  mechanical  finish.  The  mowers  were  more  com- 
pact, 'more  simple  in  construction,  lighter  and  equally  strong. 
They  ran  with  less  friction,  with  easier  draught,  and  generally 
with  less  noise.  They  cut  the  grass  better,  especially  over 
uneven  surfaces. 

The  following  extract  from  the  report  of  the  committee  will 
convey  an  idea  of  the  general  progress: — "Those  who  had  been 
present  at  former  trials,  were  astonished  at  the  general  perfec- 
tion which  had  been  attained  by  manufacturers  of  mowing 
machines.  Every  machine,  with  two  exceptions,  did  good 
work,  which  would  be  acceptable  to  any  farmer ;  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  whole  meadow,  after  it  had  been  raked  over 
was  vastly  better  than  the  average  mowing  of  the  best  farmer 
in  the  State,  notwithstanding  the  great  difficulties  that  had  to 
be  encountered.  At  previous  trials,  very  few  machines  could 
stop  in  the  grass  and  start  without  backing  for  a  fresh  start. 
At  the  present  trial,  every  machine  stopped  in  the  grass  and 
started  again  without  backing,  without  any  difficulty,  and 
without  leaving  any  perceptible  ridge  to  mark  the  place  where 
it  occurred," 

In  this  trial  the  Buckeye,  as  at  Syracuse,  rec^eived  the  gold 
medal  as  a  mower,  a  tribute  alike  to  the  genius  of  the  inventor 
and  the  skill  of  the  manufacturers,  Messrs.  Adriance,  Piatt  & 
Co.,  of  Poughkeepsie,  -New  York.  This  machine  is  also  manu- 
factured, for  a  part  of  the  New  England  States,  by  the  Buckeye 
Mowing  Machine  Company,  at  West  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts. 

The  frame  of  the  Buckeye  is  made  of  wood,  this  being  re- 
garded as,  on  the  whole,  the  best  material.  Where  iron  is  used 
the  weight  of  the  machine  is  increased,  and,  in  case  of  breakage, 
it  is  not  so  easily  repaired;   in  fact,  a  new  frame  is  needed, 


114  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

requiring  tlie  parts  to  be  fitted  anew.  The  driving  wheels  are 
thirty  inches  in  diameter  and  run  loosely  on  the  axle.  The 
draught  is  direct  and  easy,  and  it  is  capable  of  working  in 
hollows  and  over  ridges  with  a  remarkable  power  of  adaptation. 
The  cutting  is  easy  and  uniform,  the  cutter  bar  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  frame,  and  having  nothing  but  its  own  weight 
to  sustain,  under  any  circumstances.  The  Buckeye  deserves  its 
high  reputation. 

Wood  Prize  Mower.  This  machine,  long  a  favorite  in  this 
country,  has  attracted  a  more  than  ordinary  share  of  attention 
and  interest  by  its  triumphs  at  the  great  Paris  Exposition  of 
1867,  where,  in  competition  with  some  of  the  best  mowers  in 
the  world,  it  won  two  grand  gold  medals,  and  secured  for  its 
inventor,  Walter  A.  Wood,  Esq.,  the  honorable  distinction  of  a 
decoration  of  the  Imperial  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  This 
gives  it  a  national  reputation,  in  which  every  American  feels  a 
just  and  national  pride,  for  it  has  probably  done  more  to  estab- 
lish and  vindicate  the  high  character  of  American  agricultural 
mechanics  abroad  than  any  other  machine,  having  taken  the 
highest  prizes  offered  in  this  or  any  other  country,  both  for 
practical  work  on  the  field  and  perfection  of  mechanical  con- 
struction.    {Fig.  54.) 

This  is  a  jointed  bar  mower,  running  upon  two  driving 
wheels,  each  furnished  with  internal  gear,  so  as  to  make  each 
an  independent  driving  wheel.  These  wheels  are  so  placed  as 
to  run  in  the  tracks  made  by  the  track  clearer  to  avoid  unne- 
cessary injury  to  the  crop.  The  spring  seat  is  so  placed  as 
to  balance  the  tongue,  so  as  to  leave  no  pressure  on  the  necks 
of  the  team. 

The  frame  is  of  wood,  made  of  four  timbers  lying  in  the  same:^ 
plane,  the  middle  line  over  the  axle.  The  tongue  is  attached  i 
to  the  axle  by  a  joint.   The  forward  part  of  the  shoe  is  attached  \ 


Il,       i|lij|l||,||||l|illli||iiill|,li!iilill|       ^ 


115 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS.  117 

to  a  spring  bar  bolted  to  the  underside  of  tlie  left  front  corner 
of  the  frame.  The  connections  on  the  shoe  are  by  joints  which 
allow  the  bar  to  be  turned  up  to  a  perpendicular  position.  The 
outer  shoe  is  sharp  on  the  under  side  to  part  the  grass,  and  has 
a  wheel  five  inches  in  diameter  adjustable  to  regulate  the  height. 
The  holders  on  the  finger  bar  arc  chilled  at  the  bearings  of  the 
cutter  bar.  The  guard  fingers  are  made  of  malleable  iron  and 
faced  with  steel,  securely  riveted  in.  The  cutter  bar  is  raised 
with  great  ease  to  enable  the  machine  to  pass  an  obstruction. 
Lightness  of  draught  is  secured  by  a  simple  and  direct  applica- 
tion of  power,  all  needless  parts  being  dispensed  with,  so  as  to 
lessen  the  friction.  The  machine  is  light  and  elastic,  and  yet 
strong  enough  to  stop  the  strongest  team.  Simplicity  of  con- 
struction insures  durablity. 

This  machine  cuts  with  remarkable  smoothness  and  uni- 
formity, and  is  not  liable  to  clog.  It  is  manufactured  by  the 
"Wood  Mowing  Machine  Company,  at  Hoosick  Falls,  New 
York.  About  seventeen  hundred  machines  a  month  on  an 
average  have  been  made  at  the  old  works,  employing  five  hun- 
dred hands.  The  capacity  of  the  works  is  now  doubled.  •  Fully 
one  hundred  thousand  machines  have  been  built,  and  fifty 
thousand  were  in  the  harvest  fields  last  year.  The  sale  abroad 
is  also  very  large. 

American  Hay  Tedder.  The  mower  was  an  irameasura 
ble  step  in  advance  upon  the  older  methods  of  cutting  grass. 
It  comes  in  at  a  time  when  the  work  of  the  farm  is  peculiarly 
laborious ;  when  labor  is  held  at  even  higher  than  the  usual 
high  rate  of  wages,  when  the  weather  is  often  fickle  and  pre- 
carious, generally  oppressively  hot  and  trying  to  physical 
strength,  and  it  relieves  the  severest  strain  upon  the  muscles 
during  the  time  of  harvest. 

The  invention  of  the  horse  rake  preceded  it  in  point  of  time. 


[18  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY. 

and  must  be  regarded  as  second  only  in  importance  ii.  tlie 
economy  of  labor,  taking  the  place  of  many  men,  and  accom- 
plishing a  larger  amount  of  work  equally  well,  at  a  season  when, 
if  ever,  time  is  money. 

But  there  was  still  some  new  invention  wanting.  The  faimer 
could  now  cut  his  grass  rapidly  enough,  and,  after  it  was  suffi- 
ciently cured,  he  could  gather  it  rapidly  enough,  but  it  was  still 
difficult  to  handle  and  cure  what  the  mowing  machine  could 
easily  cut.  Spreading  hay  by  hand,  though  not  so  laborious  as 
some  other  processes  of  haymaking,  is  slow  work,  and,  not- 
withstanding the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  the  other  work 
could  be  done,  a  strong  force  was  still  required  to  cure  the 
grass.  There  was  a  want  of  balance  in  the  new  system,  and 
here  the  Tedder  came  in  to  complete  and  round  it  out  as  it  were, 
[n  this  respect  it  must  be  regarded  as  of  nearly  equal  iraport- 
ince  with  the  mower  and  the  horse  rake. 

After  one  or  two  attempts,  which  met  with  partial  success, 
we  have  now  the  American  Hay  Tedder,  as  manufactured  by 
the  Ames  Plow  Company,  of  Boston.  The  draught  of  this 
machine  is  light  and  easy  for  the  horse,  the  construction  simple, 
the  work  effective.     {Fig.  55.) 

The  forward  action  of  the  old  English  machine  was  too  vio- 
lent, and  it  handled  the  half  made  hay  too  roughly.  Every 
farmer  knows  that,  after  grass  is  partially  dried  in  the  process 
of  haymaking,  a  rough  and  violent  action  or  handling  is  to  be 
avoided.  It  breaks  off  the  tender  leaves  of  the  clover,  shakes 
out  the  seeds  of  such  of  the  plants  as  have  approached  the 
period  of  maturity,  and  wastes  many  of  the  finer  leaves  of  the 
natural  grasses.  The  American  Tedder  has  aimed  to  avoid  this 
objection,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  lightens  up  the  grass  to 
the  sun  and  air,  and  hastens  the  curing  process  without  the 


Fig.  48.  Daxver's  Seed  fc-owEK.     Fiy  49. 


Fig.  oO.  Allen'-s  W  eeijixg  lion. 


Fig.  52.     IIOKSE  Foi:k. 


Fig.  51. 


Fig.  53.    Self  Locking  Rake. 

119 


FARM   IMPLEMEXTS.  121 

waste  which  would  follow  a  violent  hurling  into  the  air  of 
wilted  and  partially  cured  grass. 

This  machine  has  been  used  very  successfully  and  satisfac 
torily    in  New  England    and   in  some  other   sections  of  the 
country,  and  it  supplies  a  want  which  has  been  felt  since  the 
introduction  of  the  mower,  even  more  than  ever  before.     Those 
who  have  used  it  consider  it  quite  indispensable. 

The  Horse  Rake.  In  raking  hay  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed, though  slow,  is  comparatively  light,  and  does  not 
require  the  exertion  of  a  great  amount  of  physical  strength. 
Here,  as  also  in  spreading  or  tending  hay,  the  application  of 
animal  power  is  of  the  greatest  advantage,  since  it  multiplies 
the  efficiency  of  the  hand  many  times.  The  same  is  true  in 
the  case  of  the  hand  drills  for  sowing  the  smaller  seeds,  like 
turnips,  carrots,  beets,  etc.,  where  the  labor  by  hand  is  slow,  and, 
though  light,  is  laborious  and  irksome. 

It  has  been  found,  therefore,  that  the  labor  to  be  performed 
by  a  good  horse  rake,  is  equal  to  that  of  eight  or  ten  men,  in 
the  same  time,  and  that  from  twenty  to  thirty  acres  a  day  can 
be  gathered  by  a  single  horse  and  driver,  without  over  exertion. 

Of  the  innumerable  patents  issued  for  horse  rakes,  within  the 
last  twenty  years,  it  would  be  difficult  to  single  out  any  one 
and  say  that  it  was  the  best,  all  things  considered,  or  that  the 
merits  of  all  have  been  or  could  be  united  in  one.  Still,  many 
of  them  work  so  perfectly  that  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  the 
conclusion  that  they  leave  little,  if  any  thing,  to  be  desired  in 
this  direction. 

The  best  judges  have  arrived  at  the  conviction  that  wdre  oi 
Bteel  teeth  have  the  preference  on  account  of  their  wider  range 
of  usefulness. 

The  Bay  State  is  a  steel  tooth,  each  tooth  being  hinged  to  the 
axle  and  held  down  by  spiral  springs.     The  ease  with  which 


122  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

this  rake  is  worked  is  quite  wonderful.  The  driver  baa  only 
to  touch  a  lever  with  his  foot,  with  a  slight  pressure,  which  any 
boy  can  apply,  when  the  rake  is  lifted  by  the  horse,  and,  by 
means  of  the  cleaning  rods,  frees  itself  at  once  of  its  load.  It  is 
set  so  high  that  a  large  windrow  can  be  gathered,  and,  if  de- 
sired, the  windrow  can  be  cocked  ready  for  loading. 

This  rake  is  independent  in  its  action,  that  is,  each  tooth 
operates  independently  of  the  others  in  passing  an  obstruction, 
while  the  draught  is  light,  and  the  material  and  workmanship 
are  unsurpassed.  It  is  made  by  the  Buckeye  Mowing  Machine 
Company,  at  West  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts.    {Fig.  56.) 

A  simple  and  effective  machine  has  been  introduced  into 
New  England,  known  as  the  Whittemore  Self-Locking  Eake. 
This  may  be  worked  either  by  the  foot  or  the  hand,  and  is  easy 
of  operation.  The  lock  lever  is  arranged  to  hold  the  teeth  to 
the  ground  in  doing  heavy  work,  when,  in  many  machines, 
they  are  inclined  to  rise  and  scatter  the  hay.  An  easy  spring 
seat  is  secured  to  the  axle,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  driver  does 
not  press  upon  the  horse.  It  can  be  set  with  the  teeth  a  little 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  when  it  becomes  a  very  effec- 
tive gleaner  in  grain  stubbles.  The  teeth  of  this  rake  act  inde- 
pendently also,  and  it  is  furnished  with  cleaners,  which  secure 
the  instant  unloading  of  the  rake  when  it  is  lifted.  It  is  manu- 
factured by  the  Messrs.  Whittemore,  Belcher  &  Co.,  of  Chico- 
pee  Falls,  Massachusetts.     {Fig.  53.) 

No  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  a  good  horse  rake.  It 
saves  labor  and  time  at  the  most  critical  season  of  the  year, 
and  often  when,  without  one,  it  would  be  impossible  to  avoid 
the  injury  from  rain  or  exposure  to  foul  weather.  In  the 
economy  of  labor,  the  horse  rake  must  be  regarded  as  second 
only  in  importance  to  the  mower,  and  it  is  almost  as  essential 
on  the  farm  as  the  plow  itself. 


123 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS.  125 

The  Montgomery  Fork.    A  recent  improvement  in  forks 

.  has  been  introduced  by  the  Montgomery  Fork  Co.,  25-i  Pearl 

^  St.,  New  York  city,  by  which  the  tines  can  be  taken  out  and 

replaced  without  loss  of  time  in   case  of  breakage  or  other 

accident.     AU  formers  know  that  in  repairing  a  broken  tine 

of  the  common  fork,  the  other  tine  is  usually  made  worthless, 

;  and  so  on  the  breakage  of  a  tine  the  whole  fork  is  thrown  aside 

'  as  lost. 

By  this  arrangement,  if  the  handle  should  get  broken  the 
tines  are  good  and  can  be  set  in  another  handle  in  a  few  minutes, 
and  the  fork  is  as  good  as  ever.  The  handle,  instead  of  being 
tapered  at  the  end  near  the  fork,  is  made  larger  there,  so  that 
the  whole  strength  of  the  wood  is  left.  The  ferule,  easily  re- 
moved by  loosing  a  screw,  binds  the  whole  together,  and  holds 
the  tines  firmly  in  position.  The  process  of  manufacture  se- 
cures a  uniform  texture  of  steel,  and  the  weight  of  the  fork  is 
no  greater  than  ordinary.  This  fork  received  the  first  pronium 
at  the  New  York  State  Fair  of  18G7.  In  many  sections  of  the 
country  it  will  be  found  to  be  good  economy  to  use  a  fork  of 
this  description.     {Fig.  61.) 

The  Horse  Fork.  Among  the  labor-saving  implements 
designed  to  relieve  the  severe  labors  of  hay  making,  few  have 
met  with  greater  popular  favor  than  the  Horse  Pitchfork.  It 
saves  not  only  the  violent  strain  upon  the  muscles,  but  a  great 
deal  of  time,  which,  in  the  hurry  of  haying,  is  often  of  ihe 
utmost  importance. 

Several  different  patterns  have  been  introduced  and  worked 
with  success. 

The  Harpoon  fork  was  originally  invented  by  E.  L.  Walker, 
of  Jenner  Crossroads,  Somerset  county,  Pennsylvania,  It  was 
simply  a  straight  spear,  and,  as  such,  it  entered  the  hay  when  a 
bolt  was  drawn  at  the  handle,  which  threw  out  at  the  side  one 


126  HOW   TO   MAKE   FAEMING   PAY. 

or  more  lateral  hooks,  which  seized  upon  the  hay,  anJ  thus 
lifted  it  ill  large  quantities  from  the  load.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  a  larger  amounly  of  hay  can  be  removed  from  the  load  by 
this  arrangement  than  by  any  other  style  of  fork.  But  Mr. 
Walker  became  satisfied  that  he  could  improve  upon  it,  and 
r.ow  his  fork  has  assumed  the  simple  form  as  illustrated  in 
fig.  52,  and  in  this  form  it  has  been  very  largely  sold  and  very 
widely  distributed  over  the  country.  It  is  made  entirely  of 
iron,  which  gives  it  durability,  while  its  weight  is  only  ten 
pounds.  The  construction,  as  appears  by  the  cut,  is  extremely 
simple,  and  there  seems  to  be  but  little  liability  to  get  out  of 
order,  having  no  tines  to  bend  or  to  break.  It  takes  up  but 
little  room  as  compared  with  some  of  the  other  forks,  and  it  is 
worked  so  easily  that  a  boy  can  operate  it.  Its  strength  and 
its  grappling  power  are  so  great,  that  it  will  take  and  hold 
enough  for  two  horses  to  raise  over  the  barn  beams.  At  a  trial 
before  the  Pennsylvania  State  Fair,  in  competition  with  others, 
the  committee  report  that  they  found  it  the  best  implement  for 
unloading  hay. 

This  Fork  is  manufactured  by  Wheeler,  Melick  &  Co.,  of 
Albany,  New  York,  who  send  out  with  it  the  best  style  of 
auti-friclion  roller  pulleys,  which  are  admirably  designed  to 
facilitate  the  practical  working  of  the  machine. 

The  Eeapers.  The  progress  made  in  the  improvement,  and 
the  extent  of  the  manufacture  of  reapers,  is  scarcely  less  impor- 
tant than  that  of  mowers.  For  the  boundless  West  it  is,  per- 
haps, of  even  great  importance.  The  last  ofl&cial  census  re 
ported  an  aggregate  production  of  178,104,924  bushels  of 
wheat,  and  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  product  at  the 
present  time  exceeds  two  hundred  million  bushels.  The  appli- 
cation of  machinery  has  given  us  the  power  of  an  almost  unlim- 
ited expansion  of  this  product. 


■'''m^dihM%irRm 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS.  129 

At  the  public  trial  of  reapers  at  Geneva,  fifteen  years  ago, 
all  the  machines  'were  very  defective  in  the  execution  of  their 
work.  The  draught  was  very  heavy,  and  the  side  draught  even 
in  the  best  of  them  was  described  as  killing  for  the  horses. 
There  was  not,  at  that  time,  a  self-raker  in  the  country  that 
was  capable  of  doing  satisfactory  work.  Five  years  later,  at 
Syracuse,  some  progress  had  been  made  in  this  direction,  but 
scarcely  more  than  to  make  it  certain  that  a  self-raking  reaper 
was  destined  eventually  to  succeed. 

At  the  Auburn  trial,  in  1866,  the  self-rakers  did  better  work 
than  the  hand  rakers,  and  they  will  very  soon  drive  the  hand 
raking  machines  completely  from  the  field.  They  had  im- 
proved in  other  respects  to  such  an  extent  that  they  could 
readily  cut  lodged  and  tangled  grain,  and  leave  it  in  a  good 
condition  for  binding.  The  side  draught,  which,  in  previous 
trials,  had  been  severe,  was  reduced  to  a  very  low  point,  some 
machines  showing  none  at  all. 

The  next  demand  on  the  mechanical  ingenuity  of  the  country 
is  for  a  self-binding,  as  well  as  a  self-raking,  reaper,  and  there 
is  strong  reason  to  believe  that  this  important  object  will  soon 
be  attained.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  accomplish  this,  but 
they  have  not  as  yet  given  general  satisfaction.  Perhaps  ex- 
ception should  be  made  in  favor  of  Carpenter's  automatic  Grain 
Binder,  patented  by  S.  D.  Carpenter,  of  Madison,  Wisconsin, 
who  is  thought  by  many  good  judges  to  have  discovered  the 
principle  on  which  an  automatic  binder,  to  be  attached  to  the 
reaper,  is  possible.  This  is  a  contrivance  which  binds  with  a 
wire  in  bundles  to  be  regulated  by  the  character  of  the  crops. 
It  does  not  materially  add  to  the  draught  of  the  reaper. 

The  automatic  rake  and  the  automatic  binder,  both  attach- 
ments to  the  reaper,  must  be  regarded  as  the  most  important 
recent  inventions  in  agricultural  machinery.     Neither  of  them 


|^3Q  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

can  be  said  to  be  perfected,  but  the  success  so  far  attained  seems 
to  leave  no  doubt  that  the  time  will  soon  come  when  the  hand 
raking  machines  will  be  as  much  behind  the  times  as  the  sickle 

and  the  scythe. 

One  of  the  most  popular  self-rake  reapers  at  the  West  is  that 
of  Walter  A.  Wood.  This  machine  was  first  brought  out  in 
I860,  with  a  novel  mode  of  discharging  the  grain.  The  motion 
criven  to  the  rake  resembles  somewhat  the  action  of  the  human 
arm,  and  it  leaves  the  grain  in  gavels  the  size  of  which  is  regu- 
lated by  the  will  of  the  driver.  The  rake  is  driven  by  a  chain 
which  passes  around  the  edge  of  the  platform,  working  with 
great  precision,  and  delivering  the  grain  in  compact  bundles 
ready  for  binding.  The  reaper  cuts  a  swath  five  and  a  half 
feet  in  width,  and  will  do  from  fifteen  to  twenty  acres  a  day,  in 
the  most  satisfactory  manner.     {Fig.  67.) 

Use  and  Care  of  Mowers  and  Eeapers.  With  regard  to 
the  higher  cost  machines  upon  the  farm,  it  would  be  natural  to 
expect  the  exercise  of  at  least  ordinary  care,  not  only  in  their 
selection  but  in  their  management,  both  while  in  use  and  after 
the  season  is  past.  But  farmers  are  notoriously  negligent.  A 
valuable  mowing  machine  is  not  uncommonly  left,  after  its  work 
for  the  season  is  done,  under  the  lee  side  of  a  fence,  uncleaned 
and  unoiled,  or  perhaps  under  the  barn,  or  in  an  open  shed, 
where  it  is  liable  to  rust  and  be  injured  by  neglect  far  more 
than  by  the  wear  and  tear  of  a  whole  season's  usage. 

The  following  suggestions  apply  to  both  mowers  and  reapers : 

1.  Buy  the  best.    It  will  be  the  cheapest  in  the  end. 

2.  Buy  it  early,  so  as  to  be  sure  you  have  the  one  you  wish, 
and  not  find,  just  as  you  are  ready  to  begin,  that  you  cannot  get 
•he  one  you  intended  to  buy. 

3.  When  attaching  the  horses  see  that  the  knives  are  in  a 


131 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  133 

horizontal  position,  neither  pointed  up  or  down.     This  secures 
a  smooth,  even  stubble. 

4.  See  that  all  the  nuts  are  turned  tight.  The  manufacturers 
are  often  obliged  to  finish  a  part  of  their  machines  some  months 
before  the  time  for  using  them,  and  all  wood  is  liable  to  shrink 
a  little. 

5.  Buy  the  verj  best  sperm  oil,  if  possible.  Poor  oil  will  be 
sure  to  gum  up.  If  you  cannot  get  sperm  oil,  kerosene  and 
castor  oil  mixed,  one  third  of  the  former  and  two  thirds  of  the 
latter,  will  answer  a  good  purpose. 

6.  Keep  the  bearings  well  oiled,  also  the  buttons  which  hold 
the  knives  down  to  the  plates  in  the  fingers. 

7.  Keep  the  knives  sharp  all  the  time.  Take  both  scythes 
into  the  field  sharp,  and  once  an  hour  or  so  rub  the  edges  with 
a  sharp  gritted  whetstone;  this  saves  sweating  your  horses,  and 
the  wear  upon  the  machine,  and  leaves  the  field  looking  as  if 
you  understood  your  business.  Use  the  scythes  about  equally, 
aa  they  fit  and  work  the  better  for  it. 

8.  Keep  the  buttons  down  as  close  to  the  cutter  as  possible, 
and  have  the  scythes  play  easily.  They  are  made  of  malleable 
iron,  and  will  bear  pounding,  but  in  long  use  they  are  apt  to 
wear  loose.  Examine  them  frequently,  and  as  they  wear,  rap 
them  down  with  a  hammer  so  as  to  keep  the  edge  of  the  cutters 
in  close  contact  with  the  edge  of  the  steel  plates  in  the  fingers. 
You  might  as  well  expect  to  cut  wet  paper  with  a  dull,  loose 
jointed  pair  of  scissors,  as  to  cut  grass  with  dull  scythes,  not  in 
their  proper  position. 

9.  When  the  cutters  become  worn  to  a  point,  and  begin  to 
grow  shorter,  have  new  ones  put  on ;  it  is  the  poorest  economy 
tD  use  them  so ;  like  using  a  worn  out  plough  point. 

10.  Examine  your  machine  carefully  as  soon  as  haying  or 
reaping  is  over,  and  if  it  needs  any  repairs,  send  it  at  once  to 


134  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

the  manufacturer,  unless  you  can  replace  the  parts  wanted 
yourself.  He  lias  time  in  the  fall,  before  beginning  to  turn  out 
machines  for  the  next  season,  to  attend  to  it  faithfully,  and  you 
save  much  vexation,  and  perhaps  loss,  which  might  occur  if 
this  is  neglected  till  spring. 

11.  If  the  machine  needs  no  repairing,  take  out  the  knives, 
wipe  them  clean,  and  then  rub  them  over  Avith  an  oily  rag,  to 
prevent  rusting.  Oil  the  fingers,  and  remove  the  pole  and  bar, 
put  the  bar  and  scythe  in  a  dry  place,  clean  your  machine 
thoroughly,  and  keep  it  dry  and  clean  through  the  winter. 

If  these  suggestions  are  not  heeded  do  not  blame  the  manu- 
facturer if  your  machine  soon  wears  out. 

Threshing  IJ^Iachines.  The  improvement  in  machines  for 
separating  grain,  has  been  constantly  progressive,  until  they 
may  be  said  to  have  reached  a  truly  wonderful  degree  of  per- 
fection. The  older  portion  of  the  present  generation  can  re- 
member, when  the  old  fashioned  flail  resounded  on  nearly 
every  threshmg  floor  in  the  country.  Here  and  there  the 
grain  was  trodden  out  by  the  tramping  of  cattle.  The  writer 
often  adopted  this  method  of  separating  both  wheat  and  oats, 
many  years  ago,  not  merely  by  way  of  experiment,  to  see  if  the 
thing  could  be  done,  but  in  real  earnest,  as  if  it  were  one  of  the 
best  and  most  approved  ways  in  the  world.  .  But  what  a  waste 
of  time  and  lal)or  ! 

Wheeler's  patent  is  a  well  known  and  efficient  thresher, 
which  saves  labor  and  time,  and  separates  and  cleans  wheat  or 
rye,  with  great  rapidity.  The  machine  is  manufactured  by 
Wheeler,  Melick  &  Co.,  of  Albany,  New  York.  Twa  horses 
will  work  the  machine,  while  a  three  horse  power  will  drive  it 
with  such  velocity,  as  to  keep  a  smart  man  hard  at  Avork  to 
feed  it  up  to  its  capacity.     {Fig.  58.) 

The  horse  power  thresher  is  of  English  orioin.     Its  introduc- 


I 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  187 

lion  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the  laboring  classes  there,  as 
an  attempt  to  infringe  upon  their  rights.  Separators  and 
winnowers  were  attached  to  the  thresher  at  a  much  more  recent 
date,  but  they  have  been  found  so  important,  that  now  few 
machines  are  made  without  one  or  the  other.  Straw  carriers 
followed  soon  after,  by  means  of  which  the  straw  is  stacked 
away.  A  bagging  apparatus  is  now*  often  added,  so  that  the 
grain  is  threshed,  winnowed,  measured,  and  bagged,  ready  for 
market,  at  one  operation,  and  the  straw  taken  care  of  with  very 
little  labor.  Most  of  the  labor  is  done  by  the  team,  while  the 
rapidity  of  work  is  quite  wonderful. 

At  the  trial  of  Threshing  Machines,  at  the  Paris  exhibition, 
in  1855,  the  victory  was  won  by  an  American  machine,  and 
during  the  operation,  to  ascertain  the  comparative  rapidity  and 
economy  of  threshing,  six  men  were  engaged  in  threshing  with 
flails,  who,  in  one  hour,  threshed  sixty  litres  of  wheat.  In  the 
eame  time 

Pitt's  American  machine  threshed  740  litres 

Clayton's  Enulish     "  "  410      " 

Duvoir-8  French       "  "  250      "  • 

rinet's  "  "  "  150      " 

A  French  journal,  speaking  of  this  trial,  said:  "This 
American  machine  literally  devoured  the  sheaves  of  wheat. 
The  eye  cannot  follow  the  work  which  is  eflfected  between  the 
entrance  of  the  sheaves,  and  the  end  of  the  operation.  It  is  otk' 
of  the  greatest  results  which  it  is  possible  to  obtain.  The  im- 
pression which  the  spectacle  produced  on  the  Arab  chiefs,  was 
profound."  And  yet,  since  that  exhibition,  still  farther  im- 
provements have  been  effected  in  this  country.     {Fig.  59.) 

Pitt's  machine  itself  has  been  somewhat  improved,  and  as 
now  manufactured  by  J.  T.  Case  &  Co.,  of  Racine,  Wisconsin, 
is  one  of  the  very  best  machines  in  the  world.     These  makers 


138  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

turn  off  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  machines  in  a 
year,  each  one  including  an  admirable  thresher,  separator,  and 
carrier.  Most  of  our  approved  American  machines,  in  fact, 
now  in  use,  separate  the  grain  from  the  chaff  and  the  straw 
and  carry  the  latter  back  to  the  stack.  Many  of  them  measure 
and  bag  the  Avheat,  ready  for  market.  Wherever  our  com- 
plete machines  have  come  into  competition  with  those  of  Eng- 
lish, French,  or  other  European  manufacture,  they  have  in 
variably  proved  themselves  superior  in  point  of  simplicity, 
rapidity,  and  perfection  of  work. 

Corn  Shellees.  On  farms  where  a  considerable  amount 
of  corn  is  raised,  a  Corn  Sheller  is  quite  indispensable.  It  shells 
with  great  rapidity,  and  on  many  a  farm  would  pay  for  itself  in 
a  single  year. 

There  are  several  patents,  some  of  them  adapted  more  espe- 
cially to  hand,  others  to  both  hand  and  horse  power.  Some  of 
them  are  adapted  more  especially  to  the  small-sized  ears  usually 
grown  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States,  others  to  the  large  ears 
of  the  Southern  and  Western  States.     {Fig.  60.) 

TRe  Southern  Corn  Sheller  is  made  expressly  for  the  large 
forms  and  plantations  of  the  West  and  South,  where  the  corn 
is  large.  It  is  made  both  single  and  double,  to  shell  one  or  two 
ears  at  the  same  time. 

National  Hay  Cutter.  The  advantage  of  cutting  food 
for  stock,  though  it  has  a1>  various  times  been  a  subject  of  dis- 
3ussion  among  practical  men,  is  now  very  generally  conceded. 
Wherever  a  large  stock  of  cattle,  or  a  large  number  of  horses 
are  kept,  it  is  often  good  economy  to  feed  out  more  or  less  of  the 
coarse  substances  of  the  farm,  like  straw,  corn,  clover,  second- 
quality  hay,  etc.,  mixing  them  either  with  the  better  qualities 
of  hay,  or  with  some  form  of  meal  or  concentrated  food. 

The  form  in  which  food  is  given  to  cattle  is  by  no  means  a 


)'.•> 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  141 

matter  of  indifTerencc.  Hay  or  straw,  when  cut  short,  or 
chafled,  is  taken  up  in  a  condition  to  j)revent  any  unnecessary 
expenditure  of  niusouhir  force.  As  less  mastication  is  requisite, 
if  cut  fine,  less  of  the  tissues  of  the  body  are  expended  in 
grinding  down  the  food. 

Hay  or  Fodder  Cutters  are  made  to  cut  the  feed  of  different 
lengths,  according  to  the  stock  for  which  it  is  designed.  For  the 
ruminating  animals,  it  may  be  less  finely  divided  than  for  others. 
If  for  an  ox,  a  cow,  or  a  sheep,  it  is  cut  from  one  to  two 
inches  long ;  for  a  horse  it  would  be  better  economy  to  cut  it 
from  a  quarter  to  half  an  inch.  It  is  of  the  first  importance 
that  a  machine  should  cut  short,  and  with  perfect  regularity ; 
and  to  this  end  the  hay  or  straw  must  be  delivered  to  the 
knives  with  the  same  regularity,  or  the  work  will  be  impeifect 

Here  is  the  great  defect  of  the  machines  fed  by  hand.  Next 
to  a  short  and  regular  cut,  strength,  simplicity,  and  durability 
are  to  be  considered. 

But  besides  the  great  economy  of  feeding  cut  fodder,  which 
amounts  to  a  gain  of  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent.,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  in  the  food  and  the  increased  thrift  secured, 
there  is  a  positive  advantage  to  be  derived  in  the  manure.  Long 
stalks  of  coarse  straw  are  often  quite  inconvenient  to  handle, 
and  are  liable  to  be  troublesome  in  plowing.  The  use  of  some 
form  of  hay  and  straw  cutter  has,  therefore,  become  almost  uni- 
versal, and  must  be  regarded  as  quite  indispensable  on  every 
well-conducted  farm. 

The  National  Fodder  Cutter  possesses  many  points  of  de 
cided  superiority,  and  is  very  properly  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best.  It  is  manufactured  by  J.  D.  Burdick  &  Co.,  of  New 
Haven,  Connecticut,  of  several  sizes,  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  large  as  well  as  small  farms,  the  former  to  be  worked  by 
horse  or  steam  power,  and  capable  of  reducing  a  ton  and  a  half 


£42  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

per  hour,  the  latter  easily  worked  by  hand,  aud  cutting  or 
chaffing  from  three  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  per  hour. 
This  Cutter  unites  the  important  elements  of  strength,  ease  of 
working,  and  safety,  the  knives  being  covered  to  protect  the 
operator  from  accident.  I  know  of  no  better  machine  in  the 
market.     {Fig.  61.) 

Excelsior  Eoot  Cutter.  No  farmer  who  keeps  a  flock  of 
sheep  or  a  stock  of  cattle,  should  neglect  to  cultivate  a  wide 
breadth  of  root  crops ;  and  to  feed  them  out  judiciously  requires 
the  use  of  a  good  vegetable  cutter.  Neat  cattle  and  sheep, 
when  attempting  to  eat  turnips,  mangolds,  carrots,  potatoes,  or 
pumpkins,  in  pieces  so  large  that  they  cannot  readily  take  them 
between  the  teeth,  are  extremely  liable  to  get  choked.  Many 
a  valuable  animal,  whose  life  might  have  been  saved,  has  been 
sacrificed  by  a  neglect  to  cat  the  roots.     {Fig.  62.) 

The  Excelsior  Cutter  is  the  best  adapted  to  this  work  of  any 
that  I  have  any  knowledge  of.  At  the  New  York  State  Fair 
at  Buffalo,  it  cut  a  bushel  of  potatoes  fine  enough  for  sheep  in 
twenty-six  seconds.  It  cuts  pumpkins,  turnips,  and  other  roots, 
into  strips  of  a  size  best  suited  to  sheep  and  cows,  and  it  does  it 
with  such  remarkable  ease  and  uniformity  that  a  small  boy  or 
girl  can  cut  a  bushel  of  roots  in  a  minute.  The  cylinder  is 
hollow,  made  of  hard  iron,  and  the  little  gouge-shaped  cutters 
are  fastened  to  the  surface,  and  slice  off  the  pieces  of  the  size 
of  a  man's  thumb,  or  larger,  the  cutters  being  easily  adjusted  to 
cut  the  size  desired.  This  simple  and  effective  root-cutter  is 
manufactured  by  J.  E.  Robertson,  of  Syracuse,  New  York.  It 
has  taken  the  first  premiums  at  the  Pennsylvania,  the  New 
Jersey,  the  New  York,  and  other  State  Fairs,  and,  so  far  as 
•cnown,  it  has  given  universal  satisfaction  in  practical  use  on 
the  farm. 

Cider  ^Iills.     Many  a  small  farm  has  a  supply  of  apples 


1-\'J.    O'J.   I'liT  S  TllUKt;ili;K: 


F'kj.   go.  Corn  Shelleb. 


KARM    IMPLEMENTS.  1  i5 

and  Other  fruits,  which,  for  want  of  adequate  meana  of  econo- 
mising them,  are  of  less  value  than  they  might  otherwise  be 
made.  A  hand  cider  mill  is,  therefore,  a  great  convenience  to 
the  small  farmer.  "With  it  he  can  crush,  and  grind,  and  press 
his  apples,  his  currants,  his  grapes,  etc.,  and  make  them  into 
cider  or  wine,  at  a  trifling  expense  of  time  and  trouble. 
(Fir,   63.) 

IIutcui.vson's  Cider  and  Wixe  Mill.  The  best  mill  which 
I  have  examined,  is  Uutchinson's  patent — a  simple  and  con- 
venient machine,  of  various  sizes,  that  has  often  been  exhib- 
ited, and  taken  premiums.  This  mill  enables  the  farmer  to 
produce  sweet  cider  and  wine  at  any  time,  and  thus  to  save 
many  fruits  that  would  otherwise  be  lost.  The  juice  comes  out 
clear  and  sweet,  and  if  from  sound  apples,  will  keep  good  a 
long  time.  The  fruit  is  first  crushed,  and  then  ground  into  a 
fine  pomace,  without  breaking  the  seeds,  and  discharged  into 
the  press  beneath,  to  be  pressed  out  at  convenience.  The  press- 
ing is  a  simple  and  easy  process. 

All  the  iron  work,  with  which  the  juice  would  be  liable  to 
come  in  contact,  is  covered  with  a  durable  preparation  that  pre- 
vents all  rust,  and  keeps  clear  and  free  from  any  thing  disa- 
greeable. The  screws  are  made  of  wrought  iron,  with  a  fine 
thread.  The  teeth  of  the  grinder  are  not  liable  to  clog.  From 
eight  to  ten  bushels  of  apples,  grapes,  currants,  etc.,  can  be 
ground  by  hand  power  in  an  hour.  For  simplicity,  neatness,  and 
compactness,  I  know  of  nothing  of  the  kind  superior  to  this  ; 
and  as  it  is  always  ready  to  make  a  quart,  or  a  barrel,  of  cidei 
or  wine,  at  any  time,  it  is  an  article  of  great  convenience.  It 
is  manufactured  by  the  Peekskill  Plow  Works,  at  Peekskill, 
New  York. 

If  any  farmer  is  desirous  of  knowing  the  extent  and  variety 
of  agricultural  implements,  let  him  send  one  dollar  to  Messrs. 


146  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

R.H.  Allen  &  Co.,  189  Water  street,  New  York  city,  for  their  large 
illustrated  catalogue,  containing  upwards  of  three  hundred  and 
eighty  illustrations  ;  including  plows,  harrows,  cultivators,  seed 
sowers,  harvesting  implements  of  all  sorts — wind,  water,  steam, 
horse,  and  dog  powers — fans,  shellers,  and  separators — corn, 
cob,  and  grain  mills  (which  should  be  in  more  general  use 
among  large  farmers) — hay,  straw,  vegetable,  and  stalk  cut- 
ters—hay presses,  churns,  barrows,  wagons,  and  trucks  ;  be- 
sides hundreds  of  little  things  of  value  and  interest  to  the 
farmer.  A  careful  perusal  of  this  work  will  well  repay  the 
farmer  for  the  time  and  cost.  Messrs.  Allen  &  Co.  have  long 
devoted  themselves  to  the  interests  of  the  farmer,  and  we  are 
indebted  to  them  for  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  and 
illustration  of  this  chapter. 

Care  of  Farm  Implements.  Nothing  is  more  common 
than  to  hear  the  farmer  charged  with  neglecting  the  imple- 
ments of  the  farm,  by  unnecessary  exposure  to  the  weather  and 
careless  usage  generally.  There  is,  no  doubt,  some  ground  for 
this  charge  ;  and  yet  there  is  often  a  good  cause  for  an  apparent 
ne2;lect. 

The  proper  care  and  management  of  mowers  and  reapers 
have  been  alluded  to  on  a  previous  page,  and  we  have  only  a 
few  general  suggestions  to  add,  in  this  connection,  with  regard 
to  other  implements.  These  are  of  two  kinds — such  as  are 
used  within  doors  mainly,  and  such  as  are  used  without.  The 
former  are  not  usually  subject  to  exposure  and  injury  to  such 
an  extent  as  the  latter.  Implements  used  in  the  field  might  be 
again  divided  into  such  as  are  required  more  or  less  at  every 
season,  and  such  as  come  into  occasional  use  only.  Those  that 
are  hable  to  be  required  at  any  season,  must  necessarily  be 
more  exposed  than  others;  but  they  are,  fortunately,  of  simple 
construction,  and  less  costly,  when  they  are  to  be    renewed, 


Fi(J.    Gl.      XatiOXAL    FODDKIl   CL'TTER. 


Fig.  62.    Excelsior  Eoot  Cutter. 


10 


FARM    IMPLEMENTS.  149 

tlian  many  of  those  that  arc  used  for  a  shon  liin'.-  ui  eertaiu 
seasons. 

The  plow  is,  perhaps,  more  frequently  used  tlian  most  other 
implements,  and  it  is  subject  to  great  exposure.  When  it  wa^j 
made  of  wood,  it  was  liable  to  rapid  decay.  It  is  still  often  in- 
jured by  neglect,  and  want  of  housing  after  use.  All  plows 
should  be  cleaned  before  storing  them  away,  and  if  pains  were 
taken  to  brush  over  the  iron  work  with  a  cloth  moistened  with 
oil,  it  would  prevent  rust,  and  prolong  the  period  of  usefulness. 

A  tool-house  is  an  obvinus  necessity  on  every  well-regulated 
farm,  and  all  those  tools  that  are  but  rarely  required,  should  be 
kept  there,  and  immediately  returned  after  use.  In  fitting  up 
this  tool-house  for  the  reception  of  miscellaneous  implements, 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  floor  as  little  encumbered  as 
possible,  in  order  to  allow  free  access  to  every  implement  when 
it  is  wanted.  A  large  class  of  small  implements — scythes, 
wheels,  saws,  etc.,  are  best  hung  against  the  wall,  on  nails. 
Small  articles,  not  readily  suspended,  should  have  a  place  on 
shelves.  Hoes  and  weeders,  .and  similar  tools,  are  more 
accessible  in  framed  stands.  Plows,  grubbers,  etc.,  may  be 
kept  along  the  side  walls.  Ilave  a  specified  place  for  every- 
thing. 

As  often,  at  le;ist,  as  once  a  year,  there  should  be  a  regular 
muster  and  examination  of  all  tools.  It  may  be  the  work  of 
rainy  weather.  Collect  into  the  tool-house  every  thing  that  be- 
longs there.  Scrub  and  polish  with  sand  and  water,  if  needed  ; 
oil  such  tools  as  will  not  be  needed  for  sometime;  mend  any 
that  show  the  need  of  repairs,  and  take  to  the  blacksmith  shop 
f)r  carpenter  such  as  cannot  be  done  at  home;  and,  when  in  good 
condition,  return  each  to  its  place.  Plow  points  get  worn  and 
broken,  nuts  and  bolts  are  loosened  perhaps,  or  lost,  and  a 
thousand  little  things  require  to  be  mended  or  replaced,  which, 


j^50  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAT. 

in  the  hurry  of  the  working  season,  have  to  be  tolerated.  It 
is  economy  to  keep  them,  as  they  should  be,  in  order ;  and  a 
day  or  two,  at  the  close  of  the  season,  in  a  general  picking  up, 
mending,  painting,  oiling,  and  scrubbing,  will  save  many  a 
dollar,  which  will  be  required  to  buy  new  implements  in  place 
of  tho.^e  ruined  by  neglect. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  wonderful  development  which  me- 
chanical ingenuity  has  wrought  in  our  agriculture.  The  mower, 
the  reaper,  and  the  thresher,  are  fit  types  of  the  ever  restless 
and  progressive  spirit  of  the  present  age.  A  few,  wedded  to 
old  prejudices  and  to  early  customs,  may  resist  them  as  innova- 
tions, for  a  time,  but  their  language  is  too  powerful  and  per- 
suasive to  be  long  unheeded.  They  promise  for  us  a  glorious 
future,  in  which  they  will  accomplish,  for  us  and  for  our  coun- 
try, triumphs  no  less  grand  than  the  triumph  of  arms,  fo^*  they 
develop  the  means  of  supporting  the  millions  of  human  beings, 
which  the  implements  of  war  can  only  destroy. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  men  dug  the  earth,  and  sowed 
the  seed,  and  reaped  the  grain ;  but  while  the  myriads  toiled, 
without  aspiration  or  hope,  civilization  was  confined  to  the  few, 
the  mechanic  arts  languished,  and  the  gigantic  forces  of  nature 
waited  the  hand  of  a  master  to  call  them  into  beneficent  ac- 
tivity. The  river  rolled  on  its  resistless  current  for  more  than 
a  hundred  years  after  the  Christian  era  without  turning  a  wheel. 
The  winds  swept  over  the  hills  of  Europe  till  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, without  giving  motion  to  a  single  mill.  The  mighty 
power  of  steam  lay  hidden. 


FUj.  or}. 

IllTCULNSON'S  ClDEll   MlLL. 


\; 


l-'t'J.    t)"'.    lOTTON    -MaIIKKII 


Fl<j.  66. 
Flax  Co^ib. 


CHAPTER    V. 

GRAINS. 

illKAT  CULTURE  is  the  most  important  of  all  agricul- 
tural operations,  and  has  more  influence  upon  tbe  world 
'^  than  any  otlier, 

'  ^  Wlieat  is  brain  food,  and  the  progress  of  civilization 
and  intellectual  culture  can  be  traced  by  the  extent  of  its 
growth  and  consumption.  Two  hundred  million  bushels  of 
wheat  are  annually  raised  in  this  country,  and  we  have  the  soil 
and  the  machinery  for  an  almost  unlimited  expansion  of  the 
product.  Such  an  important  branch  of  our  industry  is  worthy 
of  the  most  attentive  and  pains-taking  consideration. 

The  Corner  Stone  of  Wheat  Culture,  as  of  all  improved 
farming,  is  drainage;  it  is  here  that  the  laigest  amount  of  capital 
is  required,  and  it  is  here  that  it  pays.  And  as  drainage  is  the 
oorner  stone,  fattening  stock,  rich  manure,  and  clover  fallows, 
are  the  foundation  stones.  Each  of  these  will  be  treated  of  in 
this  chapter. 

Soils  for  Wheat.  The  best  are  the  clays;  clay  and  lime, 
clay  and  sand,  clay  and  loam.  There  must  be  clay  for  a  suc- 
cession of  good  crops,  there  must  be  sand  for  bright  stiff  straw. 
A  sandy  soil  is  too  porous  for  wheat,  although  a  single  good 
crop  of  spring  wheat  is  sometimes  produced  even  on  tbe  sands 
of  New  Jersey,  ^[uck  is  not  adapted  to  wheat  culture.  Wheat 
will  succeed  on  a  greater  variety  of  soils  than  is  commonly  sup- 
posed, if  care  is  taken  to  enrich  and  fatten  the  land. 

153 


154:  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

There  is  no  State  but  what  can  and  ought  to  raise  enough 
wheat  for  its  home  consumption,  and  there  are  no  obstacles  in 
the  way  greater  than  the  tradition  that  wheat  will  not  pay. 

The  New  England  States  produce  only  one  fifteenth  of  their 
consumption,  and  pay  from  eight  dollars  to  sixteen  dollars  per 
barrel  for  wheat  flour.  We  do  not  propose  to  the  farmers  of 
that  section  to  raise  wheat  for  exportation ;  leave  that  to  the 
Western  farmers;  but  they  can,  by  an  improved  system  of  farm- 
ing for  wheat,  produce  the  wheat  for  home  consumption  at  a 
great  ultimate  saving.  It  v/ill  require  the  investment  of  con- 
siderable capital  in  drainage,  in  improving  soils,  (see  Chapter  III.,) 
in  the  purchase  of  stock,  etc.;  but  the  object  is  a  worthy  one, 
and  ultimate  success  and  profit  are,  we  believe,  certain.  The 
Impeovement  of  Soils  for  Grain  is  discussed  in  Chapter  III., 
but  we  would  say  here  that  there  are  many  soils  that  can  be 
made  to  produce  good  crops  of  corn,  oats,  rye  and  barley,  that 
will  only  yield  small  crops  of  wheat,  because  wheat  requires 
some  elements  not  required  by  the  other  grains.  Some  soils, 
with  only  a  small  admixture  of  clay,  will  only  give  a  fair  wheat 
crop  in  a  six  years'  rotation.  Where  clay  and  sand,  or 
clay  and  gravel,  are  commingled  in  just  the  proportion  which 
will  insure  drainage  without  drought,  wheat  can  be  profitably 
raised  every  three  years.  If  your  soil  is  not  of  this  character, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  drain.  Clay  contains  the  food 
''or  the  wheat  plant,  but  it  is  also  the  most  retentive  of  water, 
and  an  excess  of  water  is  death  to  winter  wheat.  After  drain- 
age of  a  heavy  clay  soil  a  few  hundred  bushels  per  acre  of  sand 
completes  the  work  of  improvement,  and  you  have  a  soil  which 
can  be  made  to  yield  remunerative  crops.  A  pure  sand  cannot 
he  made  a  remunerative  wheat  soil.  Clay  can  always  be  made 
so  by  the  application  of  Sand,  Lime,  Salt,  and  rich  Barn- 
yard Manure.    The  new  soils  of  the  prairies  will,  for  a  few 


GRAINS.  155 

years,  bear  good  crops  of  wheat  without  manures,  or  additions 
of  any  sort,  but  to  crop  lands  in  this  way  is  ruinous  in  the  end, 
and  the  prairie  farmers  have  often  found  it  out  to  their  cost. 
Nor  does  it  help  the  matter  much  to  put  back  the  straw  or  to 
feed  it  out  and  return   the  manure  to  the  land.     Somethino- 

o 

richer  must  be  added,  Eitlier  a  portion  of  tlie  grain  must  be 
fed  with  the  straw  to  the  stock  or  some  substitute  must  be  found. 
Ashes,  lime,  plaster,  etc.,  applied  to  green  crops  and  plowed 
under,  form  the  substitutes.  The  relative  value  of  these  fertili- 
zers is  given  in  Chajdcr  III.  Ashes  and  lime  should  be  com- 
posted with  straw,  leaves,  stalks,  and  muck.  Gypsum,  li.ne,  etc., 
should  be  sown  on  clover  or  buckwheat,  and  the  crop  plowed 
in  green.  An  acre  of  whi*at  requires  one  thousand  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty-seven  pounds  carbon,  one  tnousand  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-two  pounds  oxygen,  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
one  pounds  hydrogen,  and  thirty-two  jiounds  nitrogen;  an  acre 
of  clover,  well  set  and  plowed  under  in  blossom,  yields 
one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  carbon,  oae 
thou.sand  three  hundred  and  ninety-six  pounds  oxj'-gen,  one 
hundred  and  eighty-five  pounds  hydrogen,  and  seventy-eight 
pounds  of  nitrogen.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  that  there 
can  be  no  better  preparation  for  the  wheat  crop  than  a  clover 
lay  turned  under.  Wheat  will  not  perfect  without  nitrogen, 
and  one  gallon  of  the  urine  of  a  cow,  or  one  quart  of  the  urine 
of  a  hiirse,  when  they  are  fed  on  grain,  contains  nitrogen  enough 
for  sixty  pounds  of  wheat.  One  pint  of  human  urine  contains 
the  same  amount.  Read  Chapter  III.,  and  learn  how  to  econo- 
mise this  product  more  precious  than  gold.  Pulverized  char- 
coal will  retain  a  large  amount  of  urine,  and  is  a  most  valuable 
fertilizer  for  wheat,  especially  on  a  worn  .soil.  Other  applica- 
tion^ for  renovating  such  lands  are,  first,  ten  cords  well  rotted 
stable  manure,  twenty  bushels  leached  ashes,  five  bushels  bone 


156  HOW  TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

dust,  one  bushel  plaster,  and  one  bushel  of  salt  per  acre. 
Second,  five  two-horse  loads  of  wood  mould  or  swamp  muck, 
two  hundred  pounds  superphosphate;  one  hundred  pounds 
Peruvian  guano,  one  peck  plaster,  and  one  bushel  salt  per  acre. 
Third,  three  hundred  pounds  superphosphate,  twenty  bushels 
leached  ashes,  one  peck  plaster  and  one  bushel  salt  per  acre. 
Salt  in  some  form  we  believe  to  be  necessary  on  all  wheat  lands 
for  perman'ent  cultivation;  refuse  salt  can  be  obtained  from 
fish,  beef,  and  pork  dealers,  at  a  nominal  price.  A  correspond- 
ent of  the  American  Farmer  writes  that  "he  mixes  five 
busliels  of  salt  with  ten  of  air-slacked  lime,  lets  it  stand  three 
months,  turns  it  three  times  during  that  period,  and  sows  three 
bushels  of  the  mixture  per  acre  before  the  last  harrowing." 
This  is  an  excellent  method  of  using  it. 

John  Johnston,  the  veteran  farmer  of  Geneva,  New  York, 
says  that  he  has  sowed  five  bushels  of  salt  per  acre,  and  believes 
that  for  every  bushel  of  salt,  he  got  an  extra  bushel  of  wheat, 
besides  hastening  the  ripening  several  days,  by  which  meansi 
his  crop  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  midge.  Let  every  wheat- 
grower  test  the  value  of  salt  on  his  own  lands,  by  using  it  on 
one  portion  of  his  field,  and  carefully  noting  the  results.  Clover, 
as  we  have  before  stated,  is  the  most  efficacious  of  all  green 
crops  to  plow  under  for  wheat.  It  is  also  economical.  Calculate 
the  cost.  One  peck  seed,  $2.50 ;  one  hundred  pounds  plaster, 
70  cents;  labor,  hauling,  sowing,  etc.,  $1.00;  or  $4.20  per 
acre.  But,  after  all,  we  must  still  depend  largely  on  rich 
barnyard  manure,  and  fatten  the  land  through  a  regular 
rotation  of  crops  ;  especially  with  a  view  to  the  wheat  crop. 

Says  S.  Edwards  Todd,  agricultural  editor  of  the  New 
York  Times,  for  many  years  a  careful  wheat  culturist,  and 
always  a  close  observer:  "After  a  wet  soil  has  been  thorou^ghly 
uuderdrained,  so  that  there  are  no  apprehensions  that  the  young 


GRAIN'S.  157 

plants  will  be  lifted  out  of  the  grouucl  by  free^iing  and  tbawioo-- 
after  tlie  surface  soil  has  been  renovated  with  clover  and  kept 
ia  an  excellent  state  of  fertility,  by  a  judicious  system  of  rota- 
tion of  crops  for  several  successive  seasons ;  after  the  ground  has 
been  plowed,  replowed,  and  plowed  again,  and  again,  and  again, 
and  tlien  harrowed,  scarified,  teased  witli  the  cultivator,  and 
fretted  with  the  roller,  and  vexed  with  the  clod  crusher ;  and 
after  every  noxious  weed  has  been  exterminated,  root  and 
branch,  and  their  leaves,  stems,  and  radicles  nave  been  changed 
into  a  fertile  mould,  the  hopes  of  the  ambitious  husbandman 
will  not  be  realized  in  beholding  a  bountiful  crop  of  the  full 
wheat  in  the  ear,  unless  he  has  fattened  the  soil.  In  this  lies  the 
grand  secret  of  raising  wheat.  Yet  very  few,  even  of  our  best 
farmers,  understand  that  this  is  the  chief  requirement  of  the 
soil,  after  every  thing  else,  to  appearance,  has  been  done  which 
is  really  essential." 

How  to  fatten  the  soil,  then,  is  a  question  of  greatest  import- 
ance. It  is  by  the  applWation  of  wheat-producing  material  to 
the  soil  in  the  previous  rotation  of  crops.  The  base  of  clay 
soils  is  alumina^  the  great  requisite  for  large  heads  and  ful 
kernels  of  wheat.  The  j)hosphatic  materials  contained  in  lime, 
plaster,  gypsum,  bones,  ashe.s,  etc.,  are  essential  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  milk  of  which  the  kernel  is  formed.  Silicia  must 
also  be  present  to  assist  in  making  a  healthy,  bright,  stiff  straw, 
that  will  maintain  an  erect  position  until  the  grain  is  harvested. 
And  all  these  elements  must  be  in  such  a  state  that  the  roots 
can  appropriate  them  at  once.  The  food  must  be  prepared  for 
them.  This  can  only  be  accomplished  by  applying  them  to 
previous  crops ;  and  no  crop  so  well  prepares  food  for  wheat  as 
clover.  Clover,  then,  cither  plowed  under  or  fed  to  fattening 
stock,  and  the  manure  returned  to  the  soil,  is  a  prerequisite  of 
successful  wheat  culture.     Lime  or  plaster  sliould  be  sown  with 


158  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FAEM    PAY. 

the  clover,  and  after  it  is  Avell  started  in  tlie  spring,  it  may  be 
pastured ;  this  is  much  better  than  the  old  system  of  summer 
FALLOWS.  That  was  an  exhausting  system ;  the  naked  land  was 
baked  and  burned  under  the  direct  rays  of  the  summer  sun. 
The  clover  fallow  does  not  take  as  much  from  the  soil  as  it 
returns  when  plowed  under  or  plastered.  The  clover  di'aws 
many  valuable  elements  from  the  atmosphere,  w4iich  it  yields 
up  to  the  soil ;  it  shades,  protects,  and  mulches  the  ground,  and 
improves  its  condition.  {See  ChajDler  III.)  But  even  this  rotation 
of  clover  and  plaster  is  not  enough  to  maintain  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  and  produce  renumerative  crops  of  wheat.  The  further 
fattening  of  the  soil  is  accomplished  by  keeping  stock.  Sheep 
are  the  best  stock  for  this  purpose,  if  the  best  breeds  are  se- 
lected. (See  Sheep.)  Sheep  require  more  care  in  summer  than 
neat  cattle,  but  in  winter  they  can  be  housed,  and  fed  with 
much  less  expense  ;  they  do  not  require  their  grain  to  be  ground, 
as  that  for  cattle  always  should  be,  and  they  will  bring  quicker 
returns  in  wool  and  mutton,  than  an;^other  kind  of  stock,  and 
will  add  as  much  valuable  manure  to  the  compost  as  any  kind 
of  stock.  But  whatever  kind  of  stock  is  kept,  whether  horses, 
cattle,  shr-ep,  or  hogs,  they  should  be  kept  fat,  should  be  fed 
with  grain  or  oil  cake,  and  never  be  allowed  to  grow  poor. 
Give  them  all  they  can  eat,  and  a  little  to  spare,  for  the  manure 
from  one  fat  animal  is  worth  certainly  twice  as  much  as  the 
manure  from  a  lean  one.  For  this  purpose  we  recommend  the 
raising  of  a  wide  breadth  of  root  crops,  their  careful  preserva- 
tion and  liberal  feeding.  (See  Boots.)  Keep  not  one  more 
animal  than  you  can  keep  fat;  carefully  preserve  all  their  ma- 
nure, both  solid  and  liquid,  apply  it  to  the  rotation  preceding 
your  wheat,  let  a  clover  fallow  bring  it  into  condition  for  wheat 
food,  and  you  have  the  basis  of  successful  wheat  culture. 
Pheparinq  the  Soil.   We  have  elsewhere  {Cl^apter  II.)  given 


GRAINS.  15y 

our  views,  in  regard  to  the  benefits  of  deep  cultivation,  and  the 
ttrop  uniier  consideration  is  no  exception.  Although  at  the 
time  of  putting  in  the  seed,  the  plowing  should  be  shallow,  the 
hind  should  have  been  previously  subsoiled.  Cultivate  the  soil 
to  the  depth  of  iVom  sixteen  to  twenty  inches,  for  the  crops 
preceding  wheat,  whether  they  be  corn,  roots,  or  clover,  not  by 
turnhig  ten  inches  of  the  subsoil  to  the  surface,  but  mellowing 
it  by  means  of  the  sub.soil  plow,  and  bringing  only  an  inch  or 
two  at  a  time  to  the  surface.  All  your  crops  will  be  better,  for 
this  mellowing  of  the  subsoil ;  each  will  return  you  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  expense,  and  you  can  expect  nothing  but  failure 
of  your  wheat  crop  without  it.  If  it  is  thus  subsoiled  for  the 
crops  that  intervene  between  the  wheat  crops,  it  will  be  in  jast 
the  condition  required  by  this  Uiost  fastidious  plant.  But  when 
!t  comes  to  preparing  directly  for  seeding  the  wheat,  plow 
shallow.  If  you  plow  deep  noic^  the  wheat  will  at  once  take 
deep  root,  and  iiy  the  l^ing  of  the  frosts,  the  roots  will  be 
broken  off.  l*!ow  shallow,  or  even  harrow  the  surface 
thoroughly,  and  ilie  roots  will  spread  out  horizontally,  and  mat 
together,  and  though  raised  by  the  frost,  will  settle  back  into 
their  proper  place  again,  when  the  frost  is  gone.  Skinner's 
Gang  Plow,  and  Ides'  Wheel  Cultivator,  are  preferable  to  the 
ordinary  plow,  in  preparing  the  soil  for  wheat.  For  similar 
reasons,  the  manure,  applied  directly  to  the  wneat  crop,  should 
be  merely  covered  two  inches  below  the  surface,  or  harrowed 
in.  For  this  purpose,  only  thoroughly  decomposed  manures 
should  be  applied  at  the  time  of  seeding.  This  manure,  being 
immediately  available  and  near  the  surface,  will  promote  the 
growth  of  the  roots  in  the  manner  desired.  We  have  sug- 
gested that  the  seed  bed  should  be  shallow ;  it  should  also  be 
mellow.     The  harrow  and  the  clod  crusher  should  be  iised,  untd 


f(30  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

the  whole  surface  is  as  fine  as  the  garden  bed,  if  you  would  get 
the  largest  crops. 

SowiXG  THE  Seed.  Early  and  late  sowing.  If  there  were  no 
Hessian  fly  in  the  land,  the  last  of  August  would  undoubtedly 
be  the  best  time  to  sow  wheat  in  the  Northern  States,  but  early 
sown  wheat  is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  this  pest.  AVe  think, 
then,  that  .in  the  northernmost  tier  of  wheat-growing  Slates, 
sowing  should  rather  be  delayed,  until  the  last  week  of  Septem- 
ber, unless  there  occurs  a  sharp  frost  previous  to  that  time. 
Let  the  intervening  time  be  spent  in  thoroughly  preparing  the 
soil,  so  that  the  seed,  when  sown,  may  find  no  difficulties  in  the 
vv^ay  of  an  immediate  and  thrifty  growth.  If  you  must  sow  in 
soil  not  fattened,  and  enriched,  and  deeply  mellowed,  you  must 
plant  earl}'-,  so  that  the  grain  will  get  a  fair  growth  before  the 
winter  sets  in.  The  depth  to  cover  seeds,  must  be  deter- 
mined by  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  '  If  there  were  no 
frosts,  undoubtedly  six  inches  would  J^  as  good  depth  as  any  to 
cover  wheat,  but  when  we  take  into  consideration  the  cer- 
tainty of  frosts,  and  the  injury  they  do  by  breaking  off  the 
roots  of  the  plants,  we  conclude  that  shallow  planting  is  more 
desirable.  Two  inches  in  an  ordinary  wheat  soil  is  sufficient , 
of  course  a  very  light  sandy  soil  requires  greater  depth.  The 
amount  of  seed  to  the  acre,  depends  upon  the  quality  and 
condition  of  the  soil.  In  a  poor  and  imperfectly  prepared  soil, 
a  large  proportion  of  the  seed  does  not  germinate,  and  what 
does  get  a  start,  iillers  but  little,  and  two  and  a  half  or  three 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  is  often  required  to  produce  a  crop  of 
from  eight  to  fifteen  bushels  per  acre.  This  is  poor  farming, 
because  it  keeps  both  the  land  and  the  owner  poor.  A  much 
better  s^^stem  is  that  which  so  fattens  and  prepares  the  land, 
that  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  bushels  of  seed  will  suffice  for 
•^^  crop  of  from  twenty-five  to  forty-five  bushels.     One  bushel 


n  RAINS.  101 

of  wheat,  selected  as  doscril.ed  on  page  168,' and  well  drilled  in, 
is  sufficient  for  soil  iii  the  wry  best  condition.  But  we  think  it 
safer  to  add  one  peck  to  tiiis  quantity;  and,  when  sowed,  one 
and  a  half  to  two  bushels  will  be  required. 

DrillixvJ    in    WnK.\T   has   many  advantages  over  sowino- 
broadcast.     Less  seed  is  required,  as  it  is  all  put  in  and  covered 
at  a  uniform  depth.     Less  time  and  labor  are  reqaircd,  as  the 
whole  is  completed  at   one  op  mtiou,  while,  when  sowed*broad- 
cast,  it  must  be  harrowed  twice,     drilled  wheat  comes  up  much 
more  uniformly,  the  stalks  are  more  nearly  uniform  in  height, 
and  the  heads  are  consequently  more  uniform.     Another  advan- 
tage of  the  drill  is,  that  an  acre  or  two  may  be  plowed,  har- 
rowed, and  the  seed  drilled  in,  all  in  one  day,  wliile  the  soil  is 
in  the  best  condition  for  it.     The  Star  Drill  and  Cultivator,  de- 
scribed in    Cho]>(tr  IV.,  is  well   worthy   the  attention  of  grain 
growers.     We  hope  the  drill  will  ere  long  supplant  hand  sow- 
ing, as  the  reaper  and  njpwer  are  supplanting  the  cradle  and 
the  scytiie  ;  but  meantime  we  must  give  directions  for  .sowing  and 
covering  wheat.     In  hand-sowing,  always  cast  the  grain  all  one 
way,  and  that  away  from  the  margin  of  thi*.  field;  calculate  tlic 
width  of  one  throw,  and  make  it  as  even  as  possible;  let  the 
seed  slip  oft*  the  fingers,  never  through  them.     There  are  seve- 
ral hand  sowing  machines,  which  will  do  the  work  a  little  better 
than  it  can  be  done  by  hand.     It   is  very  diificult  to  burrow  in 
grain  evenly.     The   :eet  of  the  teams  will  tread  much  of  it  in 
too  deep,  and  much  will  be  left  on  the  surface  uncovcreu.     We 
believe   the  Rotary   Harrow,  manufactured  by  the  American 
Agricultural  Works,  is  the  best  for  this  purpose,  although  not 
equal  to  some    other   harrows   for    ordinary   farm   operations. 
Mulching  winter  wheat,  when  it  gets  but  a  feeble  start  in  the 
fall,  will  sometimes  save  it  from  being  winter-killed.     If  the 


102  now   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

first  heavy  fall  of  snow  is  rolled,  it  will  have  a  good   effect. 
Never  pasture  grain  in  the  fall,  however  well  it  may  be  started. 

Harrowing  Wheat  in  the  spring  may  be  very  beneficial 
if  the  wheat  has  been  drilled  in  two  inches  deep.  Instead  of 
the  ordinary  coarse  harrow,  use  a  harrow  with  a  large  number 
of  fine  teeth ;  the  crust  is  then  thoroughly  broken  up,  and  a 
mellow  soil  prepared  for  the  secondary  roots,  which  make  their 
appearS,uce  as  soon  as  growth  commences.  Where  the  seed  has 
been  sowed  broadcast,  and  harrowed  in,  a  large  proportion  of  it 
will  be  covered  very  shallow,  and  will  be  torn  up  in  the  process 
of  harrowing.  Spring  harrowing  offers  opportunity  also  for 
seeding  to  grass  where  this  is  desired.  Aside  from  this  very 
early  harrowing,  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  hoe  or  cultivate 
the  wheat  crop.  If  the  soil  is  drained,  mellowed,  and  thorough- 
ly prepared  as  directed  in  these  pages,  it  will  not  cake  and  harden 
so  as  to  need  the  cultivator.  If  drilled  in,  the  rows  offer  an 
opportunity  to  pass  through  the  crop  and  pull  the  weeds  and 
grass  by  hand,  but  they  should  not  be  hoed  up,  as  the  roots  of 
the  wheat  will  be  injured  by  the  hoe.  Pull  up  every  plant  that 
appears  among  your  wheat,  and  lay  them  in  the  rows  for  a 
mulch.  The  wheat  is  particularly  sensitive  in  regard  to  weeds 
Chess  and  quack  grass  are  its  inveterate  enemies,  and  should 
be  destroyed  without  mercy. 

The  Time  to  Harvest  Wheat  is  just  after  the  kernels  have 
passed  from  a  milky  to  a  doughy  state,  which  is  about  two 
weeks  before  it  is  fully  ripe.  There  are  various  signs  by  which 
this  is  determined.  One  is  by  opening  various  kernels  from 
different  heads,  and  if  the  interior  is  thick  or  doughy,  it  is  time 
to  cut  it.  On  the  contrary,  if  it  is  still  thin  or  milky,  it  will 
shrink  after  being  cut,  and  will  not  give  as  much  or  as  good 
flour. 

Another  sign  of  the  proper  state  for  harvesting  is  when  the 


GRAIN'S.  Irty 

Straw  turns  yellow,  eitlier  from  the  head  do^\•n wards,  or  fruin  the 
root  upwards,  saj  about  two  joints.  If  the  straw  between  the 
two  lower  or  upper  joints  has  turned  yellow  on  a  majority  of 
the  stalks  all  over  the  field,  cut  at  once.  "When  the  grain  has 
been  drilled  in,  this  ripening  will  be  very  uniform.  If  the  grain 
is  allowed  to  stand  after  this  period,  it  will  lose  a  proportion  of 
gluten,  which  goes  to  the  shell  ;  an<l  will  be  more  difficult  to 
handle  without  shaking  out  a  large  proportion  of  the  grain ; 
and  the  straw  will  lose  much  of  its  nutritious  qualities.  The 
straw  would  he  better  for  fodiler  if  cut  a  week  or  two  earlier; 
it  is  therefore  important  that  the  harvesting  be  not  delayed  a 
day  after  the  proper  periotl  has  arrived :  have  every  thing  in 
readiness  to  harvest  the  grain  immediately.  This  can  be  done 
with  modern  improvements  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  fifteen  acres 
per  day,  with  a  single  pair  of  horses,  and  a  self-raking  reaper. 
By  all  means  have  a  machine  that  will  harvest  all  kinds  of 
grass  and  grain.  (See  in  Chapter  IV.,  description  and  directions 
in  regard  to  mowers  and  reapers.)  If  you  only  raise  a  small 
amount  of  grain  or  gras.*?,  secure  an  interest  in  some  neighbor's 
macUine;  but  if  you  cut  ten  acres,  of  either  grass  or  grain,  buy 
a  machine. 

A  southern  farmer,  who  raised  seven  hundred  acres  of  wheat, 
had  it  cradled  by  hand,  commencing  about  ten  days  too  soon, 
and  finishing  ten  days  too  late.  That  first  cut,  shrank ;  and  that 
last  cut,  shelled  badly,  and  gave  a  large  proportion  of  bran, 
Ilis  less  on  the  crop  was  not  far  from  twelve  hundred  dollars. 
A  great  deal  of  grain  will  still  be  cradled.  The  cradle  scythe 
is  better  less  than  four  feet  in  length  than  over ;  the  fingers 
should  be  a  little  shorter  than  the  scythe.  Do  not  grind  the 
scythe  too  thin.  Many  scythes  are  spoiled  by  too  much  grind- 
ing.    Stack  the  grain  as  fast  as  it  is  cut;  do  not  let  it  lie  in  the 

awath.     Whether  cut  bv  a  self- raking  reaper,  and  left  in  gavels, 
I] 


154  HOW   TO   MAKE   TUE    FARM   PAY. 

or  raked  by  hand,  it  should  be  bound  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
stacked.  The  size  of  the  gavels  is  an  important  consideration ; 
they  should  be  as  large  as  can  be  conveniently  bound,  and  of 
uniform  size.  If  one  thousand  sheaves  are  made  where  only 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  were  needed,  just  the  time  used  to  bind 
two  hundred  and  fifty  sheaves  is  lost.  In  raking  gavels,  great 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  butts  be  kept  even,  else  it  will 
not  stack  properly.  A  great  convenience  to  the  grain  raiser  is 
a  band  maker.  "We  give  a  description,  and  as  it  is  not  patent 
any  blacksmith  can  make  one.  Take  a  piece  of  half- inch 
round  iron  twenty  inches  in  length ;  make  three  inches  at  one 
end  into  a  hook,  and  nine  inches  at  the  other  into  a  crank. 
Before  bending  the  hook,  run  the  iron  lengthwise  through  a 
six-inch  stick  of  hickory,  or  other  hard  wood,  for  a  handle. 

The  bands  are  made  as  follows.  "Wet  a  quantity  of  straw, 
fasten  some  of  it  to  the  hook  and  walk  backward,  turning  the 
crank.  A  person  should  sit  on  the  floor,  and  let  out  the  straw 
as  it  is  wanted.  Several  hundred  feet  of  'good  bands  can  be 
made  in  an  hour  in  this  way. 

Shocking  "Wheat  is  one  of  the  most  important  operations 
of  the  harvest.  The  main  cause  of  so  much  poor  flour  is  bad 
shocking  and  stacking.  "Wheat  can  be  shocked  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  receive  no  injury  from  ordinary  rains,  but  it  is 
seldom  done. 

The  loss  to  the  wheat  crop  from  faulty  shocking,  can  be 
reckoned  only  by  millions.  In  forming  a  shock,  either  set  one 
sheaf  in  the  centre,  and  lean  others  against  it,  or  set  two  sheaves 
leaning  against  each  other.  Upon  these  centre  sheaves  depends 
the  stability  of  the  shock,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  that 
they  securely  brace  each  other. 

And  here  we  would  stop  to  recommend,  in  the  strongest  lan- 
guage we  are  capable  of  using,  the  employment,  by  every  grass 


GRAINS.  1H5 

3T  grain  grower,  of  hay  and  grain  caps.  Says  S.  E.  Todd :  ''As 
there  is  so  much  uncertainty  about  having  fair  weather  during 
the  days  of  harvest,  they  seem  to  be  an  almost  indispensable 
requisite  to  successful  agriculture.  Indeed,  I  think  that  grain 
caps  are  far  more  important  than  a  mowing  machine  or  a 
reaper.  If  I  could  have  but  one  of  the  two,  I  should  consider 
it  more  economical  to  purchase  one  hundred  dollars'  worth  of 
hay  caps,  than  a  mower  or  reaper.  Few  farmers  really  under- 
stand and  appreciate  the  eminent  advantage  of  such  appendages. 
I  think  that  if  a  farmer  who  has  been  accustomed  to  secure  his 
crops  without  grain  caps,  will  employ  them  during  a  "wet  season, 
he  would  be  ever  after  unwilling  to  dispense  with  their  use. 
In  localities  where  long  and  heavy  storms  of  rain  are  apt  to 
prevail  during  the  haying  and  harvesting  season,  every  farmer 
ought  to  prepare  a  good  supply  of  hay  caps,  not  only  for  pro- 
tecting his  hay  while  it  is  in  cock,  but  for  protecting  his  cereal 
grain  and  Indian  corn-stalks,  when  they  are  in  the  shock. 
Such  caps  will  oft5n  pay  for  themselves  in  a  single  season  in 
protecting  hay  only,  but  after  the  hay  has  been  gathered,  tliey 
will  be  found  quite  as  serviceable  for  protecting  barley,  wheat, 
and  oats." 

These  caps  should  be  made  of  common  ticking  or  sheeting, 
six  feet  square,  with  the  rough  edges  hemmed.  Turn  up  the 
corners  about  three  inches  and  sew  them  down  tightly,  work 
holes  in  eacH  corner  for  wooden  pins  to  go  through  ;  these  pin^ 
may  be  made  of  any  hard  wood,  and  should  be  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  long,  with  a  knob  at  one  end,  and  sharp-pointed 
at  the  other.  They  should  be  dipped  in  boiled  oil  to  render 
them  impervious  to  water.  The  writer  just  quoted  says: 
"  Make  a  paint  of  three  parts  of  coal  tar  and  one  part  of  ben- 
zine, and  apply  to  the  cloth  in  hot  weather,  and  you  will  have 
caps  that  will  last  as  long  as  any  one  man  Avill  need  them." 


IQQ  HOAY   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

Wheat,  if  properly  stacked,  can  be  kept  nearly  as  well  out 
of  doors  as  in ;  but  not  in  the  way  it  is  usually  done.  Says 
Mr.  Todd :  "  A  fliriner  should  never  attempt  to  stack  his  own 
grain  until  he  is  sure  he  knows  how,  and  he  can  never  be  sure 
of  that  until  lie  has  a  vivid  recollection  of  the  time  Avhen  he 
did  not  know  how.  In  Great  Britain  it  has  long  been  the  cus- 
tom to  secure  grain  in  stacks,  and  they  have  brought  the  art  to 
a  great  deal  of  perfection,  and  every  farmer  who  has  not  learned 
the  art  himself,  should  secure  the  services  of  some  English, 
Welsh,  or  Scotch  farmer  to  do  that  job  for  him,  until  he  has 
thoroughly  acquired  the  art  himself." 

Spring  Wheat.  There  are  some  special  directions  necessary 
in  regard  to  spring  wheat,  or  wheat  sown  in  the  spring,  instead 
of  the  fall,  for  this  is  the  only  difference  between  the  two. 
Some  varieties  are  better  adapted  to  spring  sowing ;  but  winter 
wheat  can  be  made  spring  wheat  and  vice  versa.  After  the 
crops  are  off  in  the  fall,  the  ground  can  be  thoroughly  mellowed, 
the  frosts  will  still  more  completely  pulverize  it;  and,  in  t!io 
spring,  this  winter  fallowed  ground  will  be  in  splendid  condition 
for  the  seed.  If  you  sow  wheat  in  the  spring,  prepare  the  soil 
in  the  previous  autumn,  and  then  you  will  be  able  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  first  opportunity.  Light  soils  are  better  adapted 
to  spring  wheat  than  heavy  soils,  yet  very  light  soils  should  not 
be  winter  fallowed. 

Sow  spring  wheat  as  early  as  the  ground  will  admit.  If  you 
defer  plowing  until  spring,  your  seeding  will  be  too  late, 
especially  if  the  spring  is  wet.  Sow  your  wheat  in  the  mud  if 
your  soil  was  thoroughly  prepared  in  the  autumn ;  but  do  not 
sow  until  the  hard  frosts  are  passed.  With  a  hardy  variety  of 
spring  wheat,  retaining  the  character  of  the  winter  wheat  from 
which  it  sprung,  it  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  it  can  be  got  two 
inches  into  the  ground ;  but  such  are  not  most  of  our  spring 


GRAINS.  1(57 

wheats.  Spring  wheat  cayi  be  raised  wherwer  winter  luheca  can, 
and  there  are  many  advantages  in  raising  spring  wheat.  Let 
every  f:\rmer  pepare  his  land  as  wc  hare  directed,  and  sow  one 
crop  of  spring  wheat,  and  few,  we  think,  will  ever  choose  to 
depend  again  entirely  on  winter  wheat. 

The  selection  of  Wheat  for  Seed,  is  a  matter  in  which 
most  cultivators  are  culpably  ignorant  or  careless.  The  points 
to  be  aimed  at  in  the  first  selection  of  a  variety  for  cultivation, 
are,  abundanl  1/ieId ;  earhj  ripening ;  {a  {q\v  days  makes  a  vast 
diflference  m  this  respect ;)  hardiness  in  winter ;  regularity  of 
growth  ;  a  close  chaff,  rendering  it  proof  against  the  midge ;  a 
tktn  skin,  and  stiffni'ss  of  straw,  without  which  the  grain  lodges, 
and  the  kernels  never  fill  full  and  plump.  If  the  land  is  fattened, 
prepared,  and  kept  in  the  best  state  of  cultivation,  the  Soules, 
DiEHL,  and  BoUGHTON,  or  Oregon  wheat,  are  probably  the  best 
of  the  white  wheats.  The  Soules  is  productive,  hardy,  regular, 
with  close  chaff,  thin  skin  and  stiff  straw,  but  is  not  quite 
early  enough  for  the  slipshod  farmer.  The  Diehl  is  earlier 
and  perhaps  the  very  best  of  all  the  white  wheats,  for  a  rich 
soil.  The  Pedigree  Wheat  is  a  good  wheat  with  a  bad 
defect,  a  loose  chaff  that  permits  it  to  shell  out  badly  in  har- 
vesting. 

The  Weeks  Wheat  is  a  much  esteemed  variety  in  some 
sections,  and  worthy  of  general  cultivation.  The  White 
Mediterranean  is  the  standard  variety  for  farmers  who  are  not 
willing  to  give  their  fields  the  best  cultivation.  It  is  early, 
hardy,  with  a  close  chafl^  but  is  not  as  productive,  nor  of  as 
good  quality  as  the  other  wheats  named,  nor  is  the  straw  as 
stiff.  It  will  bear  slack  cultivation  better  than  any  of  the  other 
varieties.  We  still  lack  a  wheat  which  shall  be  as  early 
and  as  hardy  as  the  Mediterranean,  and  at  the  same  time 
as  productive  and  as   fine   as   the   others   named.     The   Red 


IQQ  HOW  TO   MAKE   IHE   FARM   PAT. 

Wheats  bring  a  less  price  than  the  white,  but  are  still  much 

cultivated. 

Red  Blue  Stem  Wheat.  We  give  this  the  preference 
among  the  red  wheats.  It  is  a  little  later  than  the  Mediter- 
ranean, but  hardy,  regular,  with  close  chaff,  gives  as  good 
quality  of  flour  as  any  other  of  the  red  wheats,  and  is  very  pro- 
ductive under  good  cultivation. 

The  Red  Andriola  is  objectionable,  on  account  of  its  long, 
rough  arms. 

The  Golden  Straw  is  an  amber  wheat,  that  promises  well 
under  the  best  cultivation;  it  is  said  to  succeed  best  on  a  rich, 
sandy  loam,  which  we  are  inclined  to  doubt ;  if  so,  it  will  be  a 
very  convenient  variety,  as  it  will  be  profitable  where  other 
wheats  will  not. 

The  Red  Chaff  Amber,  and  the  Witter,  are  good  varieties 
for  the  best  cultivation;  but,  as  with  the  white  wheats,  the 
Mediterranean  red  wheat  is  the  surest  of  moderate  success 
under  moderate  cultivation.  For  spring  wheats,  the  Black 
Sea,  when  pure,  the  Canada  Club,  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
Fife,  and  the  China  Tea  Wheat,  all  have  good  qualities  to 
recommend  them.  There  are  many  other  excellent  varieties  of 
wheat,  and  each  farmer  must  decide  for  himself,  by  experiments 
on  his  own  soil,  which  is  the  best  for  him  to  cultivate.  We  do 
not  believe  in  universal  varieties  of  any  plant.  What  is  best 
adapted  for  one  section  may  not,  and  probably  is  not,  equally 
valuable  in  another.  But  when  a  variety  has  been  selected  it 
should  be  kept  pure,  the  seed  carefully  selected  from  year  to 
year,  and  the  quality  kept  up,  and  if  possible  improved  by  the 
best  cultivation,  or  it  will  soon  degenerate.  The  great  inexcusa- 
ble sm  of  American  wheat  growers  has  been,  and  is,  their  care 
lessness  in  this  respect.  The  Selection  of  Seed  for  wheat  is 
as  important  as  the  selection  of  stock  for  breeding.     Seed  wheat 


GRAINS.  159 

should  be  growu  separately,  harvested  separately,  threshed 
separately,  cleaned  separately,  and  kept  separately,  for  this  spe- 
cial purpose. 

The  crop  of  wheat  in  this  country  can  be  increased  fifty,  ana 
we  honestly  believe  one  hundred  per  cent.,  by  attention  to  this 
matter.  If  you  sow  ten  acres  of  wheat,  select  one  acre  of  the 
best  of  the  land,  give  it  special  attention,  sow  ashes  and  plaster 
more  freely  on  it,  add  a  few  extra  loads  of  rich  compost,  give  it 
extra  cultivation,  go  through  it  often  while  growing,  and  pull 
all  weeds,  grass,  etc.  It  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  a  little 
longer  than  the  main  crop,  (it  will  naturally  mature  a  few  days 
earlier,)  and  be  carefully  harvested  to  prevent  shelling.  It  shouM 
not  bo  threshed  in  a  machine,  (as  this  often  breaks  the  skin  and 
destroys  the  germ,)  but  very  moderatdy  with  tlic  flail.  You 
only  want  the  plumpest,  fullest,  kernels.  Every  farmer  should 
have  a  fanning  mill  that  will  separate  the  large  from  the  small 
grain.     {Fig-  64.) 

The  jcut  represents  a  fanning  mill  which  will  not  only  do 
this,  but  will  separate  barley,  chess,  grass  seed,  etc.  For  cleaning 
grass  seed  nothing  equals  it.  Clover  and  timothy  are  sepa- 
rated as  if  by  magic,  and  the  seeds  of  weeds  are  separated  from 
the  whole.  It  separates  grain  into  three  grades,  according  to  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  kernel,  and  the  best  bushel  in  ten, 
twenty,  or  fifty,  is  easily  secured  for  seed. 

But  until  you  get  this  or  some  other  separator  you  can  still 
further  improve  your  seed  by  the  following  process.  Clean 
your  barn  floor,  open  the  doors  at  both  ends,  when  there  is  a 
good  current  of  air,  throw  the  grain  towards  the  wind,  and  at 
the  further  end  of  your  floor  you  will  have  the  largest  and 
heaviest  kernels.  Sowing  without  selecting  the  seed  is  such  a 
shiftless  piece  of  business  that  we  should  think  any  farmer 
would  be  ashamed  to  confess  it.     Two  kinds  of  wheat  should 


170  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

never  be  sown  in  the  same  field,  or  so  near  as  to  hybridize  oi 
mix.  Keep  your  variety  pure,  save  the  best  seed  with  care, 
and  cultivate  well,  and  your  wheat  crop  will  increase  both  in 
quantity  and  quality. 

Smut  is  a  great  enemy  of  the  wheat  crop,  and  the  only  help 
tor  it  is  brining  the  seed.  The  most  convenient  method  is  the 
following.  Cut  a  cider  barrel  or  oil  tierce  in  two,  in  the  middle, 
or  use  two'  large  wash  tubs;  make  a  strong  brine,  strong 
enough  to  bear  an  egg,  and  if  used  hot  all  the  better;  put  the 
brine  into  one  of  the  tubs  and  turn  the  wheat  into  it;  stir  it 
up  two  or  three  times  and  skim  off  the  chess,  chaff,  and  light 
wheat  which  will  come  to  the  surface;  then  shovel  it  out  into 
a  basket,  and  let  it  drain  over  the  other  tub ;  turn  it  on  to  the 
floor  and  sift  slackened  lime  into  it  slowly,  stirring  it  in  with  a 
rake  until  it  will  not  stick  together ;  sow  as  soon  as  possible. 
Rust  is  another  foe  the  wheat  grower  is  obliged  to  encounter ; 
the  remedy  for  this  disease  is  to  supply  the  soil  at  once  with 
ashes  and  sand,  in  addition  to  the  careful  selection  and  preser- 
vation of  seed  as  before  described.  If  the  farmer  continues  to 
sow  his  seed  without  this  care  in  raising  and  preserving  it  he 
will  continue  to  have  smutty  and  rusty  wheat.  The  only  reme- 
dies for  the  insect  enemies,  the  midge,  the  fly,  the  worm,  and  the 
chinch  bug,  are  careful  selection  and  thorough  tillage.  "Make 
the  wheat  grow  so  luxuriantly  that  the  little  which  the  insects 
consume  will  not  be  missed,"  nor  the  growth  checked. 

Rye.  Much  that  has  been  said  in  regard  to  wheat  is  applica- 
ble to  this  crop  as  well.  Rye  will  grow  on  poorer  soils  and 
with  less  cultivation  than  wheat ;  it  will  flourish  on  quite  sandy 
soils,  and  on  soils  nearly  destitute  of  clay,  if  given  a  moderate 
dressing  of  compost,  guano,  or  plaster.  Still  we  affirm  that  the 
more  liberally  it  is  supplied  with  fertilizers  the  more  profitable 
will  be  the  crop. 


GRAINS.  171 

All  that  we  have  said  in  regard  to  the  preparation  of  the  sv)il, 
careful  selection  of  seed,  drilling  in  the  seed,  and  harvesting  ihe 
crop,  in  the  preceding  pages,  is  applicable  equally  to  rye  as  to 
wheat. 

Rich  barnyard  manure,  composted  as  described  in  Chapterlll., 
and  applied  at  the  rate  of  ten  cords  io  the  acre,  will  prove 
abundantly  remunerative.  Farmer  Slack,  who  allows  the  most 
valuable  part  of  his  manure  to  go  to  waste,  has  little  or  none 
left  to  apply  to  his  rye,  and  has  poor  crops. 

"When  rye  straw  is  as  valuable  as  at  present,  a  heavy  crop  of 
rye  is  an  object  worth  trying  for.  Subsoil,  harrow  and  cross 
harrow,  manure  as  directed,  not  forgetting  the  salt,  lime,  or 
bones,  and  sow  early,  the  last  of  August  or  first  of  September, 
We  have  known  over  eiglity  bushels  of  grain,  and  over  nine 
thousand  pounds  of  straw,  secured  from  two  acres  by  the  above 
method  of  cultivation.  If  the  seed  is  carefully  selected  the 
grains  will  be  larger  than  the  average  and  not  as  many,  of 
course,  to  the  bu;3hel ;  we  therefore  advise  sowing  from  one  and 
a  half  to  two  bushels  of  selected  seed,  or  drilling  one  to  one  and 
a  half  bushels.  Every  sheep  raiser  would  do  well  to  sow  a 
patch  of  rye  for  late  pasturage,  as  it  brings  the  stock  to  the 
winter  in  the  best  condition,  and  will  also  afford  early  pastuie 
in  the  spring. 

Barley  is  usually  and  best  grown,  between  a  root  or  corn 
crop  that  has  been  heavily  manured  and  well  cultivated,  and  a 
wheat  crop.  No  barnyard  manure  should  be  applied  directly 
to  the  barley,  but  liberally  to  the  crop  that  precedes  it.  When 
the  crop  of  corn  or  roots  is  off,  plow  the  land.  There  will  not 
be  time  in  the  spring,  as  the  crop  must  go  in  as  soon  as  the  dan- 
ger of  severe  frosts  is  over.  If  drilled  in,  use  two  bushels  of 
seed ;  if  sowed  broadcast,  two  and  a  half  bushels.  "When  the 
head  assumes  a  reddish  cast  and  lops  down,  is  the  time  to  cut 


172  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE   FARM  PAY. 

it,  and  it  should  be  done  at  once,  as  both  straw  and  grain  lose 
by  every  day's  delay.  It  can  be  mown,  cradled,  or  cut  with  a 
reaper.  When  the  straw  is  short,  it  can  be  raked  and  housed 
without  binding.  Barley  is  excellent  food  for  stock,  but  it  is 
mostly  used  for  making  beer.  Some  is  exported  for  that  pur- 
pose.    The  straw  is  worth  more  for  fodder  than  wheat  straw. 

Buckwheat  will  grow  upon  a  very  poor  soil,  with  very  poor 
cultivation;  but  should  have  a  little  more  manure  and  a  little 
more  cultivation  than  it  usually  gets.  It  makes  an  excellent 
green  fodder  for  milch  cows ;  for  which  purpose,  three  pecks 
should  be  sown  in  June,  which  will  be  fit  for  cutting  in  August. 
If  plowed  under  green,  it  makes  an  excellent  fertilizer  for 
wheat.  It  can  be  sown  as  late  as  August  15th,  and  if  it  does 
not  ripen  before  frost,  can  be  turned  under,  so  that  nothing  is 
lost.  In  sowing  for  a  grain  crop,  two  pecks  is  an  average 
quantity  of  seed.  The  straw,  if  not  touched  by  the  frost,  is 
good  fodder,  and  the  grain  is  very  nutritious.  We  could  never 
do  without  our  '■'•  buckwheat  cakes J^  The  grain  should  be  stacked 
as  soon  as  harvested,  as  it  will  cure  better  than  in  the  swath. 

Oats,  being  the  best  known  feed  for  the  horse,  form  a  very 
important  crop,  and  we  are  quite  sure  they  can  be  made  a  very 
profitable  crop  in  all  our  thickly  settled  districts.  We  allow 
that  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  twenty-five  pounds 
to  the  bushel,  may  not  be  very  profitable— but  thirty-fivo  bush- 
els, weighing  thirty-five  pounds  to  the  bushel,  on  the  same  land, 
with  only  one  extra  plowing  (subsoil)  and  one  extra  harrowing, 
is  profitable.  The  first  great  necessity  of  this  crop  is  the 
selection  of  a  new  variety  for  seed.  The  common  oat  may  be 
improved,  but  there  are  already  in  the  market  several  most 
excellent  varieties,  which  it  will  pay  for  the  farmer  to  procure, 
Vrovided  he  will  thereafter  keejo  them  pure.  We  recommend  every 
farmer  to  make  a  trial  of  some  of  these  oats.     AVe  have  no 


GRAINS.  J  73 

doubt  that  over  .one  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre  have  been 
raised  of  the  "  Surprise  Oats,"  the  "  Norway  Oats,"  and  the 
"New  Brunwsick  Oats."  Not  having  grown  these  oats  our- 
selves, we  depend  upon  the  following  statements  from  the 
American  Stock  Journal,  to  sustain  our  remarks: 

''  The  Surprise  Oats.  The  producing  classes  are  interested 
in  knowing  more  about  these  oats.  The  writer  has  a  wholesome 
distrust  of  new  seeds,  wonderful  roots,  and  remarkable  fruits. 
He  looks  a  man  in  the  eye  steadily  a  long  time  before  he  re- 
ceives his  statements  of  the  wonderful  character  and  newness 
of  any  thing.  And  even  then,  like  Thomas,  he  doubts.  Ac- 
cordingly, to  satisfy  himself  concerning  the  statement  made  of 
these  oats,  he  has  to-day  visited  Sandwick,  talked  with  Mr.  Van 
Olinda's  neighbors,  looked  upon  and  walked  over  the  fields 
where  the  oats  grew,  examined  the  straw,  explored  the  granary 
where  the  oats  are  stored,  seen  and  felt  of  them  as  they  came 
from  the  thresher,  handled  them  as  they  came  from  the  fanning 
mill,  thrust  his  hands  into  the  bins  from  which  the  public  are 
supplied.  And  we  are  entirely  satisfied,  that  if  we  can  believe 
our  own  senses,  there  is  no  sort  of  humbug  about  them.  They 
are  of  wonderful  size,  weight,  and  beauty — will  weigh  nearly 
or  quite  as  much  per  bushel  as  barley." 

"  New  Brunswick  Oats.  Having  purchased,  in  the  spring 
of  1866,  two  bushels  of  the  above-named  variety  of  oats,  and 
grown  it  with  such  astonishing  success,  for  two  successive  sea- 
sons, without  the  slightest  deterioration,  I  will  briefly  state  my 
experience  relative  to  its  qualities.  The  two  bushels  above 
mentioned  were  sown  in  drill,  on  three  quarters  of  an  acre,  the 
tenth  day  of  April,  1866.  The  yield  was  forty-one  bushels — 
weighing  forty  pounds  by  measure — equal  to  seventy-three 
bushels  standard  measure  per  acre.  Last  spring  I  drilled  broad- 
cast  twelve   acres,    and   harvested   four   hundred .  and   eighty 


1.74:  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAT. 

bushels,  weighing  forty-one  pounds  by  measure — equal  to  six 
hundred  and  fifty-six  bushels  standard  weight. 

"  The  average  crop,  this  season,  of  our  common  degenerated 
variety,  varies  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  per  acre,  weighing 
twenty  to  twenty-eight  pounds  the  bushel,  quality  very  inferior. 

"  In  addition  to  the  vast  superiority  of  the  New  Brunswick 
oats,  it  ripens  about  one  week  earlier  than  our  common  varie- 
ties, has  heavy,  stiff  straw,  which  is  not  so  liable  to  fall." 

"  ISToEWAY  Oats.  It  has  been  grown  in  this  country  for  the 
past  two  years  with  great  success,  and  promises  to  supersede  all 
the  best  varieties  of  oats  heretofore  grown.  The  grain  is  verij 
large  and  plump,  handsome,  and  of  a  beautiful  color,  has  a  re- 
markably thin  husk,  and  is  nearly  double  t/ie  weight  of  our  com- 
mon degenerate  varieties  of  oats. 

"  This  oats  ripens  earlier  than  the  common  varieties,  and  will 
yield  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  per  cent,  more  grain  per  acre,  on 
the  same  soil,  and  with  the  same  culture. 

"The  straw  is  a  bright  clear  yellow,  stout,  and  not  liable  to 
lodge,  and  is  perfectly  clear  of  rust,  and  grows  from  four  to  five 
feet  high. 

"  This  oats  has  been  grown  on  every  variety  of  soil,  and  in 
every  State  of  the  Union,  with  the  most  perfect  success." 

It  will  be  useless,  however,  to  pay  five  dollars  per  bushel  for 
these  oats  for  seed,  unless  you  are  determined  to  use  some  care 
in  preserving  the  seed ;  for  these,  or  any  other  seeds,  will  de- 
generate under  poor  management.  Oats  can  be  grown  two  or 
three  seasons  on  the  same  land,  by  the  following  treatment. 
After  the  crop  is  cut,  harrow  in  the  gleanings  and  scattered 
seed;  it  will  be  a  foot  high  before  winter.  Just  before  the 
ground  freezes,  plow  it  under,  running  the  subsoiler  in  each 
furrow  after  the  plow.  Early  in  the  spring,  prepare  the  surface 
with  the  harrow  or  cultivator,  and  drill  in  two  bushels  of  seed, 


GRAINS.  175 

or  sow  three  bushels.  This  sIioulJ  in  no  case  be  contiaaed 
more  than  three  seasons,  as  it  tends  to  degenerate  both  the  soil 
and  tlie  seed  if  continued  longer.  Sow  grass  seed,  or  clover,  as 
desired,  with  the  last  crop.  Oats  will  pay  as  well,  for  good 
composted  barnyard  manure,  as  almost  any  crop.  If  ten  cords 
of  compost,  per  acre,  be  applied  in  the  rotation  we  recommend, 
we  believe  an  average  of  seventy-five  bushels  per  acre  of  heavy 
oats  can  be  secured,  besides  a  much  larger  crop  of  the  best  oat 
straw  for  fodder.  The  seed  should  be  raised  and  saved,  ivud 
separated  just  as  described,  for  growing  and  saving  seed  whvat. 
It  toi'U  pay. 

Indian'  Coun  is  the  great  .^staple  crop  of  America,  gi eater 
than  wheat,  hay,  or  cotton.  It  is  a  prime  necessity  iu  our 
ai^'riculture.  More  bushels  of  corn  are  raised  in  tlic  United 
States,  than  of  all  other  cereals  together.  It  makes  our  beef, 
pork,  mutton,  and  poultry.  It  is  a  necessary  accompaniment  of 
all  good  farming  at  the  East ;  in  its  culture  is  the  progress  and 
wealth  of  the  Northwest;  it  is  at  present  the  life  of  the  South. 
Cotton  is  no  longer  king.  Corn  must  occupy  the  attention  of 
southern  farmers,  if  they  would  arise  from  their  desolations. 
They  must  adopt  new  methods  of  culture,  and  new  implements, 
and  it  will  be  our  aim,  in  this  chapter,  to  show  how  it  can  be 
made  to  pay. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil.  The  necessary  preparation  for 
wet  lands  will  be  found  described  in  the  first  chapter  of  this 
book.  When  corn  ground  is  rather  heavy,  or  when  corn  is  to 
'  0  planted  on  sod  ground,  by  far  the  best  plan  is  to  plow  and 
Mibsoil  in  the  autumn.  The  frost  pulverizes  the  soil,  and  it 
will  be  ready  for  the  seed  several  days  earlier  in  the  spring.  If 
l)arnyard  manure  or  compost  is  to  be  used,  spread  it  on  after 
plowing  in  the  fall,  or  haul  it  on  while  the  ground  is  frozen, 
during  the  winter,  unless  the  land  is  sloping,  and  liable  to  be 


IJQ  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

washed  in  the  spring,  but  never  apply  undecayed  barnyard 
manure  directly  to  the  corn  crop  at  the  time  of  planting.  If 
your  land  was  plowed  and  subsoiled  to  a  depth  of  eighteen 
inches  in  the  autumn,  you  can  plow  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as 
four  to  six  inches  of  the  surface  soil  is  in  condition,  which  will 
often  be  two  weeks  earlier  than  it  could  be  plowed,  if  it  had 
not  been  subsoiled  in  the  autumn.  Eeduce  the  surface  soil  to 
the  finest  tilth  by  means  of  the  plow,  cultivator,  roller,  clod 
crusher,  and  harrow.  This  will  save  much  after  cultivation. 
Each  harrowing  now  is  better  then  once  hoeing  during  the 
growing  season.  Farmers  of  the  South,  it  is  in  your  power,  by 
this  deep  and  thorough  cultivation,  even  without  the  aid  of 
expensive  fertilizers,  to  raise  four  bushels  of  corn  on  ground 
where  only  one  could  be  raised  by  the  old  shovel  plow  system. 
It  will  pay.  If  need  be,  cultivate  fifty  acres  instead  of  one 
hundred,  and  cultivate  it  thoroughly.  You  will  soon  be  able 
to  purchase  a  few  fertilizers.  In  the  mean  time  fatten  a  little 
stock,  a  few  hogs,  a  few  sheep,  or  other  stock.  Keep  them  fat 
the  year  round,  and  carefully  saving  the  manure,  put  it  back 
on  your  corn  land. 

Manures  for  Corn.  On  the  new  soil  of  the  prairies,  a  few 
crops  of  corn  may  well  be  grown  without  any  application  of 
manures ;  they  are  already  in  the  soil ;  the  decaying  vegetation 
of  centuries ;  the  ashes  of  a  thousand  prairie  fires  have  put  them 
there.  But  some  of  the  elements  of  the  corn  crop  will  ere  long 
be  exhausted.  In  the  East  any  attempt  to  raise  corn,  without 
manures  of  some  kind,  is  sheer  folly.  And  in  the  South,  the 
use  of  some  of  the  modern  fertilizers  will  in  time  so  increase 
the  productiveness  of  the  soil,  that  the  corn  crop  will  exceed  in 
value  that  of  both  corn  and  cotton  previous  to  1862.  Lime,  in 
some  form,  is  one  of  the  elements  that  is  to  accomplish  this  re- 
sult.   Apply  fifty  bushels  of  lime  per  acre,  to  as  many  acres 


GRAINS.  177 

08  possible  this  year,  and  you  will  liiul  it  returning  to  you  in 
the  harvest  time.  Apply  five  to  ten  bushels  of  salt  per  acre,  to 
all  corn  land.  Next  year,  or  this  if  you  can  get  it,  apply  two 
hundred  or  three  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  of  Peruvian  guano, 
in  the  hill.  Or  sow  two  hundred  pounds  guano  broadcast,  and 
put  one  hundred  pounds  plaster  in  the  hills.  Or,  if  you  keep 
poultry,  sow  three  hundred  pounds  superphosphate  of  lime,  and 
apply  a  handful  of  poultry  droppings  to  each  hill.  We  have 
reliable  reports  of  one  hundred  and  sixteen  bushels  per  acre, 
and  of  two  hundred  bushels  upon  one  acre,  in  South  Carolina, 
by  underdraining,  subsoiling,  and  the  application  of  two  hun- 
dred pounds  of  guano  and  three  huna/ed  pounds  of  plaster  to  the 
acre.  We  have  also  reports,  from  nine  farmers  in  Kentucky, 
of  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine  bushels  per 
acre,  by  the  same  process.  Geo.  C.  Gilmer,  of  Charlottesville, 
Virginia,  raised  last  year,  on  twenty-five  acres,  two  hundred 
and  fifty  barrels  of  corn,  by  means  of  this  thorough  cultivation, 
and  one  ton  superphosphate  of  lime,  one  ton  old  dominion 
fertilizer,  and  one  ton  of  plaster  mixed.  This  is  at  the  rate  of 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  acre,  of  the  mixture. 
Fifty  acres  of  the  same  farm,  cultivated  shallow,  and  without 
fertilizers,  produced  one  hundred  barrels.  The  above  remarks 
apply  equally  to  eastern  and  western  farmers,  save  that  the 
former  must  depend  mainly  upon  the  manure  of  grain-fattened 
stock ;  use  more  ashes,  bones,  etc.  The  droppings  of  poultry, 
composted  with  peat  or  charcoal,  can  hardly  be  esteemed  too 
highly,  as  a  dressing  for  the  hill  at  planting  time.  The  pou 
drette  described  on  page  52,  is  still  richer  for  the  same 
purpose. 

The  following  experiment  shows  the  economy  of  liberal  cul- 
ture. 

A  twenty-acre  corn  plot  was  divided  into  two  plots,  which 


178  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PaY. 

we  call  A  and  B.  Both  received  thorough  culture,  including 
subsoiling.  A  received  two  tons  unleached  ashes,  half  a  ton  of 
plaster,  and  two  and  a  half  tons  of  Peruvian  guano.  B  received 
no  manure.  Plot  A  yielded  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  bushels. 
Plot  B,  six  hundred  and  seventy  bushels.  The  following  year 
the  application  was  reversed,  A  receiving  no  manure,  and  B 
receiving  the  above-mentioned  application.  Plot  A  this  year 
yielded  nine  hundred  and  twenty  bushels,  and  plot  B,  ten  hun- 
dred and  seventy-six  bushels.  This  showed,  in  two  years,  an 
increase  of  twelve  hundred  and  thirty- six  bushels  of  corn,  to 
pay  for  the  fertilizers,  and  leaving  much  of  their  value  still  in 
the  soil. 

Soaking  the  Seed  is  practiced  by  a  great  many  farmers, 
•and  we  think  is,  as  a  rule,  beneficial.  If  tar  is  used  it  should 
be  tar  water,  very  thin.  We  think  a  better  mixture  is  ond 
pound  of  copperas  and  one  pound  of  chloride  of  lime,  dissolved 
in  a  hogshead  of  soft  water,  or  in  that  proportion.  Put  the  seed 
in  over  night  and  commence  planting  the  next  morning,  taking 
out  the  seed  as  fast  as  it  is  wanted,  and  roll  it  in  lime,  plaster, 
bone  dust,  or  ashes.  *This  prevents  the  ravages  of  birds  and 
insects. 

The  Time  to  Plant  Corn  varies  so  widely  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  that  no  date  can  be  set ;  but  as  soon  as  the  apple 
trees  are  in  blossom,  it  should  be  planted,  if  the  soil  is  ready 
for  it. 

How  to  Plant  Corn.  We  say  with  a  drill  or  corn  planter, 
by  all  means.  A  good  corn  planter  opens  the  furrow,  drops 
the  corn,  sows  whatever  fertilizer  you  wish  to  put  in  the  hill, 
covers  and  rolls  it  all  at  one  operation,  and  the  evenness  and 
regularity  with  which  it  is  done  is  as  great  a  recommendation 
as  the  time  and  labor  saved  by  it.  The  Star  Drill,  recommended 
elsewhere,  will  not  only  sow  all  kinds  of  grain,  corn,  and  grass 


GRAINS.  179 

seed,  but  plows  the  ground  and  plants  the  seed  at  tlie  same 
time.  Plant  closely  if  your  land  i:?  in  good  condition,  three 
feet  apart  is  better  than  five.  Three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  is 
the  average  distance  at  which  to  plant.  Where  the  seed  is 
dropped  by  hand,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  kernels  are 
dropped  near  together.  In  drilling,  with  the  rows  forty-two 
inches  apart,  and  corn  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  there  will 
be  about  six  thousand  more  stalks  than  by  the  ordinary  hill 
planting.  Of  course  the  land  must  be  better  fertilized,  but  the 
increased  yield,  both  of  corn  and  fodder,  will  pay  foi  the 
manure. 

Cultivation  after  planting,  is  very  much  simplified  by  the 
thorough  preparation  of  the  soil.  In  fact,  as  we  have  intimated, 
an  extra  harrowing,  before  planting,  is  as  good  as  one  hoeing 
after  the  corn  is  up.  But  if  you  have  not  mellowra  your  soil 
as  thoroughly  as  you  wished,  you  can  do  so  before  the  corn 
gets  started  ;  fasten  a  harrow  behind  your  roller,  and  go  over 
the  field  with  them.  As  soon  as  the  rows  show  plainly,  start 
the  cultivator,  and  keep  it  going  until  the  corn  gets  two  feet 
high,  when  it  is  best  to  leave  it  alone,  except  to  go  through 
and  pull  the  weeds  once  more.  But  if  you  do  not  cultivate 
thoroughly  at  first,  you  will  be  obliged  to  continue  cultivation 
until  the  ears  set,  when  it  must  be  left  absolutely  alone.  At 
the  second  cultivation,  pull  all  but  three  stalks  in  a  hill,  and  if 
ashes  or  plaster  was  not  put  in  at  planting,  give  each  hill  a 
handful  now.  Cultivate  level.  Do  not  hill  up  around  the 
stalks,  but  keep  the  ground  level,  and  the  whole  surface  mellow. 
Hilled  corn  will  not  stand  the  drougth  as  well  as  if  the  surface; 
is  level. 

For  Fodder.     If  corn  is  sown  for  fodder,  it  shonld  be  sbwn 

only  on  well  prepared  and  liberally  manured  land,  and  then 

sewn  so  thickly  that  no  ears  will  be  likely  to  set.     Some  drill 
12 


180  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

in  the  seed  with  a  wheat  drill  two  and  a  half  feet  between  the 
rows.  Others  sow  broadcast  and  cover  witli  a  cultivator. 
We  know  of  no  choice  in  methods,  but  know  that  there  can 
be  nothing  better  for  summer  fodder  for  milch  cows,  when  the 
grass  is  short  and  the  pastures  burned.  One  square  rod  per 
day  will  feed  a  cow  to  the  full.  An  acre  ^v\l\  then  feed  four 
cows  one  month.  The  feed  should  be  cut  only  the  day  before  it 
is  used,  and  wilted  slightly.  If  wanted  for  winter  fodder,  bind 
in  small  bundles,  and  it  will  cure  perfectly  in  stocks.  Cut,  and 
steamed,  and  fed  with  ground  grain  through  the  winter,  no 
feed  can  excel  it  for  milch  cows. 

Harvesting.  Never  top  corn,  but  let  it  stand  until  glazed, 
and  then  cut  up  and  shock.  Ybu  will  thus  have  both  corn  and 
fodder.  If  cut  before  frost  both  corn  and  fodder  are  better. 
In  making  shocks,  either  leave  one  hill  uncut  to  form  the 
centre,  or  bind  a  stout  bundle  for  the  purpose.  Several  con- 
trivances are  in  use,  but  a  good,  sharp,  heavy  corn  cutter,  in 
the  hands  of  a  strong  man,  is  the  most  common.  We  do  not 
see  why  some  method  may  not  be  contrived  of  doing  this  work 
by  horse  power.  The  man  who  contrives  some  simple  and 
economical  method  of  doing  this  hard  work,  will  be  a  public 
benefactor.  "Where  it  is  desirable  to  husk  corn  in  the  field,  the 
ears  should  never  be  thrown  upon  wet  or  frozen  ground. 
Where  corn  can  be  hauled  under  cover,  it  can  be  husked  rainy 
days  or  evenings.  Many  of  us  have  pleasant  reccollections  of 
husking  parties,  where  all  the  neighbors  were  invited  in,  young 
and  old,  and  the  barn  floor  was  covered,  and  stories,  cider, 
apples,  pumpkin  pies,  and  good  cheer  generally,  made  the  evening 
hours  fly  swiftly,  while  huge  piles  of  golden  ears  came  out 
from  their  husky  coverings.  We  should  like  to  see  these  old 
social  gatherings  revived,  for  they  tend  to  creatfe  kindly  feeling 
and  make  the  farm  more  attractive  to  the  vouns  folks.     Corn 


GRAINS.  Xbl 

husks  are  in  many  localities  well  worth  carefal  saving,  as  they 
bring  a  good  price  for  making  mattrasses. 

Raising,  Selecting,  and  Preserving  Seed  Corn.  As  with 
the  other  grains,  if  we  would  raise  the  best  corn,  we  must  care- 
fully attend  to  the  seed.  Select  the  best  ear  from  all  stalks 
bearing  two  ears,  and  plant  an  acre  by  itself,  giving  it  extra 
cultivation  and  manure;  continue  this  process  from  year  to  year 
and  you  will  get  two  ears  on  nearly  every  stalk.  We  would 
say  here  that  two-eared  crops  require  more  manure,  and  if  you 
cannot  give  this,  you  had  better  continue  to  plant  the  one-eared 
variety,  selecting  always  the  finest  ears.  These  should  be 
secured  before  freezing,  and  hung  up  iaa  protected  room  where 
they  will  not  freeze.  Three,  four,  and  even  six  ears  to  the 
stalk  can  be  raised  on  the  same  principle  as  above  described. 

The  King  Philip,  Dutton,  Tuscarora,  Baden,  and  Flint,  are 
the  common  varieties  of  the  East;  the  South  and  West  have 
their  own  peculiar  varieties,  known  as  the  southern  and  western 
corn.  Any  of  the  common  varieties  can  be  improved  by  careful 
cultivation  and  selection  of  seed. 

Broom  Corn  does  not  properly  belong  here,  but  will  be 
more  likely  to  be  seen  in  this  connection.  It  requires  the 
best  of  soil  and  cultivation,  and  is  not  considered  profitable 
except  on  a  large  scale,  and  for  a  succession  of  years.  It  is 
drilled  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  from  six  to  ten  inches  apart 
in  the  rows,  and  from  six  to  ten  seeds  in  a  place;  cultivate  until 
it  is  five  or  six  feet  high  throwing  a  little  dirt  to  the  rows  every 
time.  The  heads  are  bent  down,  and  the  brush  cut  before  it  is 
fully  ripe,  and  the  crop  cured  under  cover.  The  seed  is  of 
some  value  as  fodder,  and  the  stalks  for  litter,  while  the  brush 
brings  from  $200  to  $300  per  ton.  One  ton  to  three  acres  is  a 
fine  crop. 

Legal  Weight.     The  legal  weight,  per  bushel,  of  the  dif- 


182 


HOW   TO    MAKE   FARMING    PAY. 


ferent  grains,  varies  very  largely,  shelled  corn  ranging  from 
afty-two  to  fifty-eight  pounds ;  corn  in  the  ear,  from  seventy 
to  seventy-two;  rye,  fifty -two  to  fifty-six;  barley,  thirty-two  to 
fifty-two;  buckwheat,  forty  to  fifty-two;  oats,  thirty -two  to 
thirty-six.  The  legal  weight  of  Avheat  is  sixty  pounds  in  all 
the  States.  The  following  table,  from  the  Agricultural  Annual^ 
shows  the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound,  of  the  different  grains 
and  grasses.  • 


Wheat 10,500 

Barley 15,400 

Oats 20,000 

Rye 23,000 

Beans 600  to  1,300 

Peas 1,800  to  2,000 

Flax 108,000 

Turnip 155,000 

Cabbage 128  000 


Mangel  Wurzel 24,600 

Parsnip 97,000 

Carrot 257,000 

Lucern 205,000 

Red  Clover 249,600 

White  Clover 686,400 

Rye  Grass 334,000 

Sweet  Yernal  Grass 923,000 


CHAPTER   VI. 

GRASSES. 

WHE  Grass  Crop  is  one  of  the  three  great  crops  ol  the 
country;  and  yet  the  means  by  which  it  maybe  im- 
proved and  increased,  are  very  little  known.  Some 
sort  of  grass  will  grow  upon  almost  any  soil ;  but  the 
most  nutritive  grasses,  and  the  largest  crops,  can  only  be  pro- 
duced upon  good,  well-cultivated  lands. 

This  crop  has  two  main  purposes — hay  and  pasture.  The 
great  point  is,  to  select  such  seeds,  and  sow  them  in  such  pro 
portions,  as  will  best  answer  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
intended.  We  will  here  speak  of  some  of  the  more  valuable 
grasses,  and  their  respective  qualities.  There  are  upwards  of 
three  thousand  species  of  grasses  known  to  botanists ;  but  those 
of  agricultural  value  can  be  reduced  within  thirty  species, 

ElCE  Grass,   of  value   in   the   South   only,  grows   in   wet 
ground,  and  can  be  cut  several  times  during  the  season. 

Meadow  Foxtail — an  early  grass — productive,  nutritious, 

with  a  luxuriant  aftermath,  which  springs  up  immediately  after 

cutting  or  cropping,  and  is  a  favorite  with  sheep  and  cattle.    It 

does  not  take  full  possession  of  the  soil  for  three  or  four  years, 

and  is  therefore  not  suited  to  a  rotation.     It  loses  seventy  per 

cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying,  and  is  injured  by  being  cut  in  the 

blossom,  and  is  therefore  not  in  the  first  class  for  a  field  crop ; 

but,  as  a  grass  for  permanent  pastures,  it  is  superior.    It  thrives 

183 


184  .         now    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

on  almost  all  soils  except  the  dryest  sands  and  gravels,  thpugh 
best  on  ricli,  moist,  strong  soils. 

Timothy,  oe  Herds  Grass,  we  consider,  in  the  northern 
half  of  this  country,  to  be  unsurpassed  by  any  other  grass  as  a 
hay  crop.  It  is  later  than  clover,  and  therefore  we  think  should 
•lot  be  sown  with  it.  It  is  very  productive  ;  as  high  as  ive  and 
1  half  tons  of  dry  hay  having  been  cut  to  the  acre.  It  is  very 
nutritious,  giving,  by  analysis,  a  larger  proportion  of  nutriment 
rhan  any  other  grass.  It  gives  but  little  aftermath  ;  and  if 
cropped  closely,  springs  up  slowly.  It  is  therefore  not  suited 
for  pastures.  It  is  inclined  to  run  out  in  three  or  four  years, 
and  cannot  be  relied  upon  for  a  permanent  meadow.  It  thrives 
best  in  moist,  peaty,  or  loamy  soils,  and  is  not  suited  to  light, 
sandy,  or  gravelly  soils.  If  cut  in  the  blossom,  or  immediately 
after,  it  is  relished  better  by  stock,  although  the  yield  is  greater 
m  weight  when  the  crop  is  ripe,  owing  to  the  seeds,  of  which  it 
yields  from  four  hundred  to  twelve  hundred  pounds  per  acre. 

Red  Top,  Fixe  Top,  Burdens  Gp.ass,  Dew  Grass,  are  com- 
mon names  for  the  Agrostis  Vulgaris— oalled  in  England  Fine 
Bent,  and  in  Pennsylvania  and  the  Southern  States,  Herds 
Grass— a  second  quality  meadow  grass,  or  permanent  pasture 
grass,  suited  to  moist  soils,  though  growing  in  all.  Cattle  do 
not  relish  it  when  ripe.  It  should  therefore  be  cropped  closely 
in  the  pasture,  and  cut  in  the  blossom  for  hay. 

White  Top,  or  White  Bent,  is  a  variety  of  the  same  genus 
as  the  Red  Top,  and  is  especially  adapted  to  overflowed  mead- 
ows. Blue  Joint  Grass  is  common  to  low  grounds,  is  nu- 
tritious, and  relished  by  stock  in  winter.  Orchard  Grass,  or 
Cocksfoot,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  grasses.  It  is  as  early 
as  red  clover,  and  is  therefore  the  grass  best  adapted  to  sow 
with  it.  It  is  productive,  yielding  from  three  to  five  tons  per 
acre.    It  is  very  nutritious,  and  very  palatable  to  all  kinds  of 


GRASSES.  135 

Stock.  It  gives  a  bite  earlier  than  almost  any  other  grass,  is 
permanent,  will  bear  close  and  constant  cropping,  stands  severe 
drought,  and,  when  cut,  will  in  a  week  give  a  good  bite  to  stock. 
It  is  therefore  admirable  as  a  permanent  pasture  grass.  It  blos- 
soms with  clover,  gives  a  very  large  proportion  of  hay,  grows 
a  speedy  and  luxuriant  aftermath,  and  is  well  adapted  for  per- 
manent meadow  wdth  clover.  It  is  inclined  to  grow  in  tufts,  to 
prevent  which  it  should  be  harrowed  and  rolled  in  the  spring , 
and  some  other  grasses  should  always  be  sown  with  it. 

Meadow  Spear  Grass  is  recommended  as  a  mixiure  with 
other  pasture  grasses  in  moist  pastures. 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass — scientific  name,  Poa-pratensis ;  com- 
mon names,  Green  Meadow  Grass,  June  Grass,  Common 
Spear  Grass,  etc.  Early,  productive,  nutritious,  and  palatable. 
This  is  one  of  our  valuable  pasture  grasses,  on  soils  containing 
limestone.  It  endures  the  cold,  but  is  liable  to  be  parched  in 
droughts.  It  requires  two  or  three  years  to  arrive  at  perfection, 
and  is  therefore  adapted  only  for  permanent  growth.  It  makes 
a  very  choice  hay,  but  the  crop  is  never  large.  It  should  be 
cut  just  before  the  seeds  ripen.  It  should  not  be  closely  crop- 
ped, as  it  starts  slowly.  Blue,  or  Wire  Grass  [Poa  Gompressa) 
is  a  more  valuable  variety  of  the  same  genus  as  the  above,  so 
hardy  as  to  flourish  on  sandy,  hard,  or  rocky  soils;  not  very 
productive,  but  yielding  a  very  large  per  cent,  of  nutritive  mat- 
ter in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  It  is  greatly  relished  by  al! 
grazing  animals,  and  is  especially  valuable  in  producing  an 
abundant  flow  of  milk.  It  should  always  form  one  in  any  mix- 
ture of  pasture  grasses  on  dry  rocky  knolls.  Annual  Spear 
Grass  is  a  very  common  pasture  grass,  flowering  through  the 
whole  season,  and  furnishing  an  early  bite,  and  continual  feed, 
except  in  very  dry  seasons,  when  it  becomes  parched.  Rough- 
Stalk  Meadow  Grass.     Productive,  permanent,  not  as  nutri- 


186  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

live  as  some  of  the  other  grasses,  but  very  much  relished  by 
stock.  Adapted  only  to  moist  soils,  in  connection  with  other 
grasses.  AVooD  Meadow  Grass  is  a  fine,  succulent,  nutritive 
grass,  losing  only  fifty-five  per  cent,  in  curing,  and  is 
worthy  of  more  general  cultivation  in  connection  with  other 

grasses. 

Fowl  Meadow  Grass,  {Poa  SeroUna,)  one  of  the  earliest 
and  best  of  -the  cultivated  grasses.  It  is  both  productive  and 
nutritive,  but  its  chief  recommendation  above  other  grasses  is 
that  it  may  be  cut  at  any  time  from  July  to  October.  It  makes 
a  sweet  and  tender  hay,  the  aftermath  containing  more  nutri- 
ment than  orchard  or  oat  grass.  It  should  always  be  mixed 
with  other  grasses  in  rich  moist  soils.  Meadow  Fescue  is  a 
pasture  grass  natural  to  moist  pastures,  ripens  its  seeds  early, 
and  scatters  them  itself.  If  ever  sown  it  should  be  with  several 
other  grasses.  Italian  Eye  Grass  gives  an  early  and  con- 
stant growth  of  nutritive  foliage,  but  not  as  good  as  many 
other  grasses.  Tall  or  Meadow  Oat  Grass  is  well  calcula- 
ted for  a  permanent  pasture  grass,  growing  spontaneously  on 
deep  sandy  soils  when  once  introduced,  and  also  succeeding  on 
tenacious  clover  soils. 

Sweet  Scented  Yernal  Grass  is  not  very  valuable  for 
hay,  giving  but  twenty  per  cent,  of  hay ;  and  its  chief  value  as  a 
pasture  grass  is  its  early  and  constant  growth,  and  its  peculiar 
pleasant  flavor,  which  it  imparts  to  the  butter  made  from  it.  It 
should  be  sown  with  a  large  mixture  of  other  grasses.  Black 
Grass  is  the  best  product  of  salt  marshes ;  Sea  Spear  Grass 
or  Goose  Grass,  being  next  in  importance,  the  hay  made  from 
the  mixture  of  the  two  making  a  valuable  fodder  when  fully 
cured.  Many  barren  tracts  of  salt  marsh  might  be  made  to 
yield  valuable  crops  of  the  grasses,  if  properly  ditched,  while  the 
peaty  matter  taken  out  would  repay  a  large  portion  of  the  ex- 


GRASSES.  187 

pense.  Eed  Clover.  Although  the  clovers  are  not  properly 
grasses  they  are  practically  treated  as  such,  and  form  the  basis 
of  much  of  the  best  husbandry  of  the  country.  It  is  cultivated 
for  four  distinct  purposes;  for  hay,  for  pasture,  for  seed,  and  for 
manure.  When  for  hay,  sov/  on  ^vinter  wheat  in  the  spring, 
either  on  the  snow,  or,  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  off,  harrow  the 
surface  and  sow  to  the  acre  eight  pounds  clover  seed,  eight  of 
orchard  grass,  four  of  timothy  and  two  of  red  top. 

Clover  is  distinctly  a  lime  plant,  and  the  soils  in  which  it 
thrives  the  best,  are  stiff  loams  containing  lime.  Lime  should 
also  be  sown  either  with  the  seed  or  as  soon  as  it  is  up.  One 
or  two  bushels  of  plaster  or  gypsum  will  be  sujlicient  where 
the  soil  already  contains  considerable  lime.  If  the  plaster  is 
not  sown  in  the  spring  sow  on  the  stubble  as  soon  as  the  grain 
is  off. 

Do  not  pasture  the  young  clover  in  the  fall;  and  the  next 
spring  sow  plaster  again  as  before.  Cut  when  the  heads  hegin 
to  ripen,  and  sow  plaster  again.  If  a  crop  for  seed  is  desired 
cut  the  first  crop  earlj^,  before  a  seed  ripens,  and  sow  no  plaster 
after  the  first  cutting.  The  seed  crop  should  stand  until  two 
thirds  of  the  heads  are  ripe. 

Clover  and  timothy  are  often  seeded  with  the  wheat  in  ths 
fall,  but,  as  we  have  stated  elsewhere,  clover  and  timothy  are 
not  so  well  adapted  for  each  other  as  clover  and  orchard  grass, 
and,  as  we  shall  attempt  to  show  further  on,  no  two  grasses  should 
be  sown  by  themselves.  Clover  is  apt  to  be  winter-killed  unless 
the  land  is  top  dressed,  of  which  we  shall  speak  in  another 
place. 

Cutting  and  Curing  for  hay  stould  be  ordinarily  done  just 
as  the  earliest  heads  begin  to  ripen.  Cut  no  more  than  you  can 
cock  at  once.  As  soon  as  it  is  fairly  wilted,  cock  it,  and  let  it 
cure  in  the  cock.     Handle  as  little  as  possible.     Mow  or  stack 


lyS  HOW  TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    I'AY. 

it  the  day  after  it  is  cut  unless  it  gets  wet.  If  only  a  small 
quantity  is  cut  it  may  often  be  housed  the  same  day,  but  it  is 
better  to  put  the  whole  crop  of  clover  in  at  the  same  time,  that 
it  may  settle  evenly.  A  peck  of  salt  or  lime  to  the  ton  is  always 
an  improvement.  Cover  the  top  of  the  stack  or  mow  with  straw, 
or,  what  is  better,  salt  marshi  hay. 

In  cutting  for  seed,  the  best  plan  we  have  ever  tried  is  to  cut 
with  the  reaper,  attaching  a  board  at  the  buck  edge  of  the 
grain  platform.  When  the  platform  is  full,  pitcb  it  off  in 
heaps.  In  cutting  with  the  scythe  lay  two  swaths  together. 
Secure  as  soon  as  dry,  as  a  hard  rain  will  wash  out  much  of  the 
seed.  The  grain  caps  recommended  in  Chapter  Y.,  are  often  in- 
valuable at  this  time.  A  crop  of  clover  ought  to  average  three 
bushels  to  the  acre,  and  the  straw  and  chaff  are  worth  enough 
to  pay  for  harvesting.  Another  practice  is  to  get  the  largest 
possible  crop  at  the  first  cutting  for  hay,  and  then  when  the  new 
growth  gets  well  started,  pasture  it.  We  consider  this  advan- 
tageous, as  it  saves  hauling  the  clover  and  hauling  back  the 
manure. 

Clover  as  a  Manure.  Valuable  as  clover  may  be,  both  for 
hay  and  pasture,  we  consider  its  greatest  value  to  be  as  an  im- 
prover of  the  soil.  We  have  spoken  at  length  of  this  elsewhere, 
and  would  only  add  that  gypsum  or  plaster  should  always  be 
sown  with  the  seed,  or  on  the  young  clover,  for  whatever  pur- 
pose it  may  be  intended.  When  the  first  crop  has  been  cut  for 
hay,  the  second  can  be  turned  under  when  in  blossom.  The 
next  year  this  crop  will  pasture  a  cow  to  the  acre  until  August, 
when,  if  plowed  eight  inches  deep,  the  soil  will  be  in  admirable 
condition  for  winter  wheat.  Clover  must  be  seeded  every  two 
years.  If  a  permanent  meadow  or  pasture  is  desired,  enough 
other  grasses  must  be  sown  with  it  to  take  complete  possession 
•jf  the  soil  at  the  end  of  two  years. 


GEASSES.  I8y 

White  Clover  is  a  pasture  grass  very  much  prized  in 
the  best  dairy  regions,  and  should  be  sown  in  all  niixtures  for 
permanent  pastures.  Nothing  gives  a  better  flow  of  milk  than 
the  clovers. 

Time  to  sow  Grass  Seed.  We  advise  early  spring  a?  th« 
best  time  to  sow  clover  and  orchard  grass,  which  should  always 
be  sown  together,  either  on  the  late  snows  or  as  soon  as  it  can 
be  harrowed  in.  If  timothy  is  to  be  grown  with  clover,  (a 
practice  we  cannot  commend,)  the  timothy  should  be  sown  in 
the  fall,  and  the  clover  brushed  in  in  the  spring.  We  consider 
it  well  to  sow  a  mixture  of  grass  seed  with  all  the  small  grains. 
The  growth  between  harvesting  and  fall  plowing  makes  a  great 
deal  of  manure  for  the  next  crop,  besides  shading  the  land.  We 
conclude  that  with  all  the  other  grasses  that  we  have  recom- 
mended for  cultivation  the  best  time  to  sow  is  in  the  fall  as  soon 
as  the  ground  begins  to  be  moistened  by  the  fall  rain,?,  the 
ground  being  prepared  before  the  rainy  season  commences.  If 
sown  before  this  time,  much  of  the  seed  is  likely  to  be  burned, 
or  dried  up  and  lost.  Grass  seed  may  be  trown  with  corn.  The 
ground  must  be  thoroughly  worked  at  the  last  hoeing,  and  the 
seed  sown  and  harrowed  with  a  fine  toothed  harrow.  Six 
pounds  clover,  one  peck  each  of  orchard  grass,  red  top  and 
timothy,  is  a  good  mixture  for  this  purpose  ;  we  prefer,  however, 
making  the  quantity  of  these  a  little  smaller,  and  adding  small 
quantities  of  other  grasses. 

How  MUCH  Seed  per  Acre,  is  a  very  important  question 
Opinion  and  practice  are  very  much  divided,  but  it  is  clear 
that  we  do  not  sow  a  sufl&cient  variety  of  seeds,  to  take  the 
fullest  possession  of  the  soil.  We  sow  two  or  three  varieties 
together,  while  in  a  natural  pasture  or  meadow,  twenty  to 
thirty  varieties  may  be  found  growing  in  a  single  square  rod. 
Twelve  pounds  of  clover  seed  per  acre,  with  ten  of  orchard 


190  HOW  TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

grass,  is  a  safe  and  economical  average ;  but  better  than  this,  we 
tbink,  will  be  found  the  following  mixtures.  For  Permanent 
Pasture,  meadow  foxtail,  two  pounds,  orchard  grass,  six  pounds; 
white  clover,  five  pounds ;  red  clover,  four  pounds;  rye  grass,  four 
pounds;  timothy,  four  pounds;  Kentucky  blue  grass,  four 
pounds ;  meadow  fescue,  four  pounds ;  red  top,  four  pounds ;  and 
rough  stalked  meadow  grass,  four  pounds.  If  the  above  is  to 
be  reduced  'at  all,  leave  out  the  clover.  For  Mowing  in  the 
Rotation.  Orchard  grass,  six  pounds ;  red  clover,  ten  pounds ; 
rye  grass,  five  pounds;  red  top,  four  pounds;  timothy,  six 
pounds.  For  Hay  and  Pasture.  Timothy,  six  pounds; 
June  grass,  four  pounds;  orchard  grass,  four  pounds;  rye  grass, 
four  pounds ;  wood  meadow  grass,  four  pounds ;  white  clover, 
four  pounds;  perennial  clover,  two  pounds;  rough  stalked 
meadow  grass,  two  pounds ;  vernal  grass,  two  pounds.  If  any 
of  the  grasses  in  either  of  the  above  lists  are  to  be  left  out,  the 
amount  of  timothy  should  be  increased ;  but  we  believe  that 
the  number  of  varieties  usually  sown,  is  far  too  few  to  produce 
the  best  results.  We  present  five  additional  tables,  copied 
mostly  from  the  report  of  the  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Mixture  for  Sowing  on  Light  Sands. 

Pounds.  Pounds. 

Tall  meadow  oat  grass 3  Timothy - 3 

Meadow  soft  grass 3  Orchard  grass 4 

Italian  rye  grass 4  Hard  fescue 6 

Perennial  rye  grass 1  White  clover 4 

Perennial  red  clover 3 

Mixture  for  Dry  Gravels. 

„  .   ,  Pounds.  PoundB. 

Perennial  rye  grass 5  Red  top 3 

Tall  oat  grass 8  Red  fescue *...4 

Meadow  soft  grass 4  June  grass 4 

Noft  broom  grass 4  White  clover 4 


GRASSES.  191 

Mixture  for  Eocky  Hills. 

Pounds.  Pounils. 

Perennial  rye  grass 6  Timothy ^ 6 

Wood  meadow  grass 3  Red  fescue 4 

Crested  dog's  tail 3  Fall  oat 2 

Meadow  soft^grass 2  Red  top 2 

Rough  stalked  meadow 2  White  clover 8 

Common  spear  grass 2  Orchard  grass 3 

Mixture  for  Marshy  or  overflowed  G-rounds. 

Pounds.  Pcunds. 

Rough  Stalked  meadow  grass ....  3  Fiorin 3 

Reed  canary  grass 4  Timothy 4 

Fowl  meadow  grass 5  Tall  fescue 4 

Manna  grass 5  White  clover 4 

Mixture  for  Peaty  Lands;  (xeclaimed). 

Pounds.  Pounds. 

White  top 2  Meadow  Foxtail 2 

Red  top 2  Italian  rye  grass 4 

Timothy 10  Perennial  rye  grass 5 

White  clover 4  Red  canary  grass 3 

Fowl  meadow 4  Rough  stalked  meadow 3 

We  earnestly  recommend  the  above  mixtures  to  the  con- 
sideration of  farmers.  Of  course  they  can  be  varied  indefi- 
nitely, as  circumstances  may  demand,  but  the  principle  on 
■which  they  are  based  should  never  be  forgotten.  Sow  such  a 
mixture  of  seeds,  and  in  such  quantities,  that  they  will  take 
complete  possession  of  the  land,  leaving  no  room  for  the 
inferior  grasses  and  noxious  weeds,  which  will  otherwise  surely 
occupy  their  place,  and  reduce  the  value  of  the  crops. 

The  following  shows  the  number  of  pounds  to  the  peck,  of 
the  previously  mentioned  seeds.  Timothy,  eleven;  clover,  six- 
teen ;  orchard  grass,  three ;  red  top,  three.  The  fescues,  three 
and  a  half ;  meadow  foxtail,  one  and  a  quarter;  vernal  grass, 
one  and  a  half;  fall  oat  grass,  one  and  three  quarters;  meadow 
soft  grass,  one  and  three  quarters ;  Italian  rye  grass,  three  and 


192  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FAEM    FAY. 

three  quarters;  perennial  rye  grass,  five  to  seven;  wood 
meadow  grass,  three  and  three  quarters ;  June  or  spear  grass, 
three  and  a  quarter ;  rough  stalked  meadow  grass,  three  and 
three  quarters. 

ToF  Dressing  Grass  Lands,  is  an  approved,  but  not 
sufficiently  appreciated  practice.  A  top  dressing  of  wood 
mould  in  the  autumn,  serves  both  as  a  mulch'  and  a  manure, 
and  increases  the  yield  of  hay,  A  very  interesting  series  of 
experiments  have  been  made  at  the  Michigan  State  Agricultu- 
ral College,  by  which  it  was  ascertained  that, 

2  bushels  of   plaster    per    acre  gave  an  increase  of  4153  lbs  of  hay. 


5      "      of  wood  ashes  "        "        " 

i(         t 

"  3942   "     "    " 

3      "      of  salt 

"  4184   "     "    " 

20  loads  of  muck           "        "        " 

«  3683   «     u    « 

20      "     "      "  and  3  bushels  salt  " 

"  5318   "     "    " 

20       "     Horse  manure                    " 

"  5023   "     "    " 

20      "     Cow  manure                      " 

"  4874   "     "    " 

The  soil  was  a  light  sandy  loam.  Estimating  hay  at  fifteen 
dollars  a  ton,  twenty  loads  of  muck  are  worth  something  over 
twenty -five  dollars,  and  three  bushels  of  salt  applied  with  it  as 
much  more.  Five  bushels  of  ashes  bring  nearly  thirty  dollars. 
We  advise  farmers  to  invest  a  few  days'  labor  in  the  muck 
svvam.p  in  the  fall ;  draw  the  muck  on  to  the  fields,  and  let  the 
frost  crumble  it ;  spread  in  the  spring,  and  add  the  salt.  The 
great  object  to  be  kept  in  view  in 

Cutting  and  Curing  hay  is  to  have  it  as  much  like  grass  as 
possible.  This  will  depend  both  upon  the  time  of  cutting  and 
t!ie  method  of  curing.  The  safest  time  to  cut  is  just  when  in 
full  blossom.  A  small  per  centage  in  weight  will  be  lost  by 
this  early  cutting,  but  it  is  gained  in  the  aftermath.  Timothy 
should  be  cut  about  four  inches  high,  or  it  will  be  killed  out. 
The  various  machines  and  tools  for  harvesting  hay  are  fully 
described  in  Chapter  lY.     Most  hay  is  cured  too   much.     We 


GRASSE3.  193 

have  said  it  should  be  as  much  like  grass  as  possible,  and, 
therefore,  should  not  lie  out  until  the  juices  are  all  dried  out 
of  it. 

Do  not  mow  when  the  grass  is  very  wet,  either  with  dew  or 
rain.  If  cut  with  the  scythe,  turn  twice,  if  with  a  machine, 
once  will  be  sufficient  after  the  top  has  Wilted ;  after  two  hours' 
hot  sun  on  the  other  side,  cock  it,  haul  it  before  the  dew  begins 
to  fall,  or  after  the  dew  is  dried  off'  in  the  morning,  and  store  it 
in  well  ventilated  mows.  This  is  the  great  trouble  with  hay 
barns,  no  ventilation.  See  Chapter  XIX.  If  properly  ventilated, 
hay  may  be  put  in  quite  green,  and  be  relished  like  grass  all 
winter.  A  peck  of  salt  to  the  ton  is  always  an  improvement, 
and  green  hay  is  safer  from  heating  when  salt  or  lime  is 
sprinkled  in  at  the  time  of  mowing  away. 

Hay  that  has  been  wet,  and,  therefore,  cured  twice,  should 
always  be  kept  by  itself. 

Seedin'g  Wet  Prairie.  Either  harrow  as  soon  as  the  frost 
is  out  two  inches  deep,  sow  the  seed  and  cross  harrow ;  or  pas 
ture  until  it  is  dry  enough  to  plow.  Plow  across,  the  way  you 
wish,  the  surface  drainage,  and  harrow  the  same  way ;  sow  the 
seed,  cover  with  a  brush,  harrow  and  roll  it. 

As  we  have  intimated,  we  believe  in  frequent  seeding,  and  in 
a  much  larger  variety  of  seeds  than  is  usually  sown.  An  Iowa 
farmer  advises  the  seeding  of  prairie  sloughs  to  red  too.  "  Sow 
as  soon  as  the  ground  thaws,  and  harrow  well.  Mow  it  before 
harvest  for  two  years,  and  you  can  be  pretty  sure  of  an  unfailing 
crop  after.  For  pasture  it  is  worth  three  to  one  of  slough  grass." 

Improvement  of  Pastures,  as  recommended  by  that 
veteran  writer,  S.  E.  Todd,  is  to  plow  them,  and  cultivate  the 
soil  for  a  few  years,  applying  liberal  dressings  of  barnyard 
manure,  or  turning  under  red  clover.  After  turning  under  a 
crop  of  clover,  sow  three  or  four  bushels  of  Indian  coru  per 


19-1  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY. 

acre,  turn  the  crop  under  before  frost,  and  sow  winter  rye  just 
before  it  freezes  up ;  sow  with  the  rye,  or  early  in  the  spring, 
before  vegetation  commences,  one  of  the  mixtures  recommended 
for  pastures,  not  less  than  six  or  eight  varieties  of  grass  seed. 
When  it  it  desirable  to  improve  pastures  without  plowing, 
apply  a  liberal  dressing  of  either  good  barnyard  compost,  bone- 
dust,  wood-ashes,  or  gypsum,  and  harrow  with  a  heavy  harrow, 
with  long  'and  sharp  teeth.  Then  sow  a  liberal  mixture  of 
grass  seeds  and  harrow  in.  Pastures  treated  thus  should  never 
be  fed  early.  The  middle  of  summer  or  early  autumn  is  soon 
enough  to  turn  stock  on  to  it.  The  fertility  of  pastures  should 
be  kept  up  by  the  application  of  compost,  ashes,  lime,  bone- 
dust,  etc.  If  farmers  will  save  and  compost  their  solid  and 
Uquid  manures,  as  recommended  in  Chapter  III.,  they  will  soon 
have  some  to  spare  for  their  pastures.  Where  brush  and  briars 
have  taken  possession  of  the  pasture,  cut  the  brush,  sow  a  few 
bushels  of  plaster,  and  turn  on  a  flock  of  sheep;  continue  this 
two  or  three  seasons,  and  you  will  get  a  fair  pasture.  A  moder 
ate  application  of  muck,  compost,  lime,  or  ashes,  every  year, 
would  undoubtedly  keep  up  our  pastures  and  be  profitable  in 
every  respect.  Making  a  pasture  of  mowing  lands ;  that  is, 
turning  stock  on  after  the  hay  has  been  cut,  is  an  injurious  and 
exhaustive  practice.  It  sometimes  seems  absolutely  necessary 
when  pastures  fail,  but  the  less  of  it  that  is  done,  the  better. 
Bather  sow  an  acre  or  two  of  corn  to  supply  fodder  in  case  of 
drought. 

The  Selection  op  Grass  Seed,  whether  for  meadow  or 
pasture,  is  an  important  consideration.  Old  seeds  are  mixed 
with  new,  and  not  more  than  half  a  crop  is  the  consequence. 
The  safest  way  is  to  raise  your  own  seeds,  or  buy  of  some 
neighbor  in  whom  you  have  confidence. 

You  can  certainly  raise  your  own  clover,  timothy,  orchard 


GRASSES.  105 

grasses,  and  other  more  common  seeds.  And  when  it  is  neces- 
sary to  buy,  samples  can  be  bought  and  germinated  in  a 
few  days,  and  the  farmer  thus  be  enabled  to  tell  how  large 
a  proportion  is  likely  to  grow,  and  regulate  his  sowing  ac- 
cordingly. 


13 


CHAPTER   VII. 


ROOT    CROPS. 


II  HERE  can  be  no  "best  farming"  without  a  liberal  cul- 
ture of  roots.  Good  farming  implies  plenty  of  manure ; 
manure  implies  stock ;  stock  implies  feeding ;  and  the 
best  feeding  is  that  which  combines  hay,  grain,  and  roots. 
It  is  also  very  much  better  for  the  health  of  stock  to  feed  them 
partly  with  roots  through  the  winter.  The  farmer  should  not 
deprive  his  stock  of  vegetables  any  sooner  than  \n?>  family. 

As  to  the  relative  value  of  roots  and  corn,  there  is  a  great  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  One  farmer  says,  "  I  have  formerly  raised 
roots  and  put  a  thousand  bushels  or  more  of  them  into  my 
cellar ;  and  when  I  have  had  to  bring  them  up  myself  and  feed 
them  out  in  winter,  I  have  asked  myself  the  question  whether 
I  could  not  get  along  more  easily  by  raising  corn  and  feeding 
it  to  my  stock.  It  is  a  very  easy  thing  to  get  a  thousand 
bushels  of  roots  into  your  cellar,  but  it  is  some  work  in  a  cold 
morning  to  bring  them  up,  chop  them,  and  feed  them  out. 
Then  another  thing  we  have  to  guard  against,  is  excessive  cold  ; 
roots,  after  they  have  been  frozen,  are  unhealthy  for  any 
anijnal.  I  know  of  cows  that  have  been  made  sick  by  eating 
carrots  that  had  been  frozen.  There  is  no  such  trouble  with 
Indian  corn.  That  is  the  crop  adapted  to  us.  My  experience 
IS  that  I  can  raise  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn  where  I  can 
raise  one  thousand  bushels  of   roots."     Another    says :  "  The 

196 


ROOT   CROPS.  197 

most  expeditious  way  of  raising  corn,  after  all,  is  to  raise  roots, 
A  thousand  bushels  of  roots,  which  can  be  raised  as  easily  as 
a  hundred  bushels  of  corn,  will  buy  three  or  four  hundred 
bushels  of  corn.  That  is  the  reason  I  do  not  raise  any  grain. 
I  cannot  afford  it.  I  raised  none  this  year  of  any  kind ;  but  a 
little  less  than  a  third  of  an  acre  of  mangolds  sold  for  enough 
to  buy  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn  ;  and  I  had  enough  French 
turnips,  from  live  eighths  of  an  acre,  to  buy  two  hj^ndred  and 
fifty  bushels  of  corn.  Those  French  turnips  cost  ten  cents  a 
bushel,  and,  as  I  said  before,  that  is  the  most  economical  way 
of  raising  corn,  that  I  know  of."  Another  says :  "  The  com- 
parative value  of  the  crops  you  can  raise  upon  an  acre  of 
ground  properly  prepared  for  mangolds,  is  hardly  the  question. 
Nor  is  it  the  question  whether  fifteen  hundred  bushels  of  man- 
golds would  not  be  better  than  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn, 
because  you  would  not  be  likely  to  get,  on  such  land,  any  thing 
like  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn.  But  fifteen  hundred  bushels 
of  mangolds  are  worth  more  to  any  man,  for  his  cattle  and 
sheep,  than  any  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn  that  ever  grew. 
There  is  no  doubt  about  that  at  all.  Turnips  for  growing 
cattle ;  they  are  as  natural  to  them  as  oats  to  a  growing  horse. 
A  bushel  of  turnips  for  fifty  sheep  ;  there  is  no  better  food  in 
the  world.  I  have  tried  it  over  and  over  again  I  would 
rather  have  it  than  a  pint  of  corn  for  each  sheep.  You  can 
easily  figure  which  would  cost  the  most." 

We  believe  roots  to  be  necessary  to  the  best  estate  of  man 
and  beast  alike,  and  were  the  difficulties  of  raising  them  twice 
as  great,  we  should  still  say,  to  the  farmer  who  desires  the  best 
(and  the  most  profitable  because  the  best)  mode,  feed  roots  with 
your  hay,  grain,  stalks,  or  straw.  A  larger  amount  of  manure 
is  required  ;  but  the  crop  will  return  it  or  pay  for  it.  A  dry, 
warm  cellar  is  requisite  ;    every  farmer  should   have   such  a 


198  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

cellar.  They  must  be  cut ;  but  root  cutters  are  at  hand  and 
will  cut  all  kinds  of  roots,  pumpkins,  squashes,  etc.  Of  couise, 
we  must  have  corn  and  grain  for  our  stock,  but  on  expensive 
lands  near  large  cities,  or  on  the  lines  of  railroad,  convenient  to 
market,  roots  will  be  more  profitable.  Every  farmer  should 
raise  roots  enough  to  give  his  stock  a  taste  every  day  they  are 
stall  fed.  Dry  hay  and  grain  sustain  life,  but  will  not  give  the 
best  results.  .  Five  tons  of  turnips  are  certainly  equal  to  one  of 
hay  for  feeding  purposes ;  and,  as  certainly,  ten  tons  of  turnips 
can  be  raised  to  one  of  hay  upon  the  same  land.  Eight  tons  of 
turnips  are  about  equal  to  one  of  corn,  and  twenty  tons  of 
turnips  to  one  and  a  half  of  shelled  corn,  is  about  the  average 
of  the  crop.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  value  of  root 
crops ;  we  now  proceed  to  the  method  of  culture. 

Turnips.  Eobinson  says,  "  The  best  soil  for  turnips  is  newly- 
cleared  forest,  or  reversed  sod,  not  too  clayey ;  but  they  will 
grow  well  on  pretty  stiff  clay,  if  finely  pulverized."  Our  ex- 
perience is,  that  the  common  English  turnip  (which  is  the  easi- 
est of  all  root  crops  to  grow)  wants  a  light  mineral  soil,  but, 
with  careful  preparation  of  the  soil,  will  grow  well  upon  any 
but  heavy  rich  clay  lands.  Green  manure  should  never  be  ap- 
plied to  any  root  crops.  Well  rotted  compost  is  the  thing.  Or, 
green  manure  may  be  hauled  on  in  the  fall,  five  to  eight  cords 
to  the  acre,  and  covered  in  ridges,  and  plowed  in  in  the  spring. 
Plow  late  for  turnips,  and  sow  not  earlier  than  July.  Early 
sowing  causes  them  to  get  their  growth  before  it  is  time  to  har- 
vest them,  and  the  consequence  is  rot.  October  is  the  great 
month  for  root  growth.  Turnips  may  be  sown  to  advantage  as 
late  as  the  last  of  July,  after  some  early  crop  that  has  been  very 
heavily  manured,  like  the  early  potato,  or  strawberry  crop. 
The  turnip  is  not  fitted  for  long  keeping,  and  is  only  valuable 
for  early  winter  feeding.     The  Swedes,  White  Globe,  Yellow 


KOOT   CROPS.  199 

Globe,  Purple-top.  and  Cow  Horn,  are  all  good  varieties  for 

field  culture. 

EUTA  Bagas  are  more  valuable  for  stock  than  turnips,  and 
are  raised  with  more  difficulty.  They  require  a  stronger  soil, 
but  substantially  the  same  culture  as  turnips.  They  should  be 
sown  earlier,  say  about  the  middle  of  June,  or  first  of  July,  at 
the  latest.  Theie  are  some  twelve  or  fifteen  different  varieties 
in  cultivation,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  satisfactory  decision 
as  to  which  are  the  best. 

The  Mangold  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  cultivation,  and 
a  great  variety  of  soils.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  May  ;  in 
other  respects  the  cultivation  is  the  same  as  with  the  other  root 
crops.  The  Long  Eed  and  Long  Yellow  are  the  best  for  deep 
soils,  and  the  Globes  for  shallow  soils. 

Carrots,  we  judge,  all  things  considered,  to  be  the  best  of 
all  the  root  crops  for  the  soil  and  for  feeding,    but  the  assertion 
that  they  are  worth  as  much,  bushel  for  bushel,  as  oats,  is  a 
simple  absurdity.     No  farmer  can  afford  to  let  his  stock  be 
without  roots,  but  they  can   never  take  the   place  of  grain. 
They  are  to  be  used  in  connection  with  gram.     They  are  best 
suited  with  a  warm  light  soil,  Avell  cultivated,  as  all  soils  for 
root  crops  should  be.     The  land  for  carrots  and  for  mangolds 
should  be  plowed  as  early  as  possible.     Only  thoroughly  de- 
composed manure  will  do  for  carrots.   The  seed  should  be  sown 
the  last  of  May,  or  first  of  June.    Plow,  cross-plow,  and  harrow 
at  intervals,  before  sowing.     It  does  the  weeding  in  advance. 
A  field  thus  worked  before  sowing,  will  not  only  grow  more 
and   better   roots,  but  with  one  third   the   labor  of  weeding. 
Carrots  can  be  raised  by  almost  any  farmer  for  six  cents  a 
bushel,  after  he  learns  the  most  economical  ways  of  domg  it. 
We  shall  speak  of  these  things  under  the  head  of  General  Cul- 
tivation of  Koot  Crops.     The  tops  of  carrots,  if  cut  while  they 


200  tlOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

are  still  green,  are  very  palatable  food  for  stock.  Every  par- 
ticle is  greedily  eaten  by  cows,  horses,  and  sheep.  This  is  a 
strong  argument  in  favor  of  late  planting.  The  Long  Orange 
we  deem  the  best  variety  for  field  culture. 

General  Cultivation  of  Boot  Crops.  Nothing  but  deep 
plowing  will  do  for  root  crops.  Fifteen  inches  deep  is  the 
shallowest  j)lowing  we  can.  commend  for  them.  Give  the 
roots  a  chance  to  run  down  straight  and  smooth.  Eepeated 
plowings,  and  harrowings,  dragging  and  rolling  until  the  ground 
is  mellow  and  free  from  clods,  is  the  proper  preparation  of  the 
soil,  in  connection  with  heavy  manuring.  Eoots  cannot  be 
made  profitable  without  heavy  manuring.  Put  on  five  to  ten 
cords  of  good  compost  to  the  acre.  The  compost  of  muck  and 
liquid  manure  which  we  have  previously  recommended,  is 
especially  valuable  here.  The  selection  of  seed  is  of  vital  im- 
portance with  this  crop.  The  only  sure  mode  of  procuring 
good  seed  is  to  raise  it  yourself.  Select  good  sized  smooth 
roots,  and  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  settled  in  the  spring,  plant 
them  out  in  rows.  The  seed  stalks  will  grow  with  numerous 
branches,  and  the  heads  will  ripen  at  different  seasons.  They 
should  be  out  off  as  they  mature.  The  husks  should  be  rubbed 
or  threshed  off,  some  clear,  dry,  cold  day  in  winter.  The  seed 
is  cleaned  by  sinking.  Put  it  all  in  a  tub,  fill  with  water,  stir 
the  seed  slightly,  skim  off  the  chaff*  and  light  seed,  and  turn  off 
the  water ;  repeat  this  operation  two  or  three  times,  and  you 
will  oply  have  full  plump  seeds,  nearly  every  one  of  which  will 
germinate  and  give  a  good  root.  Here  is  the  first  and  great 
secret  of  raising  large  crops  of  fine  roots.  It  can  never  be  done 
without  this  careful  selection  of  the  seed.  After  washing,  spread 
them  out  on  a  cloth.  Let  it  dry  three  or  four  days,  (unless  it  is 
to  be  sown  at  once,)  turning  it  every  day.  Do  not  diy  by  a 
fire.    We  approve  of  drilling  in  all  root  crops.     It  is  much 


ROOT   CROPS.  201 

more  certain.  Witli  seeds  selected  and  cleaned  as  we  have 
described,  you  can  sow  just  the  number  of  seeds  you  want  on 
an  acre.  If  it  is  desired  to  have  the  roots  one  inch  apart,  twelve 
seeds  to  the  foot  can  be  dropped  with  great  regularity.  Many 
of  these  seed  sowers  also  have  an  attachment  by  which  guano, 
phosphate,  or  any  fertilizer,  can  be  sown  with  the  seed.  If  the 
iroppings  of  the  privy  have  been  saved  and  composted,  as 
directed  in  Chapter  III.,  you  have  just  the  thing  to  sow 
with  your  seed.  Some  application  of  the  sort  is  desirable. 
Four  or  five  bushels  of  salt  to  the  acre  should  never  be  omitted 
unless  you  have  kelp  or  other  sea  mosses  in  abundance.  Kefuse 
salt  is  as  good  as  any ;  when  sown  with  the  drill,  less  seed  is 
required,  and  thinning  is  unnecessary.  When  good  turnip  seed  * 
i.s  drilled  in,  on  well  prepared  grouud,  one  half  pound  per  acre 
is  enough.  Too  thick  seeding  is  injurious.  One  pound  to  the 
acre  is  often  sown  broadcast,  but  that  is  too  large  a  quantity. 
Mr.  Ware,  a  successful  cultivator  in  Massachusetts,  drills  three 
and  a  quarter  pounds  of  carrot  seed  per  acre.  They  germinate 
sooner  if  soaked,  for  twenty-four  hours  before  planting,  in  warm 
water.  The  drills  should  be  far  enough  apart  to  allow  a  horse  cul- 
tivator between  them.  Constant  weeding  is  necessary  in  growing 
root  crops,  although  a  large  proportion  of  the  weeding  may  be 
saved  by  previous  thorough  breaking  up  the  so^l.  When  sown 
broadcast,  they  may  be  thinned  by  harrowing  after  they  come 
up.  This  also  tends  to  leave  them  in  rows,  kills  many  weeds, 
and  loosens  the  crust.  As  soon  as  the  weeds  get  started,  go 
through  with  a  horse  hoe  between  the  rows,  and  follo\v  with 
the  hoe  or  "  weed  killer."  Never  let  the  weeds  get  the  start  of 
the  crop.  Kuta  bagas  should  be  thinned ;  this  may  be  done  by 
cutting  up  the  plants  with  the  hoe.  With  rows  three  feet  apart, 
and  plants  on  an  average  two  inches  apart,  if  the  soil  is  plowed 
deeply  so  that  the  roots  can  find  pasture,  from  twelve  to  fifteen 


202  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

hundred  bushels  of  turnips,  ruta  bagas,  and  even  carrots,  may  be 
secured.  Boots,  as  a  rule,  should  be  left  in  the  ground  as  late  as 
may  be  without  danger  of  freezing.  They  may  be  topped  in 
the  field  before  the  tops  decay,  by  means  of  either  the  hoe  or 
shovel.  The  tops  are  relished  by  stock.  One  great  objection 
to  this  crop  is  the  labor  of  handling.  Much  of  this  can  be 
economized. 

Eun  a  subsoil  plow  beside  the  rows,  and  it  will  lift  them  so 
that  they  can  be  very  easily  pulled.  Indeed,  the  ground  should 
be  so  mellow  that  they  can  be  pulled  without  difficulty.  Gather 
them  on  a  dry  day  in  dry  weather.  Throw  them  between  the 
rows  and  let  the  dirt  dry  on  them.  An  hour  or  two  will  dry  the 
*  dirt  so  that  most  of  it  will  shake  off  while  loading  them.  Have 
a  scuttle  to  your  cellar,  so»  that  you  can  slide  them  in  by  the 
cart  load.  After  they  are  in  the  cellar,  don't  forget  them.  On 
cold  nights  (not  freezing)  open  the  windows  and  scuttle  door ; 
in  warm  or  wet  weather  shut  them  up  as  tightly  as  possible.  A 
very  successful  farmer  says,  "  If  I  am  fattening  hogs  and  want 
to  give  them  meal  and  grain,  I  cook  the  roots  and  mix  the 
meal  in  so  that  it  is  all  cooked  and  steamed.  I  think,  for  fat- 
tening hogs,  cooked  meal  is  better  than  raw.  But  I  will  state 
that  I  have  kept  successfully,  for  years,  store  hogs  and  breeding 
sows,  from  November  to  March,  with  nothing  at  all  but  raw 
mangold  wurzels.  I  don't  approve  of  feeding  raw  roots  to 
small  pigs;  but  store  hogs,  weighing  from  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  pounds  upwards,  will  thrive  well  on  them." 

It  is  undoubtedly  more  desirable  to  steam  roots  for  hogs  than 
cattle.  Cutting  them  up  with  a  root  cutter,  or  in  small  quanti- 
ties, chopping  them  with  a  hatchet,  is  usually  sufficient  prepa- 
ration for  cattle.  One  half  bushel  of  roots  is  a  liberal  allow- 
ance for  each  animal,  allowing  six  pounds  of  grain,  and  twenty 
pounds  of  cut  corn-stalks  and  straw.     Where  hay  and  grain  ara 


ROOT  CROPS.  203 

very  cheap,  as  in  some  parts  of  the  West,  large  crops  of  roots 
are  not  profitable,  but  small  crops,  to  give  the  stock  an 
occasional  bite,  should,  we  judge,  be  raised  even  by  western 
farmers. 

Potatoes.  There  is  no  need  of  urging  the  cultivation  of 
potatoes,  for  the  farmer  wants  these  himself^  and  will  have  them 
even  if  they  cost  him  one  dollar  a  bushel.  In  this  country 
they  are  more  generally  used  than  any  other  article  of  food. 
The  soils  best  suited  to  the  potato,  are  the  dryer  and  lighter 
soils.  New  land,  or  pastures  newly  cultivated,  give  the  most 
certain  and  most  abundant  crops.  In  wet,  undrained  soils,  or 
in  those  of  stiff  clay,  they  are  not  of  as  good  quality,  and  are 
more  liable  to  disease.  Land  that  has  been  long  cultivated, 
seldom  produces  good  crops.  No  green  or  unfermented  manure 
should  be  used  on  land  intended  for  potatoes,  within  one  year 
of  planting.  No  stable  manure  should  be  used,  until  thoroughly 
rotted  and  composted  with  peat,  muck,  or  sods.  The  safest 
applications  are  ashes,  or  plaster.  Guano,  or  superphosphate, 
if  sown  broadcast  and  plowed  in  lightly,  will  prove  beneficial. 
No  application  of  strong  manures  should  ever  be  made  directly 
to  the  sets.  We  advise  always  planting  in  drills  or  ridges. 
Hill  planting  is  only  fit  for  gardening.  The  ground  should  be 
subsoiled  at  least  to  the  depth  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  The 
manure  should  be  plowed  in  at  this  first  plowing.  The  secvl 
maybe  either  put  in  with  a  drill,  which  makes  the  furrow,  drops 
the  sets  at  the  required  distances,  and  covers  them ;  or  a  light 
plow  run  through,  making  a  furrow  four  to  six  inches  deep,  the 
sets  dropped,  and  the  plow  run  through  again,  to  cover  them. 
This  is  an  expeditious  and  excellent  method  of  planting  pota- 
toes. For  the  smaller  early  sorts,  the  drills  may  be  from  twenty 
to  thirty  inches  apart,  and  the  sets  from  six  to  ten  inches  apart 
in  the  drills  and  covered  three  or  four  inches  deep.     For  large 


204  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

and  later  sorts,  make  the  drills  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  apart, 
sets  ten  inches  apart  in  the  drills,  and  cover  four  to  six  inches 
deep,  according  to  soil.  If  the  soil  is  inclined  to  be  heavy  or 
wet,  four  inches  is  sufficient. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  practice  in  selecting  seed  for 
planting.  Large  or  small,  whole  or  cut,  the  discussion  has 
been  going  on  for  years.  Our  own  experience,  as  well  as  our 
judgment,  from  all  reading  and  observation,  is  that  large  fair 
specimens  of  any  grain,  fruit,  or  vegetable,  are  the  best  for  seed. 
But  if  large  potatoes  are  selected  and  planted  whole,  there  are 
too  many  sprouts,  and  the  crop  will  be  small ;  but  if  cut  into 
pieces,  having  two  or  three  eyes,  there  will  be  enough  to  give 
food  to  the  young  plant,  without  crowding  too  many  roots  to- 
gether. The  great  objection  to  planting  cut  sets  can  be  obviated 
by  cutting  a  week  or  two  before  planting,  and  allowing  the 
cuts  to  heal  over.  As  soon  as  the  sprouts  make  their  appear- 
ance above  ground,  harrow  the  field  across  the  drills.  This 
breaks  up  the  surface,  kills  the  weeds,  and  gives  a  good  chance 
for  the  young  plants  to  grow.  A  ligbt  fine  toothed  harrow  is 
best  for  the  purpose.  Such  a  one  we  recommend  every  far 
mer  to  have  for  harrowing  his  meadows,  grain  fields,  corn 
fields,  and  potato  fields,  after  the  crops  are  up.  This  early 
harrowing  saves  much  after  cultivation.  Cultivate  with  an 
ordinary  cultivator,  until  the  blossoms  appear,  then  hill  up 
with  the  plow.  It  is  injurious  to  work  the  ground  in  wet 
weather,  or  when  the  tops  are  wet. 

In  harvesting  potatoes,  a  plow  can  be  run  on  each  side  of  the 
drill,  and  then  the  potatoes  are  readily  forked  out.  Many  far- 
mers plow  out  their  potatoes,  with  the  common  plow,  and 
others  use  a  plow  made  for  the  purpose.  Pick  up  and  store,  as 
rast  as  uncovered,  and  while  the  potatoes  are  still  cool,  as  dry- 
ing and  heating  cause  them  to  rot.     Any  method  of  storing 


ROOT   CROPS.  205 

potatoes,  that  keeps  them  from  the  light  and  cold,  is  sufficient. 
The  great  difficulty  in  raising  the  potato,  is  the  rot,  for  which 
ihere  is  no  remedy.  Care  in  the  selection  of  varieties,  and  in 
planting  none  but  the  best  specimens  of  those  varieties,  may  be 
of  some  value;  care  in  the  application  of  manures,  and  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  and  crops,  may  mitigate  the  severity  of 
the  disease ;  care  in  the  harvesting  and  storing  of  the  crop,  may 
lessen  its  ravages,  but  there  it  remains,  a  most  serious  obstacle. 
The  following  varieties  are  especially  recommended  for  cultiva- 
tion. Buckeye,  early  and  productive.  Dykemax,  early  and 
productive.  Grows  better  in  strong  clayey  soil,  than  any  other 
we  know.  Mercer,  early  and  of  the  finest  quality,  but  not  as 
productive  or  hardy  as  others.  State  of  ]\Iaixe,  quite  early, 
of  good  quality,  and  moderately  productive.  Early  Good- 
rich, productive,  hardy,  and  a  good  keeper.  The  Early 
Rose  we  consider,  in  some  respects,  the  best  of  all  the  early 
potatoes.  It  is  ten  days  earlier  than  the  Early  Goodrich,  very 
productive,  of  finest  quality,  and  so  far  free  from  disease.  Car- 
ter, once  esteemed  the  finest  of  all  the  late  varieties. 

Davis  Seedling.  "As  a  winter  potato,  or  for  extensive 
cultivation  for  market,  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  varieties." 
Hardy  and  productive.  Jacksox  White  ;  earlier  than  Davis 
seedling,  commands  a  high  price  in  its  season,  free  from  disease, 
and  a  good  keeper ;  one  of  the  best  for  general  cultivation 
Jexny  Lind,  very  large,  productive,  free  from  disease,  and 
keeps  well.  Peach  Blow,  handsome,  hard}^,  productive, 
keeps  well,  brings  a  good  price  in  market ;  but  is  really  not  of 
as  good  quality  as  any  of  the  other  late  potatoes  recommended 

Colebrook's  Seedling,  Pixkeye,  and  Gleasox,  have  each 
viesirable  qualities  for  general  cultivation.  There  arc  many 
other  excellent  varieties,  but  none  we  believe  better  than  those 
recommended  above.     As  to  feeding  potatoes  to  stock,  we  be- 


200  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAT. 

lieve  other  roots  are  more  profitable  to  raise  for  that  purpose, 
but  all  the  small  potatoes  will  come  in  play,  in  feeding;  and  if 
the  farmer  finds  them  difficult  to  dispose  of,  at  paying  prices,  in 
the  market,  they  are  worth  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel  to  feed 
to  stock,  with  hay  at  sixteen  dollars  a  ton.  Stock  should  al- 
ways have  some  roots,  during  the  winter,  and  potatoes  will 
answer  the  purpose. 

Sweet  Potatoes  are  raised  from  sprouts  or  slips.  Almost 
any  corn  land  below  41°,  will  give  a  good  crop.  The 
slips  are  raised  in  beds,  and  transplanted,  when  three  or 
four  inches  high,  or  any  time  before  they  commence  running 
The  slips  are  pulled,  and  the  tubers  left  in  the  bed.  Two  or 
three  crops  of  sprouts  can  be  obtained  in  one  season,  from  the 
same  tubers.  The  soil  should  be  deeply  plowed,  subsoiled 
harrowed,  rolled,  or  dragged,  and  put  in  the  most  mellow  condi- 
tion. Only  well  rotted  stable  manure  should  be  used.  Make 
ridges  three  feet  apart,  by  turning  two  heavy  furrows  together 
Set  the  slips  in  these  ridges,  burying  them  nearly  one  half  their 
length.  The  after  cultivation  consists  in  keeping  down  the 
weeds.  They  can  be  plowed  out  the  same  as  potatoes.  They 
should  be  dug  before  frost.  For  keeping  at  the  North  they 
must  have  a  dry  atmosphere  of  even  temperature.  At  ordi- 
nary prices  a  large  crop  of  sweet  potatoes  is  very  profitable. 
Other  root  crops  will  be  treated  of  under  the  head  of  Market 
Gardening. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

SPECIAL    CROPS    AND    ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 

^/^fOTTO^,  though,  no  longer  King,  is  a  most  important 
^  '  "li    crop.      As  corn  furnishes  cheap  food,  so  cotton  furnishes 


cheap  clothing.  It  is  a  child  of  the  sun  and  flourishes 
only  where  it  can  have  seven  or  eight  months  secure 
from  frost,  and  be  nearly  free  from  rains  for  three  or  four  months. 
Three  classes  of  soils  are  suited  to  cotton.  Soft  or  rotten  lime- 
stone soils;  the  black  soils  of  the  Texas  prairies,  and  the 
Alabama  canebrakes ;  and,  best  of  all,  the  river  bottoms  or 
alluvions.  The  cotton  region  proper  in  this  country  is  within 
the  limits  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  the  northern 
part  of  Florida,  Mississippi,  the  northern  half  of  Loui.-iana,  the 
southern  half  of  Arkansas,  and  the  eastern  half  of  Texas;  but 
wdthin  these  limits,  with  improved  modes  of  culture,  might  be 
raised  the  cotton  of  the  world. 

There  are  other  small  portions  of  the  South  where  cotton  can 
be  grown,  but  not  in  profitable  quantities,  except  at  a  high 
price — twelve  to  sixteen  cents  per  pound.  Not  more  than  one 
half  the  cultivatable  land  of  a  plantation  should  in  any  case  be 
planted  in  cotton.  The  remainder  should  be  devoted  to  corn, 
roots,  pasture  and  woodland.  Perhaps  a  still  better  division  is 
one  third  in  cotton,  one  third  in  some  green  crop  to  be  plowed 
under,  and  one  third  in  grain,  grass,  and  roots.  Every  culti- 
vated acre  will  thus  have  a  chance  to  recuperate  itself  once  in 

209 


210  now   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

three  years ;  aud  as  cotton  is  not  an  exhaustive  crop,  with  a  few 
fertilizers,  this  might  be  made  sufficient. 

A  satisfactory  rule  is  one  mule  and  one  hand  for  every  ten 
acres  of  cotton.  The  best  mules  for  the  purpose  are  fast  walk- 
inc'  mules,  and  quickness  of  movement  is  more  desirable  than 
great  strength.  The  same  is  true  of  hands — a  rather  small  but 
active  hand  is  the  best  on  the  cotton  plantation. 

The  best  mode  of  preparing  for  planting  and  cultivating  a 
cotton  crop  is  briefly  as  follows : 

Plow  early;  the  last  of  February,  if  the  soil  will  admit. 
Mark  off  the  rows.  Give  the  soil  a  month  to  settle.  Eun  a 
light  harrow  along  the  ridges.  Follow  with  a  marker,  soak  the 
seeds  in  some  fertilizer,  drop  evenly  two  or  three  inches  apart 
if  by  hand,  four  to  six  inches  if  by  a  drill ;  cover  one  inch  deep. 
As  soon  as  the  third  leaf  appears,  with  a  shanghai  plow,  or  a 
cultivator  that  can  be  run  astride  the  rows,  clean  away  the 
grass  and  weeds  from  both  sides  at  once.  Follow  with  the 
hoes,  "  chopping  out "  weeds  and  superfluous  plants.  Cultivate 
once  in  two  weeks  with  plows  and  hoes  till  the  plants  interlock 
across  the  middles. 

Plowing.  The  planter  of  one  hundred  acres  of  cotton,  with 
the  necessary  grain  and  roots,  requires  four  or  five  large  plows 
for  preparing  his  grain  land,  and  for  making  the  ridges  for  his 
cotton.  Cotton  requires  a  deep  soft  bed  for  its  long  tap  root ; 
but  deep  cultivation  between  the  rows  has  been  proved  injuri- 
ous. At  least  ten  small  plows  of  different  patterns  are  de- 
sirable. The  scooter  or  bull  tongue,  for  marking  the  rows 
where  a  drill  is  not  used  ;  the  scraper  or  sweep,  for  cultivat- 
ing the  middles ;  the  shanghai,  for  clearing  the  rows  at  the 
first  cultivation  where  a  cultivator  is  not  used;  the  shovel 
plow  and  the  mould  plow.  In  Chapter  IV.  will  be  found  a 
description  of  the  hest  large  plows,  and  Messrs.  E.  E.  Allen  & 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  211 

Co.,  of  New  York,  or  Messrs.  Sinclair  &  Co.,  of  Baltimore, 
will  furnish,  on  application,  special  price  lists  of  all  plows, 
especially  adapted  to  southern  crops.  We  advise  also  the 
purchase  of  subsoil  plows  for  grain  and  root  crops.  Buy  one, 
and  make  an  experiment,  and  we  feel  assured  it  will  prove 
profitable. 

We  would  allude  here  to  what  is  known  as  circle  plowing. 
What  we  mean  by  this  is  best  illustrated  by  turning  a  tub, 
measure,  or  round  basket,  bottom  side  up,  tying  a  s\  ring  to  each 
handle,  and  so  winding  them  around  the  basket  or  tub  that  they 
shall  reach  the  top,  each  over  the  opposite  handle  from  which 
they  started.  Thus  we  have  a  gradual  ascent  to  the  top  in  a 
half  circle.  On  the  light  uplands  where  the  soil  i?  mellow  as  an 
ash  heap,  it  has  been  for  years  washing  down  the  slopes  until 
much  of  it  is  ruined.  Circle  plowing  is  the  only  remedy.  First 
make  ditches  in  the  form  we  have  described,  so  that  they  will 
take  the  water  that  comes  pouring  down  the  hill,  and  they  will 
bear  it  away  down  a  slope  so  gradual  that  no  washing  will  take 
place. 

After  a  heavy  rain  send  through  the  ditches  and  have  the 
gulches  filled  up,  and  the  earth  thrown  ^-ut.  They  will  soon 
harden  and  protect  the  soil  from  washing.  Conform  the  plowing 
to  the  slope  of  the  ditches.  Care  and  practice  will  render  the 
marker  very  expert,  and  the  rows  will  be  nearly  as  uniform  as 
on  level  ground. 

The  plows  should  be  started  early  in  the  spring,  or  rather  the 
latter  part  of  February,  whenever  the  ground  will  admit.  If  the 
previous  growth  was  cotton  let  what  was  a  middle  last  year  be 
a  row  this,  and  vice  versa.  On  stubble  or  corn  land,  mark  off  the 
rows  with  a  light  plow,  or  scooter,  follow  in  the  same  furrow 
and  enlarge  it  with  the  shovel  plow,  drag  the  litter  into  this 
furrow  and  cover  by  turning  two  furrows  over  it.     The  custom 


212  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAT. 

of  lapping  two  furrows  together,  leaving  the  soil  beneath  thera 
unbroken,  is  shiftless,  and  unprofitable,  as  well  as  unworthy  any 
enlightened  cultivator.  Leaving  these  ridges  for  a  month  or 
more  to  be  settled  by  the  spring  rains,  planting  commences  from 
the  fifteenth  of  March  to  the  tenth  of  April.  Every  day's  delay 
in  planting  shortens  the  season  by  so  much,  and  lessens  the 
crop.  Mark  off  your  rows  for  planting  with  a  light  plow  or  a 
marker.  The  great  object  is  to  have  the  rows  perfectly  straight. 
A  perfectly  straight  row  is  easily  cultivated ;  and  when  it  is  re- 
membered that  for  three  months  cultivation  must  be  constant, 
you  will  see  the  utmost  care  here  will  be  well  repaid.  The  fol- 
lowing contrivance  is  simple  but  effectual  for  the  purpose.  It 
consists  of  a  stick  of  timber  Avith  V  shaped  blocks  fastened  on 
one  side,  and  a  hoop-shaped  handle  on  the  other  with  which 
to  guide  it.  It  is  drawn  by  one  mule ;  easily  managed,  and  as  the 
blocks  are  just  the  distance  apart  required  for  the  rows,  uni- 
formity is  readily  attained.     {Fig.  65.) 

The  one  represented  in  the  cut  is  sixteen  feet  long,  and  marks 
four  rows  five  feet  apart.  Of  course  the  size  can  be  varied  to 
suit  the  convenience.  On  light  lands,  or  under  poor  cultiva- 
tion, from  four  to  four  and  a  half  feet  apart  is  the  average  dis- 
lance  required  between  the  rows,  while  under  the  best  cultiva- 
tion, or  on  very  strong  lands,  the  plant  grows  so  luxuriantly  that 
six  and  even  seven  feet  are  desirable. 

Apply  no  manure  directly  to  the  plants,  but  sow  broadcast, 
and  plow  in  at  the  first  plowing.  The  system  recommended  by 
Dr.  Cloud,  of  Alabama,  as  condensed  by  J.  B.  Lyman,  of  Louisi- 
ana i.s  so  near  perfection  that  we  give  it  nearly  entire.  "  First, 
by  circle  plowing  let  the  planter  prepare  his  lands  so  as  to  pre- 
vent washing,  and  retain  in  the  soil  all  the  salts,  and  all  the 
fertilizers  he  may  add.  Now  let  him  arrange  for  a  rotation  of 
crops,  as  follows :    In  his  mind's  eye  divide  the  plowed  land  into 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  213 

three  parts  or  tracts,  one  third  cotton,  one  third  grains  and  roots, 
and  one  third  fallow,  assigning  to  each  farm  laborer  an  equal 
amount  of  cotton  and  corn  land.* 

"Calculate  to  have  on  the  farm  stock  enough  to  consume  all 
the  food  that  grows  on  it;  mules,  horses,  cows,  sheep,  poultry; 
and  lay  it  down  as  a  first  principle  that  no  manure  is  to  be  wasted. 
Provide  stock  pens,  hollowed  towards  the  centre,  and  also  sheds 
for  the  stock.  Let  every  animal  on  the  place  be  confined  at 
nisht  in  these  enclosures,  with  an  abundance  of  litter ;  leaves 
and  pine  straw  are  better  even,  than  wheat  or  oat  straw. 

"Cotton  requires  potash  and  lime,  wood  ashes,  plaster, 
slaked  lime,  or  bones,  will  easily  supply  this  demand.  The  ne- 
cessity for  phosporic  acid  is  imperative,  in  order  to  produce  a 
healthy  plant,  and  in  all  soils  that  are  not  alluvial,  that  is,  where 
there  is  not  a  great  abundance  of  fine  vegeiablc  mould,  the  de- 
mand for  phosphorus  is  probably  the  reason  why  diseases  of 
various  sorts,  such  as  the  rust  and  the  rot,  attack  the  plant.  In 
addition  to  lime  and  ashes  some  fertilizers  containing  the  phos- 
phates must  be  used.  Compost^  or  barnyard  manure  and  bone 
manure,  weeds,  muck,  and  peat  abounding  in  vegetable  matter, 
will  supply  them.     (See  Chapter  IQ.) 

"  Moisture  is  needed  to  rot  any  litter  you  may  use.  Scrape 
your  yard  on  wet  days,  piling  the  compost  under  the  sheds; 
sprinkle  over  the  compost  a  little  lime,  ashes,  poultry  manure, 
etc.  Guano  and  crushed  bones  are  the  most  valuable  of  the 
condensed  fertilizers.  Obtain  a  few  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  after  it  has  absorbed  all  the  bones,  sprinkle  it  on  the  com- 
post heap." 

Cotton   seed  is  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  of  cotton,  but  it 


*  We  recommend,  instead  of  the  fallow,  some  green  crop,  not  only  to 

shnde  the  soil  from  the  hot   summer  sun,  but  to  help   in   enriching   it. 

I'low  under  H^htly  while  still  green. 
14 


211  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

should  be  applied  to  the  preceding  crop,  and  not  to  tho 
cotton  itself.  By  the  above  system  of  Dr.  Cloud,  on  many  plan- 
tations, five  hundred  bushels  of  compost  manure  to  the  acre 
may  well  be  made  before  March  comes.  Look  at  it.  Straw, 
leaves,  weeds,  muck,  peat,  the  droppings  solid  and  liquid  of 
your  well  fed  stock,  your  poultry,  and  your  family,  what  an  in- 
exhaustible mine  of  treasures;  and  then  the  value  of  all  these  can 
be  doubled  by  the  addition  of  a  few  dollars'  worth  of  lime,  or  by 
saving  your  ashes,  and  by  putting  sulphuric  acid  on  your  bones. 

Supposing  then  there  are  five  hundred  bushels  for  each  acre  of 
cotton.  "  Mark  off  the  field  with  a  scooter  plow,  (unless  the  old 
lines  are  visible,)  the  first  line  fifteen  feet  from  the  boundary, 
and  the  others  thirty  feet  apart.  On  these  lines  or  rows  deposit 
the  manure  in  heaps  of  ten  bushels  each.  This  is  easily  done 
by  having  the  capacity  of  the  cart  twenty  bushels  and  dropping 
half  for  the  first  heap,  and  dumping  the  balance  for  the  second. 
In  this  way  the  manure  is  distributed  at  the  rate  of  five  hundred 
bushels  to  the  acre.  This  will  produce  very  thrifty  plants,  and 
the  rows  should  be  at  least  five  feet  wide."  Cover  the  manure 
lightly  at  the  first  plowing. 

Planting.  The  seed  should  be  soaked  in  a  weak  solution 
of  stable  manure,  water  and  salt,  and  then  rolled  in  lime,  ashes, 
and  guano— or  in  plaster,  which  is  preferable,  as  the  seeds  then 
show  more  plainly  in  the  drill.  Thirty  pounds  to  the  acre  is 
recommended;  but  with  perfect  seed,  prepared  as  above,  and 
evenly  sowed  by  drill  or  by  hand,  one  half  this  amount  is 
abundantly  sufacient.  We  have  known  twice  this  amount, 
or  sixty  pounds  to  the  acre,  sown,  without  producing  plants 
enough  for  a  stand.  The  seed  to  be  used  for  planting  should  be 
the  best,  cleaned  of  fibre  as  much  as  possible,  and  carefully 
housed.  The  great  piles  of  cotton  seed  lying  about  the  gin 
houses  through  the  winter,  furnish  very  uncertain  seed.     "Im 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  215 

prove  the  cotton  seed,  and  your  staple  is  directly  augmented  in 
value.  One  advantage  of  this  system  of  generous  manuring, 
is  the  improvement  of  the  seed,  and  consequently  an  increase 
in  the  length  and  fineness  of  the  staple ;  for  an  excellent  quality 
and  an  abundant  yield  of  cotton  wool  can  no  more  be  expected 
from  seech  that  are  dwarfish,  than  large  clips  of  wool  from  sheep 
that  are  dwarfed." 

Having  then  good  seed,  in  good  condition,  and  prepared  for 
planting,  put  it  in  with  a  drill,  or  cotton  seed  planter,  if  you 
can  (beg,  borrow,  steal,  or)  buy  one.  These  implements  are 
now  made  to  combine  a  small  harrow,  which  goes  in  front  of 
the  ridge  and  breaks  the  crust ;  a  drill  that  makes  a  furrow  for 
the  seed;  awheel  that  distributes  the  seed  evenly  at  any  re- 
quired distances ;  and  a  scraper  that  follows,  and  covers  them 
evenly,  levelling  the  surface  on  either  side.  Fifteen  to  twenty 
acres  of  cotton  per  day  can  be  planted  with  it.  It  can  also  be 
used  to  sow  any  kind  of  seeds.  A  common  corn  planter  can  be 
arranged  to  put  in  cotton  seed  much  faster  and  better  than  it 
can  be  done  by  hand.  If  you  can  by  no  contrivance  get  a  drill 
or  planter,  mark  out  the  rows  with  the  implement  we  have 
described  on  page  212;  let  the  hands  follow  close  behind  it 
and  drop  the  seed,  three  or  four  in  a  place,  at  distances 
of  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  apart,  (under  our  system  of 
manuring ;  under  the  ordinary  system,  twenty  to  twenty -four 
inches  apart,)  in  the  drills.  Cover  with  a  drag  made  of  a  piece 
of  plank,  and  drawn  along  the  ridge.  Here  are  four  operations, 
requiring  the  whole  field  to  be  gone  over  four  times ;  when,  with 
a  cotton  seed  planter,  costing  only  from  thirty  to  forty  dollars, 
the  whole  can  be  done  at  one  operation.  This,  wnere  time  is  so 
valuable,  and  every  day's  delay  indicates  the  loss  of  a  day's 
picking  at  the  other  end  of  the  season,  is  a  small  item  indeed. 
Ingcrsoll's  is  the  best  cotton  planter  we  have  seen,  but  it  can  be 


21(3  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

improveu,  and  will  be,  if  the  demand  for  machines  is  such  as  to 
promise  remuneration  for  the  improvements.  The  planter  can 
now  for  a  fortnight  leave  his  cotton  field,  and  hurry  up  his 
other  work ;  about  which  time,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
liis  cotton  will  need 

Cultivation,  which  consists  in  keeping  down  all  grass  and 
weeds,  and  keeping  the  surface  stirred.  As  soon  as  the  third 
leaf  appears,  bar  off,  that  is,  run  a  light  plow  on  each  side  of 
the  row,  close  to  the  plants,  cutting  up  the  grass  and  throwing 
away  the  dirt  from  the  row.  A  double  plow  is  the  best  for 
this  purpose — that  is,  two  light  plows  on  one  beam,  that  will 
run  astride  the  rows  and  do  both  sides  at  once.  A  cultivator, 
with  the  forward  hoes  taken  out,  will  answer  the  same  end. 
The  poorest  implement  for  the  purpose  is  the  single  plow,  which 
must  be  run  on  each  side  of  the  row.  Here  the  advantage  of 
perfectly  straight  rows  is  seen,  as  the  plow  can  be  run,  by  an 
expert  plowman,  close  to  the  rows,  without  disturbing  a  plant. 
The  hoe  gang  should  follow  immediately  after  the  plow,  and 
chop  oat  the  grass  and  superfluous  plants  from  the  rows,  leav- 
the  plants  in  clumps  of  three  or  four,  at  distances  of  from  twelve 
to  thirty-six  feet,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  soil. 

This  work  should  be  done  very  rapidly.  With  one  mule  and 
one  hand  to  each  five  acres  of  cotton,  a  week  should  suffice  for 
this  first  operation.  In  about  a  week,  or  not  more  than  two 
weeks  from  the  day  you  commenced  to  "  bar  off,''  start  in  your 
small  plows  and  '' moultV  the  cotton;  "that  is,  let  the  plows 
throw  the  dirt  up  to  the  rows,  the  hoes  to  follow,  thinning  the 
plants  to  a  ^  stand,^  and  leaving  every  thing  clean  and  smooth." 
This  working  should  be  very  thorough  and  careful,  the  most  so 
of  any.  The  plants  can  all  be  cut  away  except  the  two  most 
thrifty  ones  in  each  clump,  and  this  is  called  a  "  stand.'''  All 
the  grass  and  weeds  should  be  destroyed,  and  fresh  earth  drawn 


SPECIAL    CROPS.  2U 

around  the  stand.  Keep  the  ploAVS  running  until  the  middles 
are  all  broken  out.  Manag3  now  to  get  over  your  ground  once 
in  two  weeks  with  the  scraper.  This  is  light  work,  and  the 
teams  should  be  urged  to  a  brisk  pace.  Eapid  movements  are 
now  required. 

The  common  corn  cultivator  will  answer  tbe  purpose  on  light 
lauds,  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  ridge  high  ;  but  the  "cotton 
sweep"  is  better.  Any  thing  that  kills  the  weeds,  and  tends  to 
throw  the  earth  up  to  the  ridges,  if  kept  moving  rapidly,  will 
answer  the  purpose.  During  the  very  hot  weather  of  July  and 
August,  the  teams  should  be  in  the  field  at  the  earliest  dawn, 
and  rest  from  eleven  until  two  or  three  o'clock,  the  mules  hav- 
ing shade  and  dry  fodder.  Or,  better,  if  the  planter  has  an 
extra  mule  or  two,  to  let  them  work  only  half  the  day.  At 
this  season,  buttermilk  should  be  provided  for  the  laborers. 
Nothing  is  more  nourishing  and  cooling.  One  cow  to  Cv^ery 
three  or  four  persons,  should  be  a  part  of  the  stock  on  tvery 
cotton  plantation.  When  the  plants  begin  to  interlock  across 
the  rows,  haul  off  the  cultivators  and  let  it  alone  until  the  time 
for  PICKING.  This  commences  from  the  first  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  September,  according  to  the  soil,  the  season,  and  the 
cultivation.  For  at  least  four  months,  the  chief  business,  to 
which  every  thing  else  must  yield,  is  picking.  Every  available 
hand  should  be  employed — for  the  hands  required  to  cultivate 
the  cotton  will  not  suffice  in  picking  time. 

We  give  below  the  gist  of  the  directions  recorded  by  Joseph 
B.  Lyman,  of  Louisiana,  the  author  of  a  most  excellent  statisti- 
cal and  practical  work  on  cotton.  "  Start  the  pickers  as  soon 
as  you  can  see  a  half  dozen  open  balls  down  the  row.  Each 
hand  should  have  a  bag  and  a  basket,  the  bag  fastened  about 
the  neck  and  adapted  to  the  height  and  strength  of  the  picker. 
Activity  is  now  required,  and  women,  with  their  quick  fingers, 


218  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY. 

usually  make  the  fastest  pickers.  The  basket  should  be  so 
arranged  by  the  planter  that  the  bags  can  be  conveniently 
emptied  when  they  attain  a  weight  of  twenty-five  pounds. 
Every  arrangement  that  tends  to  facilitate  the  work,  or  relieve 
the  laborer,  is  to  the  credit  and  profit  of  the  planter.  Humanity, 
as  well  as  interest,  demands  that  every  thing  that  can  be  done 
to  lighten  this  monotonous  task,  shall  be  done.  By  many  over- 
seers, there  has  seemed  to  be  an  entire  disregard  of  the  welfare 
of  the  laborers.  Let  there  be  refreshments  at  the  baskets. 
Kindle  a  fire  and  have  coffee  boiling  before  sunrise,  and  when 
the  gang  come  out  of  the  rows  give  each  a  half  pint  with  corn 
bread.  It  will  give  them  strength  for  their  work  and  is  a  pie- 
ventive  of  miasmatic  disease,  to  which  cotton  pickers  are  par- 
ticularly liable  from  working  from  the  cool  morning  air  into 
the  fierce  heat  of  midday.  In  the  heat  of  midday,  provide  a 
tub  of  buttermilk,  or  sweetened  water,  and  give  them  a  few 
minutes  rest  before  they  set  in  again  ;  the  time  will  not  be  lost, 
for  they  will  strike  in  with  more  spirit,  and  the  expectation  of 
another  drink  will  quicken  their  movements  on  the  way  back. 
The  month  of  October  is  the  height  of  the  picking  season,  and 
the  planter  must  urge  his  hands  to  their  best  exertions.  But 
let  him  not,  in  his  pushing,  encroach  upon  the  hours  of  relaxa- 
tion and  rest.  His  rule  should  be  gather  no  cotton  after 
nightfall,  and  pay  high  for  fast  picking,  rather  than  for  night 
work. 

"  Sometimes  it  is  well  to  divide  the  force  into  '  fast  pickers' 
and  the  '  trash  gang,'  the  former  pressing  rapidly  through  and 
gathering  all  the  fair,  clean  cotton,  that  is  hanging  open  on  the 
upper  branches,  the  others  gleaning  the  '  trash  cotton,'  as  all 
inferior  or  dirty  cotton  is  called.  There  is  no  time  so  favora- 
ble for  sorting  this  trash  cotton  as  when  it  is  first  picked.  The 
'  first  picking'  should  never   be  allowed  to  become  wet  with 


Fij-  07, 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  221 

dew,  but  should  all  be  picked  before  nigbtfall,  and  taken,  while 
still  warm  and  drj,  to  the  sbeds,  to  be  stored  for  a  niontli  or 
two  before  it  is  ginned.  This  increases  the  weight  and  gives  it 
a  better  color." 

Ginning,  Baling,  and  Marketing,  hardly  come  within 
the  scope  of  this  book ;  but,  as  we  believe  the  past  and  the 
present  systems  to  be  wasteful  and  foulty  in  the  extreme,  we 
embody  oome  suggestions  in  regard  to  this  part  of  the  subject. 
In  many  parts  of  the  cotton  States,  a  community  living  within  a 
compass  of  five  miles,  produce,  in  favorable  seasons,  five 
thousand  bales.  The  number  of  persons  in  such  communities 
averages  about  fifteen  hundred.  The  average  number  of  bales 
ginned,  at  each  gin  house,  is  not  over  two  hundred.  The  average 
cost  of  the  gin  houses  and  equipments  is  five  thousand  dollars, 
or  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  laid  out  in  gin 
houses  and  equipments.  Now,  instead  of  this  arrangement,  let 
the  planters  combine  to  put  up  a  factory  that  will  gin  out 
this  whole  crop,  bale  it  in  the  best  manner  for  market,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  manufacture  eighty  thousand  yards  of  cloth  for 
home  use,  which  could  readily  be  done  in  the  four  months 
that  the  gins  are  idle.  The  advantages  of  such  a  system  are 
numerous. 

The  planters  would  be  saved  so  large  an  investment  m 
machinery.  Better  machinery,  better  operators,  and  conse- 
quently better  work  would  be  secured,  and  at  much  less 
expense.  It  could  be  packed  in  the  best  manner  by  the  best 
power  presses,  and  baled  with  iron  hoops,  thus  saving  to  the 
planter  the  old  charges  of  one  dollar  and  a  half  or  two  dollars 
per  bale  for  repacking. 

After  the  principal  part  of  the  crop  has  been  thus  perfectly 
prepared  for  market  and  shipped,  the  power  can  be  tlirown 
upon  the  spindles,  and  the  remainder  of  the  crop  made  first 


222  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

into  light  cloths,  for  summer  wear,  and  afterwards  linseys  for 
winter  wear;  and  the  worst  of  the  cotton  into  bagging."  We 
consider  these  suggestions  well  worthy  the  consideration  of  the 
cotton  planters  whose  gins  have  been  destroyed,  whose  capital 
is  limited,  and  who  desire  not  only  to  build  up  their  own 
broken  fortunes,  but  to  bring  the  best  and  most  lasting  pros- 
perity to  the  South. 

INSECTS' AND  DISEASES.  The  cotton  louse  is  the  first  enemy 
of  the  young  plants.  Proper  fertilizing  and  thorough  culture 
fire  a  preventive ;  but,  where  the  louse  appears,  dry  ashes  and 
plaster  should  be  dusted  over  the  plants.  It  will  destroy  most 
of  the  insects  and  be  always  beneficial  to  the  plants. 

The  Cut  Worm  should  be  treated  to  a  mixture  of  ashes 
ind  lime  in  equal  parts,  and  applied  around  the  stem  of  the 
plant.  The  Cotton  Moth  is  the  great  enemy  of  the  cotton 
and  should  be  fought  with  all  conceivable  weapons.  Just  at 
the  time  the  first  balls  open  a  gray  moth  may  be  seen  in  small 
numbers  flying  about  the  field  in  the  morning  and  early 
evening.  This  moth,  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  is  of  a  rusty 
gold  color  on  the  back,  and  a  dull  silvery  white  on  the  breast. 
There  are  two  black  spots  on  the  wings,  and  two  little  horns 
projecting  from  the  head.  As  we  have  said,  there  are  but  few 
of  them,  but  unless  they  and  their  eggs  are  immediately  de- 
stroyed an  army  of  worms  will  soon  destroy  every  green  leaf 
of  the  cotton  plants.  The  following  methods  should  all  be 
used  without  delay.  Put  the  laborers  into  the  field  early  every 
morning  for  a  week,  with  paddles,  and  as  the  moths  fly  up  from 
the  leaves  strike  them  down  and  kill  them.  Make  a  mixture 
of  molasses,  vinegar,  and  cobalt,  and  expose  it  on  plates  elevated 
in  difi-erent  parts  of  the  field,  one  plate  to  the  acre.  Just  at 
dusk  build  bonfires  in  diflerent  parts  of  your  field,  and  many  of 
them,  attracted  by  the  blaze,  will  fall  into  it  and  perish.     What 


SPECIAL  CROPS.  228 

few  escape  these  three  methods  of  destruction  will  deposit 
their  eggs  on  the  leaves.  They  cut  the  mid-rio  or  main  fibre 
of  the  leaf,  and  bend  it  over,  fastening  it  down  with  a  slender 
thread,  and  within  the  shelter  thus  formed,  deposit  their  eggs. 
After  the  moths  disappear,  which  will  be  in  about  ten  days 
after  their  first  appearance,  put  your  whole  foice  into  the  field 
and  let  every  leaf  thus  curled  up  be  gathered  and  burned. 
These  leaves  are  readily  distinguished  after  examining  one 
sample.  The  planter  may  now  feel  at  ease,  for  his  enemy  is 
destroyed.  If  not  destroyed  at  this  time,  thete  will  appear  in 
about  a  month  an  innumerable  host  of  them,  and  in  a  few  days 
a  more  innumerable  host  of  worms.  The  Army  Worm  is  a 
formidable  foe.  He  eats  every  green  thing  in  his  track.  An 
army  of  these  worms  marches  in  regular  order,  and  the  planter 
has  time  to  prepare  for  them.  When  you  hear  of  their  ad- 
vance towards  you,  bring  out  your  force  and  plow  a  trench 
about  your  place,  beginning  on  the  south  and  west.  Let  it  be 
deepened  with  the  hoe  and  spade  to  eighteen  inches,  with  a 
smooth  perpendicular  wall  on  the  inside  up  which  they  cannot 
climb.  As  soon  as  they  make  their  appearance  at  this  trench, 
put  a  patrol  with  plows  and  spades  along  tlic  line,  to  ploAr 
under  the  pests,  if  they  find  any  weak  spots  and  make  their  way 
through.  Straw  and  dry  sedge  grass  laid  in  the  ditch  and 
burned  will  destroy  many  of  them.  The  Ball  Worm  belongs 
to  the  corn  field,  but  migrates  to  the  cotton  fields  when  the 
corn  gets  hard.  There  are  three  methods  of  lessening  their 
ravages.  The  first  is  to  build  fires  about  the  corn  fields  at 
dusk,  during  the  first  two  weeks  of  July,  when  the  moths  are 
flying,  and  before  they  deposit  their  eggs.  Millions  will  be 
thus  destroyed,  and  as  every  pair  destroyed  would  breed  some 
five  hundred  or  more  ball  worms,  it  is  readily  seen  that  this 
proceeding  ie  very  effective.     The  second  method  is  included  in 


224  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

the  system  of  rotation  recommended.  Never  follow  corn  with 
cotton  or  vice  versa,  but  let  a  year  intervene  between  these 
crops,  in  which  either  put  in  grain  or  roots,  or  sow  some  green 
crop  to  be  plowed  under.  The  Ball  Worm  must  have  either 
corn  or  cotton,  and  if  he  has  neither  he  dies.  The  third 
method  is  to  plant  a  few  rows  of  very  late  corn  among  the 
cotton.  All  three  of  these  methods  should  be  used,  as  no  one 
of  thera  is  sufficient. 

"Rust,"  "Sore  Shin,"  "  Rot,"  "Blue  Cotton,"  and  all  other 
diseases,  so  f\ir  as  we  know,  are  in  nine  cases  out  of  every  ten 
the  direct  result  of  defective  cultivation,  and  the  only  remedy 
is  to  return  in  the  shape  of  lime,  plaster,  ashes,  etc.,  some  of 
the  elements  withdrawn  from  the  soil  by  the  crop. 

Cotton  Seed.  The  principal  value  of  cotton  seed  is  as  a 
manure,  to  return  to  the  soil  from  which  the  cotton  is  taken. 
This  is  the  only  use  to  which  it  can  be  put  in  the  interior,  and 
should  be  carefully  husbanded  for  this  purpose.  As  we  have 
before  stated,  it  should  not  be  applied  directly  to  the  cotton 
but  to  the  previous  crop.  A  small  but  constantly  increasing 
portion  of  the  cotton  seed,  will  be  used  for  making  oil.  It  is  in 
the  process  of  making  the  oil,  that  the  cotton  seed  cake  is  pro- 
duced. This  cake  is  very  nutritious  to  stock.  Less  than  one- 
fiftieth  of  the  cotton  fields  of  the  United  States  are  under  culti- 
vation, and  enterprise  and  capital  turned  in  that  direction,  must 
ultimately  bring  a  large  reward. 

From  the  '^  Southern  i^bmer."—"  Rice— Preparation  and 
Cultivation.  New  land  is  preferred,  free  from  grass  seed, 
and  the  richer  the  more  profitable,  of  course;  if  not  rich,  old  or 
new,  it  is  good  economy  to  make  it  rich. 

"First,  prepare  by  good  plowing,  if  old  land,  deep  and 
ihorough,  harrow  as  fine  as  can  be,  then  open  furrows  two  to 
three  feet  apart,  owing  to  quality  of  land;  drill  the  seed,  one  to 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  226 

two  pecks  per  acre,  depending  on  number  of  rows,  two  oi'  three 
feet  distant  being  a  guide ;  cover  with  a  wooden  tooth  liarrow, 
cotton  coverer  or  roller,  but  about  one  half  to  one  inch  deep — 
best  about  one  inch.  When  the  plant  is  about  two  to  three 
inches  high,  the  two  to  four  first  blades  'bar  off','  or  run  a 
cotton  scraper  as  for  scraping  cotton,  not  deep,  merely  to  shave 
off  the  surface;  then,  with  a  sharp  hoe,  scrape  the  entire  surface, 
leaving  it  clean — cut  off"  all  weeds,  grass  and  rice.  In  a  few 
days  the  rice  will  be  up,  and  as  the  season  has  become  warmer, 
the  rice  grows  faster;  a  bull  tougtie  plow  can  be  used  near  the 
plant  so  as  to  turn  enough  earth  to  it  on  each  side  as  to  cover 
the  earth  and  mould  the  plant.  AVhen  some  six  inches  high, 
pass  the  hoe  through  the  row,  leaving  trenches  about  one  foot 
distant.  Keep  clean  with  cultivator,  sweep  or  shovel  plow,  stir 
from  time  to  time  to  keep  plant  growing.  To  be  harvested  by 
the  sickle  and  left  for  two  'days  to  cure,  by  shocking  up ;  open- 
ing out  and  shocking  as  good  hay  or  fodder  is  made.  Thresh 
by  flail,  by  machinery,  by  the  old  plan  of  horse  tramping  on  it, 
or  by  striking  the  heads  over  some  pieces  of  wood." 

Tobacco  Culture  is,  for  the  time  being,  a  paying  crop,  but 
it  exhausts  the  soil  more  rapidly  than  any  other  crop.  Any 
methods  of  culture  that  leave  this  fact  out  of  view  are  faulty ; 
as  they  enrich  the  land  owner  at  the  expense  of  all  the  fertility  of 
his  land.  And  when  land  is  once  exhausted  of  its  fertility  by 
the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  no  process  can  make  it  profitable  to 
cultivate  them  again  for  any  crop  whatever.  For  proof  of  this 
look  at  the  exhausted  and  abandoned  lands  of  Virginia  and 
Maryland.  So  far  as  the  system  of  cultivation,  urged  in  the 
following  pages,  is  different  from  others,  it  is  because  this  idea 
is  prominent,  viz :  any  method  of  culture  that  steadily  exhausts  the 
land,  is  faulty  and  ruinous.    Tobacco  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil 


226  now  TO  make  the  farm  pat. 

and  in  any  climate  that  will  produce  corn,  but  a  warm,  mellow 
Boil,  is  its  chosen  home. 

The  northern  cultivator  must  secure  warmth,  by  selecting 
an  alluvial,  sandy  soil,  or  a  light  warm  loam,  and  increase  it  by 
al)undant  manuring.  The  southerner  may  depend  more  for 
warmth  upon  his  sunny  climate,  and  insist  more  upon  depth 
:ind  richness  of  soil.  A  heavy  loam,  or  a  soft  clay,  will  do  him 
"ood  service.,  There  are  two  exceptions  to  these  rules,  and 
thev  are  rank  soils  which  produce  a  "strong"  tobacco,  and  ex- 
posures subject  to  strong  winds,  where  the  plants  will  be  broken 
and  bruised.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  should  be  most 
thorough,  as  it  not  only  increases  the  quantity,  but  improves 
the  quality.  We  have  seen  two  crops  of  tobacco,  grown  on 
adjoining  farms,  sell,  the  one  for  eight  and  the  other  for  twenty- 
two  cents  a  pound,  the  difi'erence  being  wholly  in  cultivation 
and  handling.  The  one  crop  cost  about  fifty  per  cent,  more  to 
cultivate  than  the  other,  but  it  brought  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  per  cent.  more.  If  the  land  has  not  been  subsoiled 
for  the  previous  crop,  plow  in  the  fall,  and  subsoil  to  the  depth 
of  at  least  fourteen  inches,  and  the  deeper  the  better.  As  early 
in  the  spring  as  the  ground  will  do  to  plow,  the  manure  should 
be  plowed  in.  The  oftener  it  is  plowed,  harrowed,  rolled, 
plowed,  crushed,  and  harrowed,  the  better  condition  it  will  be 
in  for  the  growth  of  the  plant.  It  is  diflacult  to  tell  just  where 
this  working  of  the  soil  ceases  to  be  profitable,  but  our  experi- 
ence is  that  six  workings  (including  plowing  and  subsoiling  in 
the  fall)  is  the  least  to  be  recommended.  This  only  provides 
for  two  plowings,  one  rolling,  and  one  harrowing  in  the  spring. 
-Manures  are  the  life  of  this  crop,  and  it  is  only  by  the  most 
abundant  manuring,  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  can  be  main- 
tained in  Tobacco.  On  newly  cleared  land,  where  the  soil  is 
tilled  with  vegetable  matter,  and  the  brush  has  been  burned 


SPECIAL  CROPS.  227 

on  the  land,  three  crops  may  be  raised  without  manure,  but  no 
more  tobacco  should  be  raised  on  it,  for  at  least  three  years,  and 
it  should  be  liberally  manured  for  the  intervening  crops. 

Well  rotted  barnyard  manure,  ashes,  and  salt,  are  the  three 
specifics  for  tobacco.  Lime  it  must  have,  either  in  tne  shape 
of  ashes,  gas  lime,  or  superphosphate  of  lime.  Salt  at  the  rate 
of  from  three  to  six  bushels  to  the  acre,  furnishes  the  soda  re- 
quired by  the  plant.  As  for  other  manures,  the  cultivator  must 
use  what  he  can  get.  Twenty-five  loads  per  acre  of  compost,  of 
muck  with  solid  and  liquid  manure,  with  twenty  bushels  of  ashes 
and  four  of  salt,  is  the  plainest  prescription  we  can  make. 
Twelve  loads  (by  loads  we  mean  loads)  of  compost  as  above, 
with  two  hundred  weight  of  guano,  (salt  and  ashes  added,  as 
before,)  is  a  good  proportion.  If  the  ashes  are  not  at  hand,  two 
to  three  hundred  weight  of  phosphate  can  take  their  place. 
Guano,  on  all  crops,  should  be  covered  deeply,  while  superphos- 
phate should  be  left  near  the  surface.  Manure  from  the  hog 
pen,  where  peat  and  muck  have  been  supplied  liberally,  is  a  most 
excellent  dressing.  In  feet  any  substances  that  will  promote 
the  growth  of  other  crops,  will  benefit  this.  Green  and  strawy 
manure  should  never  be  applied  directly  to  the  crop,  but  first 
rotted  and  composted.  No  ashes,  lime,  or  other  fertilizer,  should 
ever  be  sprinkled  on  the  leaves  of  the  plants. 

Preparing  the  Seed  Bed  should  be  attended  to  as  early  in 
the  season  as  the  ground  gets  dry.  One  tablesjDoonful  of  seed, 
if  each  seed  produce  a  plant,  would  sufiice  for  an  acre.  But,  as  a 
precaution  against  all  accidents,  sow  three  tablespoonfuls  of  seed 
for  each  acre  to  be  set  in  tobacco.  Each  spoonful  of  seed  should 
have  a  square  rod  of  land,  so  that  a  seed  bed  of  three  square  rods 
is  required  for  each  acre  in  plants.  The  most  approved  method 
of  treating  the  seed  bed  is  as  follows.  Select  a  protected,  sunny 
spot,  the  south  side  of  a  wood,  or  a  southern  slope,  if  possible, 


228  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

near  a  brook,  for  convenience  in  watering.  Cut  off  all  weeds, 
grass,  etc.,  close  to  the  turf;  pile  up  dry,  well-seasoned  wood, 
and  burn  the  surface  thoroughly ;  clear  off  the  coals,  and  spade 
in  a  quantity  of  manure  about  four  inches  deep.  Eake  in  bone 
manure  if  handv.  Stir  up  the  seed  in  thiree  times  its  bulk  of 
pla.ster,  and  sow  in  a  btill,  damp  day,  or  water  as  sown.  Eake 
the  bed  lightly,  not  to  exceed  half  an  inch  in  depth,  then  roll, 
or  tread  down  hard  and  even.  Water  the  young  plants  con- 
stantly, if  dry  weather  succeeds,  always  with  tepid  water,  and 
never  while  the  hot  sun  is  shining  on  them,  which  rule  applies 
to  the  plant  in  all  stages  of  its  growth.  Cover  the  bed  with 
brush  until  the  plants  are  well  out  of  the  ground. 

The  time  for  sowing  tobacco  seed,  in  the  extreme  South,  is 
from  the  first  of  February  to  the  first  of  March.  In  the  ex- 
treme North  it  is  two  months  later. 

Transplanting  should  be  done,  if  possible,  when  the  ground 
is  damp,  otherwise  it  will  be  necessary  to  water  while  trans- 
planting. Three  feet  apart,  both  ways,  is  a  safe  rule  in  setting 
the  plants,  and  the  earth  should  be  pressed  firmly  about  the 
roots.  Great  attention  is  necessary  to  the  newly-set  plants. 
Some,  cover  them  during  the  heat  of  mid-day,  others  water 
them  morning  and  evening  until  they  get  established.  Many 
will  fail,  and  should  be  at  once  replaced.  If  the  ground  is  very 
dry,  a  little  hole  should  be  made  for  the  plant,  and  a  pint  of 
water  turned  in.  As  soon  as  it  has  disappeared,  set  the  plant. 
In  a  week  or  ten  days  after  setting,  cultivate  and  hoe.  Ee- 
peat  the  operation  as  often  as  once  in  ten  days,  and  keep  the 
ground  loose  and  clean  till  the  crop  is  too  large  to  be  worked 
among. 

Soon  after  the  plant  is  set,  the  cut  worm  makes  his  appear- 
ance, cutting  off  the  stems  of  the  young  plants.  Go  through 
the  field  every  morning,  and  where  a  plant  has  been  cut  off, 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  229 

dig  open  the  hill  and  destroy  the  worm.  This  is  the  only- 
method  we  know  of  as  being  effectual.  A  few  bushels  of  salt 
per  acre  will  keep  away  many  of  them.  These  cut  worms  have 
no  sooner  been  destroyed,  than  a  greater  enemy  appears,  in  the 
tobacco  worm,  or  "  horn  worm^''  a  large  green  worm,  which,  if 
loft  to  itself,  would  destroy  every  leaf.  The  first  preventive  of 
their  ravages  is  to  destroy  the  moths,  by  fires  and  torches,  dur- 
ing the  last  of  May,  as  directed  in  Cotton  Culture.  The  second 
is,  to  examine  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  for  the  eggs,  and 
destroy  them.  They  are  small,  of  a  lignt  transparent  green. 
As  soon  as  the  worms  begin  to  appear,  get  over  the  field  every 
week  and  pick  off  and  kill  every  worm,  large  and  small. 
'•'  Topping,"  consists  in  breaking  off'  the  stalk  about  the  time 
the  blossoms  appear.  One  third  of  the  leaves  should  usually 
be  topped  off.  After  topping,  break  off  all  the  suckers.  Eepeat 
this  last  operation  three  times,  at  intervals  of  a  week. 

Good  practice  differs  so  widely  in  regard  to  harvesting  this 
crop,  that  it  is  useless  to  give  more  than  the  main  points  lo  be 
kept  in  view.  AVhen  the  leaves  bend  over  to  the  ground,  and 
are  dotted  with  yellow  spots,  lose  their  fur,  and  look  glossv, 
they  are  supposed  to  be  ripe  enough  to  harvest.  The  crop  is 
greatly  improved  in  quality  by  letting  it  stand  two  weeks 
longer ;  but  the  risks  are  so  great,  that  most  think  it  wise  to 
begin  harvesting  as  soon  as  it  will  do.  Hail,  winds,  frost.s, 
worms,  and  suckers,  are  only  to  be  insured  against  by  early 
harvesting.  To  cut  so  as  to  save  handling  is  a  great  object. 
To  cut  two  rows  and  lay  them  over  together,  is  good  practice. 
A  hatchet  or  a  cleaver  which  will  sever  the  stem  at  one  stroke 
is  desirable.  If  handled  before  it  is  wilted,  the  leaves  get 
broken  and  bruised ,  if  left  to  wilt  in  the  hot  sun,  they  get  sun- 
burnt. On  this  account,  cutting  is  often  delayed  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  afternoon,  and  left  over  night.     Great  care  should  be 


230  HOW  TO   jrAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

taken,  iu  liandling  and  hanging  tobacco,  not  to  hi  uise,  break,  or 
tear  a  leaf.  There  are  still  great  risks  before  the  tobacco  is 
finally  cured.  Where  the  crop  is  large,  we  believe  fully  in  the 
utility  and  economy  of  curing  by  furnace  heat.  From  five 
days  to  a  week  is  all  that  is  required  to  cure  it,  and  the  best 
quality  and  greatest  weight  is  thus  secured. 

Dr.  Dorsey,  an  intelligent  and  experienced  cultivator,  in  Cal- 
vert county,  Maryland,  writes  to  the  Maryland  Farmer: 

"  Owing  to  the  great  uncertainty  which  always  attends  the 
curing,  in  the  natural  way,  I  adopted,  several  years  ago,  Bibb 
k  Co.'s  Tobacco  Curing  Apparatus,  with  which  I  have  been 
entirely  successful,  not  only  saving  my  whole  crop  from  injury, 
but  greatly  enhancing  if  not  doubling  its  value.  The  'Furnace' 
is  so  arranged,  in  a  barn,  as  to  take  up  but  little  room,  the 
pipes  running  so  near  the  floor  the  hands  walk  over  them  with- 
out difficult}'-,  enabling  the  planter  to  fill  every  part  of  the 
building  except  a  small  space  near  the  apparatus.  The  heat  is 
distributed  very  uniformly  throughout  the  barn  by  means  of 
two  distinct  sets  of  pipes — one  set  conveying  the  smoke  to  the 
chimney  or  smoke  stack,  and  the  other  distributing  hot  air, 
drawn  ofl"  from  under  a  jacket  thrown  over  the  '  furnace.'  This  • 
jacket  answers  the  double  purpose  of  protecting  the  tobacco 
from  scorching  overhead,  and  holding  for  distribution  the  sur- 
plus heat  at  the  furnace  end  of  the  building.  Either  wood  or 
coal  may  be  used  in  firing  with  this  arrangement.  My  plan  is 
to  use  wood  (of  any  kind  well  seasoned)  during  the  day,  and 
up  to  bed  time,  when  two  or  three  bushels  of  coal  are  thrown 
in,  which  insures  ample  heat  for  the  night.  The  door  of  the 
barn  may  then  be  locked,  and  the  fireman  retire." 

The  peculiar  color  of  the  leaf  is  obtained  by  sweating  Three 
or  four  hundred  pounds  are  packed  in  a  case  and  pressed.  If 
quite  dry,  it  should  be  moistened  before  packing. 


SPECIAL    CROPS.  231 

Hops  form  quite  an  important  crop  in  some  parts  of  tlie  coun- 
try, and  might  in  other  parts  ;  wc  therefore  give  a  few  directions 
by  which  any  farmer  may  start  a  hop  yard.  The  soil  best 
adapted  to  hop  growing  is  a  loamy  clay,  underlaid  with  lime- 
stone, but  they  can  be  raised  on  any  land  that  will  produce  a 
crop  of  corn.  It  should  be  thoroughly  underdrained  if  at  all 
inclined  to  be  wet,  as  standing  water  is  fatal  to  the  plants. 

The  position  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  fiercest  winds, 
neither  should  it  be  so  sheltered  that  it  will  not  get  a  constant 
supply  of  air  and  sunshine.  Thorough  preparation  of  the 
ground  at  first  is  good  economy,  as  the  plants  are  permanent. 

It  should  be  plowed  twelve  inches,  and  subsoiled  twelve 
more,  or  if  it  is  old  sward,  the  turf  should  be  turned  under  and 
covered,  and  then  followed  by  the  subsoiler.  In  the  spring, 
manure  heavily,  plow,  cross  plow,  harrow,  and  cross  harrov/ 
until  the  soil  is  mellow,  and  the  manure  thoroughly  mixed  with 
it  Decomposed  vegetable  matter  is  preferable  to  barnyard 
manure.  If  the  soil  is  destitute  of  lime  sow  a  few  busliels 
every  year,  as  the  plant  must  have  lime,  Planting. — The  vines 
are  not  propagated  by  seeds,  but  by  runners  or  sprouts  from 
old  vines.  They  are  called  "sets,"  and  can  be  obtained  in  any 
quantity  from  old  hop  yaids,  and  sent  by  express.  The  "sets" 
should  be  taken  up  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out,  by  loosening  the 
earth  about  them,  cutting  them  off  near  the  main  plant,  and 
lifting  them  out  so  as  to  break  or  bruise  them  as  little  as  possi 
ble.  These  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces,  with  two  or  throe 
tiyes  each.  Mark  off  your  field  bo-th  ways,  and  make  the  hills 
eight  to  ten  feet  apart  each  way.  Let  these  distances  be  care- 
fully measured,  as  perfectly  straight  and  uniform  rows  are  u 
very  great  advantage  in  after  cultivation.  When  places  for 
hills  are  determined,  put  two  or  three  sets  in  a  hill,  eyes  up. 
15 


232  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

Cover  from  two  to  four  inches  deep,  press  the  earth  firmly  about 
them,  and  mark  the  place  with  a  stake. 

The  male  plants  should  be  set  at  regular  distances  of  eight 
hills  and  eight  rows  apart,  making  from  eight  to  twelve  male 
plants  to  the  acre.  They  should  be  distinctly  marked  so  that 
they  can  be  known  at  a  glance.  Keep  all  weeds  and  grass  out 
by  means  of  plow,  cultivator,  and  hoe.  Any  hoed  'crop  can  be 
cultivated  between  the  rows  the  first  year.  Corn  or  potatoes 
are  commonly  planted.  The  old  system  of  training  to  stakes 
sixteen  to  twenty  feet  high  was  clumsy  and  expensive.  A 
much  better  and  cheaper  system  is  as  follows :  When  your 
plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high,  set  a  stake  at  each  hill, 
eight  feet  out  of  the  ground.  The  best  and  cheapest  stakes  are 
sawed  one  and  one  quarter  inches  square,  and  coated  with  tar. 
The  tar  preserves  the  stakes,  and  is  offensive  to  the  hop  louse. 
The  first  year  the  vines  are  trained  to  these  stakes  alone.  The 
second  year  the  tops  of  the  stakes  are  connected  by  twine  and 
the  vines  run  all  over  the  top  of  the  yard. 

At  the  maU  hills,  put  a  stout  high  pole,  eighteen  or  twenty 
feet  long,  and  let  the  male  vine  run  up,  so  that  its  pollen  may 
be  distributed  on  the  others.  The  cost  of  this  method  is  one 
third  that  of  the  old  method,  and  has  great  advantages  in 
gathering  the  crop. 

The  hop  louse  is  the  only  insect  that  injures  the  plant  to  any 
great  extent. 

They  can  be  destroyed  by  thoroughly  dusting  fine  plaster 
among  the  leaves  and  stems.  If  done  early,  say  the  first  week 
in  July,  one  application  will  generally  rid  the  vines  wholly  of 
them,  but  if  they  appear  again  give  them  another. 

Burn  the  vines  that  are  cut  up  in  the  fall.     The  work  in  suc- 

ceedmg  years  consists  in  keeping  out  grass,  weeds,  and  worms. 

'  Tn  spring,  the  yard,  as  soon  as  dry  enough  to  work,  must  be 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  233 

grubbed.  Hoe  tlie  dirt  from  the  hill  without  injuring  the 
crown  of  the  root.  "With  a  knife  cut  off  all  the  old  vines 
smooth,  and  any  runners  that  are  seen.  Never  tear  them  off 
nor  cut  them  with  the  hoe.  At  the  same  time  examine  whether 
there  are  any  grubs  in  the  hill,  and  kill  all  found. 

"  There  are  two  kinds  ^f  grub,  both  which  must  be  killed 
wherever  found.  Tie  the  vines  as  often  as  any  stray  from  the 
poles,  with  soft  yarn,  but  it  should  not  be  done  on  a  cold  da}', 
or  in  the  morning,  as  then  they  will  break. 

"  AVhen  the  smallest  vines  have  got  a  good  start,  three  feet  or 
more,  select  four  vines,  and  bury  the  refuse  vines  at  the  foot  of 
the  stake  with  1?wo  inches  of  dirt,  and  never  pull  or  cut  them 
off,  as  is  usually  done.  In  a  few  days  the  leaves  will  rot,  mak- 
ing manure,  and  the  vines  will  make  cheaper  food  for  the  grubs 
than  those  running  up  the  stake.  These  vines  throw  out  small 
roots,  and  help  make  the  crop  for  the  year,  besides  they  are  the 
best  kind  of  'sets'  for  a  new  yard  next  year.  Mix  air-slacked 
lime  and  unleached  ashes,  and  put  on  about  a  pint  to  each  hill." 
[Prize  essay  of  H.  0.  Collins.) 

When  the  vines  get  above  the  top  of  the  stakes  train  them 
out  on  the  twines,  one  in  each  direction,  and  keep  them  going 
as  long,  as  fast,  and  as  far  as  they  will. 

After  the  frosts  have  destroyed  the  vines,  cut  them  off  close 
to  the  ground  and  throw  two  or  three  shovels  full  of  compost 
on  the  hill.  Where  the  vines  are  trained  on  high  poles  the 
vines  must  be  cut  down  right  in  the  growing  season,  in  order  to 
pick  the  hops,  but  by  the  horizontal  system  of  training  the  crop 
can  be  reached  from  the  ground. 

Picking  begins  as  soon  as  the  earliest  seeds  ripen.  The  crop  is 
not  in  as  good  condition  as  it  would  be  if  it  could  have  a  little 
more  time,  but  it  is  better  to  pick  it  two  days  too  soon,  than  one 
day  too    late.     When   ri}>e,    the    seeds   become    hard,    and  are 


234  now  TO  make  the  fakm  pay. 

of  a  purple  color.  Some  portions  of  the  yard  will  ripen  earlier 
than  others,  aud  here  the  work  should  commence.  Do  not 
hurry  the  picking  too  fast  at  first,  but  after  a  few  days,  when 
fully  ripe,  put  on  all  your  force  and  secure  the  crop.  The  cleaner 
the  hops  arc  picked  the  better  price  they  will  bring.  A  man  who 
baa  the  reputation  of  picking  his  hops  clean  and  putting  them 
up  nicely,  will  find  sale  for  them,  even  if  the  market  is  dull. 

Get  the  best  pickers;  pay  the  best  prices;  feed  the  pickers 
well,  and  treat  them  well,  and  you  will  have  clean  hops. 

The  most  expensive  part  of  the  hop  culture  is  kiln  drying ; 
but  large  cultivators  can  afford  it ;  and  if  three  or  four  smaller 
cultivators,  owning  contiguous  lands,  would  combine  to  erect 
a  kiln  for  their  common  benefit,  they  could  readily  compete  with 
the  larger  growers.  The  kiln  has  usually  four  apartments,  the 
stove  room,  dry  room,  store  room,  and  press  room.  The  kiln 
should  have  a  good  draft ;  it  is  directly  over  the  stove  room,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  slat  floor,  and  a  moveable  wire  or  hemp 
carpet.  The  hops  are  spread  on  this  carpet,  twenty  to  twenty- 
four  inc'hes  deep,  (except  those  first  picked,  which  are  green, 
and  should  not  be  more  than  twelve  inches  deep,)  and  fires  im- 
mediately built  in  the  stoves,  of  large  seasoned  wood,  and  kept 
up  until  the  hops  are  all  dry,  usually  eight  to  twelve  hours. 
Next  to  the  dry  room  is  the  sto^c  room,  which  should  be  kept 
perfectly  dark  while  the  hops  are  in  it.  The  press  room  is 
underneath  the  store  room.  The  pressing  and  baling  can  be 
done  on  rainy  days,  from  four  to  six  weeks  after  drying.  The 
Harris  press  is  the  best  we  know  of  for  pressing  and  baling, 
but  any  screw  press  can  be  made  to  do  the  work. 

Hemp  and  Flax.  Hemp  can  be  grown  on  any  good  corn 
land  with  profit,  and  as  the  supply  never  equals  the  demand  we 
consider  it  a  sure  and  profitable  crop.  It  has  a  long  tap  root 
and  the  soil  should  be  plowed  deep  and  subsoiled.     The  surlure 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  235 

sliould  also  be  made  very  mellow  and  even,  to  receive  the 
minute  seeds.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  warm  re-plow  with  a 
light  plow,  sow  one  and  one  quarter  bushels  per  acre  of  care- 
fully selected  and  preserved  seed,  harrow  it  in  and  brush  the 
surface  smooth.  Cut  when  the  stalks  turn  yellow  and  the 
leaves  begin  to  fall. 

Cutting  hemp  with  a  hemp-hook  or  grain  cradle  is  very  hard 
work,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  a  reaper  cannot  be  made 
strong  enough  to  do  the  work.  Hemp  is  not  a  rapid  exhauster 
of  the  soil,  the  leaves  and  stubble  aftbrding  a  good  supply  of 
manure.  An  application  of  compost,  one  third  barnyard  to 
two  thirds  muck,  peat,  or  leaf  mould,  would  keep  the  land  in 
good  condition  for  years.  A  rotation,  however,  with  corn, 
wheat,  or  clover,  is  beneficial. 

Flax  can  be  raised  to  advantage  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
There  is  always  a  good  demand  and  a  fair  profit.  It  likes  a 
fertile  loam,  deep  and  mellow,  but  will  not  flourish  on  wet  lands. 
Underdraiuing  is  the  first  step  on  such  lands,  whatever  crops 
you  propose  to  raise.  The  most  important  point  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  flax,  is  the  preparation  of  the  soil.  It  should  be  deep, 
mellow,  but  compact,  smooth,  and  clean.  ISIo  farm  crop  requires 
more  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  than  this.  Our  remarks 
on  the  preparation  of  soil  for  wheat,  apply  to  this  crop  as  well 
and  should  be  read  here.  As  far  as  possible  every  weed  should 
be  eradicated  in  cultivating  the  previous  crops.  Potatoes,  corn, 
or  oats,  are  the  crops  recommended  to  precede  flax;  a  good  live 
years'  rotation  is  grass,  corn,  potatoes,  flax,  oats ;  for  seven  years, 
grass,  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  flax,  clover,  wheat.  A  third  is  com, 
oats,  potatoes,  flax,  clover,  wheat.  Once  in  five  years  is  as 
often  as  flax  should  be  grown  on  the  same  soil.  Thoroughly 
rotted  manure,  rich  compost  and  vegetable  matter,  applied  to 
the  previous   crops,  is  the  rule  in  flax  culture.     Prepare  the 


23(5  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

soil  as  early  in  the  spring  as  it  will  work  without  being  sticky, 
leaving  it  as  mellow  and  fine  as  the  harrow,  roller,  and  brush, 
can  make  it.  Let  it  lie  until  the  grass  and  weeds  spring  up  all 
over  it,  and  the  leaves  on  the  trees  begin  to  unfold,  then  give 
it  a  thorouf^h  harrowing  to  destroy  these  weeds,  and  while  the 
ground  is  still  fresh  sow  the  seed  as  speedily  as  possible.  Mark 
olV  vour  ground  both  ways,  in  "  lands"  eighteen  feet  wide,  by 
drafifTing  a, chain  after  yoa  from  stake  to  stake,  across  the 
field.  This  is  a  more  important  matter  than  you  may  think  it, 
and  should  never  be  neglected.  Soak  the  seed  in  warm  water 
an  hour  or  two,  and  then  roll  in  gypsum.  This  is  of  great 
advantage  in  sowing  these  slippery  seeds.  Now  sow  around 
your  "  land,"  giving  the  seed  an  even,  uniform  cast.  Only  a 
small  portion  of  seed  should  be  taken  at  a  time.  A  great 
difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  amount  proper  to  be  sown 
to  the  acre,  from  one  peck  to  seven  bushels  being  recommen- 
ded. If  sown  only  for  seed,  one  bushel,  or  even  three  pecks, 
may  be  sufficient ;  and  if  sown  only  for  the  fibre,  two  and  one 
half,  or  even  three  bushels,  may  not  be  too  much ;  but  where 
loth  seed  and  fibre  are  taken  into  consideration,  which  we 
strongly  recommend,  one  and  one  fourth  to  one  and  three  fourth 
bushels  is  the  proper  quantity.  After  sowing,  brush  in  with  a 
hand  brush.  Do  not  allow  any  team  on  the  field.  A  brush 
harrow,  drawn  by  two  men,  will  brush  the  seed  in  evenly  and 
none  will  be  trodden  down  three  or  four  inches  deep,  which  is 
exceedingly  injurious.  If  the  ground  has  been  worked  as 
recommended,  and  the  weeds  conquered  beforehand,  the  crop 
will  need  but  little  weeding ;  but  if,  unfortunately,  weeds  should 
appear  before  the  plants  are  a  foot  high,  a  careful  hand,  without 
boots,  should  go  in  and  cut  them  up  just  beneath  the  surface, 
and  bring  them  off  the  field.  It  is  far  better  to  destroy  the 
weeds  before  the  flax  is  sowed.     If  the  seed  has  been  evenly 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  287 

covered  and  the  teams  kept  off,  it  will  have  grown  very  evenly 
and  will  ripen  very  evenly,  wliicli  is  a  great  advantage.  It  wili 
be  ready  to  harvest,  when  the  stems  turn  yellow,  and  the  balls 
brown,  and  the  lower  leaves  are  dead.  If  raised  for  the 
fibre,  begin  at  once ;  but  if  the  seed  is  the  only  purpose,  let  ii 
stand  until  dead  ripe.  In  harvesting,  when  the  best  fibre  is 
desired,  pulling  is  resorted  to.  "Each  laborer  takes  a  strip 
about  four  feet  wide,  and  either  spreads  it  in  a  swath  behind 
him  or  throws  it  down  in  gavels.  The  flax  is  grasped  just 
below  the  ball  with  both  hands,  and  pulled  with  a  quick  jerk." 
Cradling  and  mowing  are  often  resorted  to,  and  if  the  ground  is 
so  level  that  the  mower  can  cut  it  evenly  one  inch  from  the 
ground,  nearly  the  Vv^hole  of  the  fibre  will  be  secured. 

Mowing  is  better  than  cradling.     One  great  point  is  to  keep 
the  butts  even. 

"Eippling"  is  the  process  of  separating  the  seed  from  the 
flax.  It  is  done  by  means  of  a  rippling  comb,  as  shown  in  the 
cut  fig.  66,  consisting  of  twelve  rods  of  round  iron,  set  in  a 
block.  Two  ripplers,  each  with  a  boy  to  hand  them  the  flax, 
can  hatchel  out  seed  very  fast  by  this  contrivance,  which  we 
consider  much  better  than  any  kind  of  threshing.  As  the  pre- 
paration of  the  ground  is  the  most  important  item  in  the 
cultivation  of  flax,  "  Retting,"  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  rot- 
ting, is  the  most  important  in  its  jjrejoaration.  It  consists  in  keep 
inof  it  under  water  until  fermentation  softens  the  fibre.     For  this 

CD 

purpose  a  pool  is  formed,  either  by  a  dam,  or  by  digging  a  pit 
and  turning  the  water  of  a  stream  into  it.  In  either  case  it 
should  be  but  little  deeper  than  the  length  of  the  flax,  shoald 
be  as  tight  as  possible,  to  prevent  leakage,  and  should  '»e  so 
arranged  that  all  leakage  can  be  replaced.  Bain  water  is  the 
best  for  the  purpose.  River  water,  that  has  been  warmed  in 
the  sun,  next ;  and  cold  spring  water,  the  least  desirable ;  the 


238  •  HOW  TO  makp:  the  farm  pay. 

latter  should  always  stand  in  the  pool  several  days  before  tlie 
flax  is  harvested.  The  pool,  if  accessible  on  both  sides,  may  be 
eixteeu  to  twenty  feet  wide,  if  accessible  only  on  one  side, 
eight  to  ten  feet  will  be  more  convenient ;  the  size  and  ar- 
rangemoat  of  the  pool  being  wholly  a  matter  of  convenience. 
The  flax  should  be  kept  from  the  bottom  by  a  layer  of  rails  or 
boards.  Where  soft  water  is  to  be  had,  the  flax  could  be  set 
into  the  pool  before  it  is  turned  on.  The  water  should  cover 
the  flax  about  six  inches.  Put  boards  over  the  whole  and  hold 
them  down  by  means  of  flat  stones.  After  the  water  has  been 
on  the  flax  seven  days  examine  it  by  getting  into  the  centre  of 
the  pool  and  putting  the  hand  down  into  the  heart  of  the 
bundle ;  if  it  feels  hard  and  wiry,  leave  it  another  day  and  until 
it  begins  to  feel  soft,  then  repeat  the  examination  thrice  a-day, 
until  it  feels  quite  soft,  when  a  bundle  should  be  taken  out  and 
a  lock  of  it  bent  several  times  across  the  forefinger  ;  when  the 
woody  part  of  the  stem  breaks,  and  the  loose  fibre  detaches  from 
the  stem,  it  is  on  the  point  of  decay  and  should  not  be  left  in 
the  water  longer.  Take  out  carefully  by  hand  and  not  with  a 
fork.  Never  itse  the  same  water  tioice.  It  should  n  )w  be  spread 
out  very  thin  on  the  grass,  for  a  week,  to  dry,  then  bound  in 
large  bundles  and  housed.  It  is  now  ready  for  market,  and 
will  bring  a  good  price.  There  are  other  methods  of  retting, 
but  the  above  is  the  simplest  and  best.  Any  method  that 
accomplishes  the  same  result  is  just  as  good,  as  for  as  the 
flax  itself  is  concerned,  but  the  above  is  a  safe,  sure,  con- 
venient, and  economical  mode,  wherever  a  stream  of  water  is  at 
hand. 

A  proper  selection  of  seed  is  as  necessary  for  the  best  success 
in  raising  flax  as  in  raising  wheat.  Riga  seed  has  been  often 
pronounced  the  best,  and  we  recommend  with  this  crop,  as  we 
bave  for  others,  that  the  farmer  raise  his  own  seed.    He  can  do  it 


SPECIAL    CROPS.  239 

cheaper  and  will  be  sure  of  fresh  seed.  Only  the  large,  plump, 
briglit  seeds,  should  be  used.  These  can  be  separated  from  the 
others  by  means  of  the  fanning  mill.  The  seeds  should  be  dried, 
immediately  after  threshing  them  out;  by  spreading  them  out 
and  turning  them  often,  giving  them  a  free  circulation  of  air, 
they  will  soon  be  dry  enough  to  store  away.  Twenty-five 
bushels  of  seed  are  raised  per  acre,  and  it  is  worth  from  three  to 
five  dollars  per  bushel  for  linseed  oil.  The  cake  made  from  it 
is  a  most  valuable  food  for  stock  and  makes  better  manure  than 
any  other  food.     It  should  be  fea  in  connection  with  o-rain 

Sorghum  will  grow  successfully  on  any  soil  that  will  pro- 
duce a  good  crop  of  corn.     The  ground  should  be  prepared  m 
the  same  manner  as  for  corn.     It  can  be  sown  a  little  earlier 
than  corn,  and  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  Jays,  or  a  week. 
The  seed  should  be  soaked  to  the  point  of  sprouting.     Plant  in 
rows  three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  the  hills  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.    Each  seed  will  send  up  several  stalks ; 
when  six  inches  high,  thin  out  to  four  or  five  stalks.     Cultivate 
the  same  as  Indian  corn,  and  hill  up   well  around  the  stalks. 
If  sown  in  drills,  three  feet  apart,  leave  one  plant  to  the  foot. 
In  drilling  in  seed,  cover  one  and  a  half  inches.     After  the 
plant  has  blossomed,  and  before  the  seeds  ripen,  strip  uft"  the 
leaves.     They  make  excellent  fodder.     In  ten  days  or  a  fort- 
night from  the  stripping,  the  cane  will  be  in  condition  to  malce 
syrup,  and  will  remain  so  for  some  time.     Freezing   will  ]iot 
injure  it,  unless  it  thaws  afterwards.     As  soon  as  convenient, 
commence  cutting  up,  and  continue  it,  just  as  fast  as  you  can 
possibly  press  the  cane  and  boil  the  juice.     Take  from  the 
field  at  once  to  the  rollers,  or  mill,  and  press  the  juice  the  same 
day  It  Ls  cut,  and  commence  boiling  at  once.     All  who  know 
how  to  manage  maple  sap,  in  making  syrup,  know  how  to  man- 
age this.     Those  who  have  the  patent  pans  for  boiling  sap,  are 


240  ^''>^^'  t^-^  make  the  farm  pay. 

fortunate.  Those  wlio  have  not,  had  better  get  them.  Until 
they  do,  however,  the  juice  can  be  boiled  in  the  ordinary  sap 
kettle.  The  question  here  arises,  if  it  is  profitable  to  raise 
sorghum  for  sugar.  We  do  not  think  it  is,  or  ever  can  be 
made  so,  except  on  a  large  scale.  But  we  do  believe  it  profita- 
ble for  the  farmer  to  raise  it  for  making  syrup,  and  for  fodder 
f 'r  his  stock.  It  is  a  very  simple  process  to  make  syrup  from 
it,  and  the  farmer  may  make  a  barrel  or  two,  from  a  small 
strip  of  ground.  Three  hundred  gallons  per  acre,  has  been 
pronounced  an  average  crop,  but  even  at  two  hundred  gallons 
per  acre,  or  two  barrels  from  half  an  acre,  it  will  prove  profita- 
ble. It  has  been  raised  and  made  at  a  cost  of  sixteen  cents  per 
gallon,  and  we  think  that  it  miay  be  done  by  almost  any  farmer, 
at  a  cost  of  not  over  twenty-five  cents  a  gallon. 

As  a  fodder  for  stock,  sorghum  hardly  has  its  equal.  For 
this  purpose  it  should  be  sown  in  drills,  two  or  three  quarts  of 
seed  to  the  acre,  and  cut  just  before  blossoming.  It  will  imme- 
diately spring  up  again,  and  three  crops  may  be  cut  during  the 
season.  It  is  very  nutritious  for  cattle,  who  eat  every  particle 
of  the  stalk  with  avidity. 

Maple  Sugar  and  maple  syrup  are  such  delicious,  and 
withal  such  marketable  articles,  that  we  consider  it  worth  while 
to  know  how  to  get  the  most  and  best.  Never  destroy  a  sugar 
maple,  as  long  as  you  can  get  sugar  from  it.  If  you  are  clear- 
ing up,  and  cannot  leave  the  young  trees  where  they  are,  plant 
tliem  out  somewhere  else.  Plant  them  out  in  your  orchard,  or 
along  your  fences,  or  on  some  hillside.  "Its  form  and  foliage 
are  beautiful ;  its  shade  delightful ;  its  sap  delicious  and  health- 
ful in  all  its  stages;  and  its  products  profitable.  Plant  Maple 
Treesr  We  indorse  the  above  quotation,  and  shall  endeavor 
to  give  the  most  economical  methods  of  making  syrup  and 
sugar.     At  some  leisure   time   during   the  winter,   get  your 


SPECIAL    CROPS.  24. 1 

augers,  spouts,  buckets,  barrels,  pans,  etc.,  ready,  have  your 
wood  cut  aud  hauled  to  the  "  sugar  camp." 

At  the  first  sign  of  freezing  nights,  and  thawing  days,  tap 
your  trees  on  the  sunny  side,  two  feet  or  more  above  the 
ground,  and  if  liable  to  be  disturbed  by  animals,  four  feet  above 
the  ground.  Make  a  hole  with  a  three  quarter  or  one  inch 
auger,  slanting  upward,  and  not  more  than  one  half  or  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  into  the  wood  at  first.  After  a  few  days, 
it  may  be  bored  a  little  larger  and  deeper.  "  Boxing,"  or  tapping, 
with  an  axe,  is  unmitigated  folly.  Use  wood  spouts,  which  are 
v;iy  easily  made  of  soft  wood  or  elder.  Select,  every  year,  a 
spot  removed  from  the  last  year's  wound.  Use  large  buckets. 
You  will  be  much  more  likely  to  save  all  the  sap.  Four  gal- 
lon tin  pails,  if  taken  care  of,  are  the  best  and  most  economical, 
but  common  wooden  pails  answer  a  good  purpose.  Never  use 
large  and  small  pans,  tins,  etc.,  for  you  will  be  likely  to  lose  a 
great  deal  of  sap.  The  nails  on  which  the  buckets  are  hung, 
should  be  pulled  out  at  the  close  of  the  season.  Keep  every 
thing  clean.  Collect  the  sap  in  tight  barrels,  and  have  a  molas- 
ses hogshead  for  a  reservoir.  This  should,  for  convenience,  be 
set  a  little  higher  than  the  kettle  or  pans,  so  that  the  sap  can 
be^drawn  into  them  steadily,  by  means  of  a  faucet.  If  you  have 
used  kettles  in  boiling  sap,  use  them  no  more.  Get  sheet  iron 
or  copper  pans.  You  can  make  them  yourself,  out  of  stove 
pipe  iron.     They  save  time  and  wood. 

A  New  Hampshire  farmer  says :  "  I  have  a  brick  furnace,  and 
sheet  iron  pans,  the  whole  costing  twenty  dollars.  My  son  has 
done  all  the  labor  this  season,  at  a  cost  of  eight  dollars.  He 
used  one  and  a  half  cords  of  wood,  and  made  twenty-nine  gal- 
lons of  syrup,  for  eight  days'  labor."  The  sap,  when  boiling, 
must  be  carefully  watched,  and  not  allowed  to  overdo.  When 
boiled  in  pans,  it  evaporates  very  rapidly^  and  if  not  attended 


242  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FAEM    PAY. 

to,  will  catcU  you  napping.  When  done  it  will  be  brittle  ir' 
cooled  suddenly  on  snow  or  ice.  To  clarify  syrup,  strain  it 
through  a  cloth  while  hot,  into  a  kettle,  and  when  cool,  add  an 
C4ig  and  a  half  pint  of  milk  well  beaten  together,  for  every  five- 
gallons  of  syrup ;  mix  it,  and  put  it  on  the  fire,  heat  gradually 
to  boiling,  when  all  impurities  will  rise  to  the  surface,  and 
should  be  at  once  skimmed  ofi'.  This  makes  a  beautiful  syrup, 
and,  when  further  evaporated,  a  very  pure  sugar.  Thirty 
maples  would  supply  almost  any  farmer  with  syrup  and  sugar, 
at  much  less  expense  than  to  purchase  them  at  present  prices. 

Beet  Eoot  Sugak.  We  use  in  the  United  States,  yearly, 
four  hundred  thousand  tons  of  sugar,  three  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  tons  of  which  is  imported.  Instead  of  this,  we  should 
not  onl}'-  produce  all  we  use,  but  become  large  exporters.  This 
end  can  be  aceomplished,  if  we  will  turn  our  attention  to  the 
sugar  beet. 

The  production  of  beet  sugar,  throughout  the  world,  is  now 
about  six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons,  or  one  fourth  of  the 
whole  production  of  sugar.  We  have  millions  of  acres  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet.  We  have  the  best  labor 
saving  machinery  of  any  country  on  the  globe,  and  there  is  no 
good  reason  why  we  should  not  produce  a  million  tons  .of 
sugar  annually,  within  ten  years.  We  shall  endeavor  to  show 
that  it  IS  to  our  pecuniary,  and  especially  to  our  agricultural 
interests,  to  do  so. 

The  cost  of  raising  the  beet  cannot,  under  judicious  cultiva- 
tion, exceed  three  dollars  per  ton,  and  we  think  that  they  can 
be  raised  for  two  dollars  per  ton.  But  taking  the  highest  esti- 
mate,  of  three  dollars  per  ton,  there  is  left  a  large  margin  for 
profit,  as  one  ton  of  beets  will  yield  from  one  hundred  and 
forty  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  of  refined  sugar;  about 
fifty  pounds  of  molasses  suitable  for  distillation;  five  hundred 


SPECIAL    CROPS.  2    "6 

pounds  of  leaves,  an  excellent  green  fodder;  and  five  hundred 
pounds  of  pulp,  worth  one  third  as  much  as  good  hay.  But 
this  is  not  all ;  the  beet  crop  cleans  and  prepares  the  soil ;  and, 
in  a  rotation,  is  one  of  the  best  preceders  of  any  grain  crop. 
The  yield  of  beets,  per  acre,  varies  from  seventeen  to  forty-two 
tons.  We  think  that,  with  our  improved  methods,  an  average 
yield  of  thirty  tons  per  acre  can  readily  be  secured,  but  taking 
the  low  average  yield  of  twenty  tons  per  acre,  at  live  dollars 
per  ton,  is  one  hundred  dollars,  deducting  the  highest  estimate 
of  the  cost  of  production,  three  dollars  per  ton,  leaves  .Kjrt}'-  dol- 
lars per  acre  clear  profit  to  the  farmer.  Considering  the 
probability  of  a  yield  of  thirty  tons  per  acre,  costing  two  dol- 
lars per  ton,  we  have  the  possibility  of  a  profit  of  ninety  dol- 
lars per  acre. 

There  are,  at  present,  but  few  manufactories  of  beet  sugar  in 
this  country,  but  they  would  spring  up  on  every  side,  if  the 
farmers  once  determined  to  raise  the  crops,  and  made  that 
determination  known.  Communities  settling  on  the  rich  soils 
of  the  West,  have  this  matter  in  their  own  hands.  Let  a  dozen 
farmers,  in  any  section  of  the  country,  agree  with  some  capital- 
ist to  supply  him  with  beets,  and  a  market  will  be  at  once 
created.  It  is  for  farmers  to  agitate  this  matter,  in  their  daily 
conversation,  in  their  visits  to  the  city  markets,  in  farmer.^' 
clubs,  and  through  the  columns  of  their  chosen  agricultural 
journals.  The  manufacture  must  be  exceedingly  profitable. 
It  is  carried  on  from  September  to  March,  a  period  when  labor 
is  easily  commanded.  It  will  employ  the  extra  farm  laborers, 
at  a  season  when  their  services  are  not  required  on  the  farm  ; 
thus  incidentally  conferring  a  permanent  benefit  upon  ovcvy 
community,  where  such  an  industry  is  established.  '  The 
estimated  cost  of  workiujr  one  thousajid  tons  of  beets  is. 


244  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

1000  tons  of  beets  @  8r).00 $5,000 

Labor 2,000 

Other  expeuscs 1,200 

Total $8,500 

Receipts. 

ICO.OOO  lbs.  sugar  @  10  cents .^16,000 

7200  gallons  molasses  @  25  cents 1,800 

200  tons  pulp  @  S4 800 

Total .$18,600 

leaving  a  profit  of  over  one  hundred  per  cent,  on  the  manu- 
facture, reckoning  the  sugar  to  be  worth  only  ten  cents  per 
pound.  But  supposing  such  a  quantity  could  be  raised  as  to 
bring  the  price  of  raw  sugar  down  to  eight  cents  per  pound, 
there  would  still  be  a  profit  of  over  fifty  per  cent,  on  the  invest- 
ment of  the  manufacturer.  Certainly  this  branch  of  industry 
cannot  remain  long  unoccupied. 

We  copy  the  remarks  of  Mr.  E.  B.  Grant,  upon  the  influence 
of  tlie  beet  sugar  culture,  and  then  proceed  to  describe  its  culti- 
vation. 

"The  effects  produced  upon  agriculture  in  Europe,  by  the 
cultivation  of  beets,  for  sugar  and  alcohol,  have  been  astound- 
ing, and  the  importance  of  the  interest  is  now  everywhere 
acknowledged.  In  the  cane  sugar  countries,  upon  the  territory 
surrounding  a  sugar  establishment,  no  crop  is  to  be  seen  but 
the  cane,  while  the  cattle  and  sheep  are  few.  In  the  beet  sugar 
districts,  on  the  contrary,  the  fields  are  covered  with  the  great- 
est diversity  of  crops,  among  which  are,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  corn, 
barley,  rape,  flax,  tobacco,  and  all  the  cultivated  grasses. 
Every  field  is  cultivated,  close  up  to  the  roadside,  and  the 
stables  are  filled  with  fine  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  swine.  No 
farmer  needs  to  be  told  which  system  is  the  best  and  most 
p'Uduring. 

"  The  amount  of  beets  raised  in  France  in  1865,  could  not 


SPFXIAL    CROPS.  246 

have  been  less  than  two  million  tons,  producing  at  least  one 
million  tons  of  pulp — an  amount  sufficient  to  feed  ninety  thou- 
sand cattle,  or  nearly  one  million  sheep,  for  one  year ;  or  to 
fatten,  in  the  winter  months,  nearly  three  times  that  number. 
It  also  furnished  more  than  one  million  five  hundred  thousand 

tons  of  manure. 

"In  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  the  effect  produced  by  the 
culture  of  so  much  land  in  beets,  and  the  application  of  the 
manure  of  so  many  cattle,  with  the  consequent  increase  in  the 
amount  and  value  of  subsequent  crops,  is  perfectly  apparent. 
The  quality  of  wheat  raised  after  beets,  is  better  than  that 
usually  produced  ;  the  ears  are  larger  and  heavier,  the  straw 
stronger,  and  not  so  liable  to  lodge ;  the  berry  is  larger  and 
brighter;  its  specific  gravity  is  also  greater,  weighing  from  two 
to  three  pounds  per  bushel  more  than  ordinary  wheat. 

"  The  effect  of  its  introduction  into  the  United  States  would 
be  to  produce  results  correspondingly  greater  than  have  at- 
tended it  in  Europe,  for  here  the  consumption  of  sugar,  per 
capita,  is  nearly  four  times  greater,  and  the  value  of  lands  is 
not  a  quarter  of  those  in  Continental  Europe,  while  they  are  by 
nature  far  richer  and  more  easily  cultivated.  The  supply  of 
coal  is  unlimited.  The  vast  distances  over  which  many  farmers 
are  obliged  to  transport  their  produce,  render  it  difficult  or  im- 
possible to  dispose  of  their  more  bulky  crops  at  a  profit.  The 
introduction  of  sugar-making  would  give  them  another  and 
most  profitable  crop,  for  which  they  would  have  a  home  mar- 
ket. It  would  enlarge  the  local  demand  for  other  farm  produce, 
by  interspersing  a  manufacturing  with  an  agricultural  popula- 
tion, to  the  great  advantage  of  both.  It  would  go  far  to  change 
the  present  wasteful,  and  necessarily  uneuduring  system  of  agri- 
culture, and  to  substitute  for  it  another,  founded  upon  more 
correct  principles." 


0.[C)  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

Soil  and  Climate.  The  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet  is  not, 
like  cane  sugar,  confined  to  any  small  section  of  country,  but 
flo  Irishes  in  all  the  varieties  of  climate  to  be  found  in  the 
United  States.  Deep,  rich  soils,  especially  those  abounding  in 
vegetable  mould,  produce  large  crops  of  beets.  The  black  soils 
of  the  West  are  well  adapted  to  beet  culture.  Sandy  ground, 
if  rich,  gives  an  excellent  quality  of  beets  ricb  in  sugar.  Any 
soil  that  is  dry,  deep,  and  mellow,  is  suitable.  A  clayey,  tena- 
cious soil,  stony  land,  and  mineral  soils,  should  be  avoided. 
Alluvial  or  bottom  lands,  overflowed  yearly,  are  desirable,  as 
they  require  no  artificial  manure.  All  grain  lands  are  not  only 
suitable,  but  are  improved  by  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet. 

Manures  should  be  applied  to  tbe  preceding  crops,  rather 
than  directly. 

The  virgin  soils  of  the  West  do  not  at  first  require  manure, 
but  the  soils  should  be  turned  under,  and  one  season's  cultiva- 
tion, at  least,  precede  the  beet.  Human  ordure  is  perhaps  the 
most  effective  fertilizer  of  this  crop.  There  is  an  objection  to 
the  ordure  of  sheep  and  hogs,  on  the  ground  that  the  salts  con- 
tained in  them  are  injurious.  "We  are  inclined,  from  all  experi- 
ments in  that  direction,  to  conclude  that  the  ordure  of  cattle 
should  be  preferred.  Strawy  manure,  well  rotted,  is  preferable 
to  unferraented  manure,  or  manure  Vithout  straw.  Stable  ma- 
nure, composted  with  muck,  ashes,  etc.,  as  we  have  recom- 
mended for  wheat  and  root  crops,  is  as  efficacious  here.  The 
only  difference  in  the  manures  for  this  crop  and  any  other  root 
crop  is,  that  salt  must  be  omitted,  as  it  reifders  the  sugar  more 
difficult  of  extraction.  Guano  should  not  be  used  alone,  but 
composted  with  bone  dust  and  superphosphate  of  lime. 

Bone  dust,  wood  ashes,  and  lime,  form  a  most  excellent  com- 
post. Some  fertilizers  we  deem  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  perfection  of  this  crop  for  a  series  of  years,  for  stable  ma- 


Special  crops.  2J7 

nure  will  not  supply  all  the  elements  taken  from  the  soil 
Fieret  Brothers,  the  model  farmers  of  France,  where  the  caUi- 
vation  of  the  beet  has  attained  its  greatest  perfection,  have 
cultivated  a  farm  of  five  hundred  and  fifty  acres  for  thirteen 
years,  growing  oats,  rye,  hay,  beets,  and  wheat,  in  rotation. 
They  are  sugar  manufacturers,  and  fatten  eight  hundred  head 
of  cattle  and  three  thousand  sheep  every  year.  They  attribute 
their  success  to  the  immense  amount  of  fodder  and  manure  their 
^'  pulp"  enables  them  to  make,  and  to  the  improvement  of  the 
soil  consequent  upon  beet  culture.  Their  average  crop  of  oats 
has  increased,  in  this  time,  from  forty-five  and  a  half  bushels  to 
ninety-two  and  a  half  bushels,  and  the  straw  in  proportion. 

The  average  crop  of  rye  has  increased  from  seventeen  to 
thirty-four  and  a  half  bushels,  and  straw  in  proportion.  Their 
average  crops  of  wheat,  for  the  time,  have  been  thirty-six  and 
a  half  bushels,  of  hay  over  three  tons,  and  of  beets  twenty  tons. 

They  state  that  the  cultivation  of  beets  reduces  the  cost  of 
cultivating  the  sacceeding  crops  enormously.  They  use  lime 
and  manures  liberally,  plow  deep,  and  cultivate  thoroughly 
the  beet  crop,  and  a  single  light  plowing  is  sufficient  to  prepare 
the  land  for  the  succeeding  grain  crop,  which  is  drilled  in. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Soil,  by  deep  plowing  and 
thorough  pulverization,  is  one  of  the  main  elements  of  sac- 
cess.  The  beet  requires  a  deep^  mellow  bed,  that  its  long  tap 
root  may  grow  straight  and  smooth.  If  the  soil  is  not  mel- 
lowed to  a  sufficient  depth,  a  part  of  the  beet  will  grow  above 
ground.  This  top,  which  grows  above  the  surface,  is  not  only 
A^orthless  for  sugar,  but  is  injurious  to  the  balance,  and  is  cut 
off  before  the  beets  are  ground.  If  the  ground  selected  has 
been  in  previous  cultivation,  manure  in  the  fall,  and  cover  the 
manure  about  six  inches  deep.  Follow  this  with  a  second  plow- 
ing, as  deep  as  possible,  wdth  a  double  Michigan  plow ;  or,  what 
16 


248  now  TO  make  farming  pay. 

is  belter,  one  deep  plowing,  from  eight  to  twelve  inclies,  and  a 
subsoil  plow  six  to  eiglit  more. 

ir  a  crop  of  weeds  make  their  appearance  before  winter, 
harrow,  and  cross-harrow,  or  dig  them  up  with  the  cultivator. 

As  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  and  warm  in  the  spring,  cross- 
plow  it,  and  cross-harrow  it.  Grant  advises  that  the  last  har- 
rowing be  followed  with  a  drag,  or  the  harrow  turned  upside 
down,  to  smooth  and  level  the  soil.  We  think  this  operation 
rnust  answer  the  purpose  admirably. 

Sowing  commences  the  latter  part  of  April,  or  as  soon  there- 
after as  the  ground  is  warm  and  dry.  The  seed  should  be 
steeped  for  five  or  six  hours  in  the  following  solution  :  Nine 
ounces  sulphate  of  potash,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  sulphate 
of  lime,  in  one  gallon  of  warm  water.  Add  to  this  five  or  six 
gallons  of  water,  and  cover  the  seed.  After  the  liquid  is  turned 
oft',  roll  the  seed  in  wood  ashes,  or  slaked  lime,  or  plaster  of  paris, 
or  guano,  until  each  seed  is  coated.  Sow  with  a  drill  or  seed 
sower,  in  rows,  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  six  to  eight 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Cover  not  more  than  two  inches  deep. 
If  there  is  any  doubt  about  the  vitality  of  the  seed,  sow  bounti- 
fully, and  thin  out  all  superfluous  plants.  The  object  is  to  have 
the  plants  stand  one  foot  apart  after  the  final  thinning.  Their  cul- 
ture and  gathering  is  not  materially  different  from  that  of  other 
roots.  The  former  consists  in  cutting  or  pulling  all  weeds,  keep- 
ing the  ground  mellow  between  the  rows,  thinning  to  twelve 
inches,  and  transplanting  superfluous  roots  to  fill  vacant  places. 
The  gathering  can  be  done  with  a  plow.  The  plow  used  in  Europe, 
called  an  "  awachem,"  is  thus  described  by  Grant :  "  A  sort  of 
plow  with  a  share  shaped  like  a  cone,  the  section  of  which  is 
an  oval,  somewhat  flattened  on  the  lower  side,  about  three  feet 
in  length,  seven  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  tapering  to  a 
blunted  point.     It  is  drawn  by  two  horses,  and  will  dig  from 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  24 'J 

one  and  a  half  to  one  and  three  quarter  acres  per  daj."  Some 
improved  implement  of  this  kind  for  digging  roots  is  needed, 
and  will  probably  soon  be  supplied. 

The  beet  ripens,  in  the  latitude  of  Illinois,  about  the  first  of 
September.  The  leaves  turn  yellow,  wither,  and  begin  to  drop 
off.  The  longer  the  beet  stays  in  the  ground  without  freezing, 
or  being  soaked  by  the  fall  rains,  the  better.  But  if  there  are 
indications  of  rain  or  frost,  secure  your  crop.  It  the  rains 
take  you  unawares,  as  soon  as  they  are  over,  and  ine  weather 
is  dry,  harvest  the  crop  as  speedily  as  possible.  Beets,  once 
frozen,  should  be  left  a  few  daj^s  before  being  dug.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  bruise,  cut,  or  otherwise  injure  the  beets, 
especially  when  they  are  to  be  kept  any  length  of  time  before 
using.  If  some  are  to  be  used  at  once,  and  others  preserved  in 
the  pits,  select  the  ripest  for  preservation,  and  let  those  least 
ripe,  and  those  grown  in  the  richest  soil,  be  always  used  first. 
The  best  way  to  preserve  the  beet  is  to  keep  it  frozen.  Let  them 
once  freeze,  and  then  protect  them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
they  will  remain  frozen  throughout  our  northern  winter ;  but 
as  soon  as  they  thaw,  they  must  be  used  at  once.  The  French 
pil-e  them  in  huge  piles,  of  a  uniform  depth  of  from  five  to 
eight  feet,  covered  with  straw  in  such  a  way  as  to  shed  the  rain, 
ventilated  by  various  contrivances — sometimes  not  ventilated  at 
all.  The  outside  beets  are  placed  in  perfectly  systematic  layers, 
one  by  one,  with  the  roots  in  and  the  tops  out ;  the  rest  are 
thrown  promiscuously  into  the  interior  of  the  pile. 

Another  method,  is  placing  them  in  pits  dug  in  dry  soil,  two 
feet  deep  and  twelve  wide,  and  of  any  required  length.  If  the 
bottom  of  the  pit  is  inclined  to  be  damp,  a  coating  of  dry  sand 
is  put  on  the  bottom,  and  sometimes  a  ditch  is  dug  all  around 
the  pit,  outside  the  roots,  and  a  little  deeper  than  the  pit.  The 
roots  are  then  thrown  into  the  pit,  and  a  wall  of  beets  built 


250  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

around  them  as  before  described.  This  pile  narrows  gradually 
till  it  reaches  a  lieigbt  of  six  to  eight  feet.  A  wall  of  earth  is 
DOW  built  around  the  pile,  and  its  thickness  increased  as  the 
weather  demands.  The  upper  three  feet  of  the  pile  can  be 
covered  with  six  or  eight  inches  of  straw,  until  the  earth  is 
actually  needed  to  prevent  freezing.  The  sooner  the  beets  are 
put  in  piles  or  pits  after  being  dug,  the  better,  as  thej  lose 
weight  by  exposure  to  the  light. 

Beet  Pulp  is  the  residue  of  the  beet  after  the  sugar  has  been 
extracted,  and  is  worth  at  least  one  third  as  much  per  ton  as 
hay  for  feeding  stock.  It  will  keep  for  two  years  or  more  in 
good  condition,  and  be  alwaj^s  relished  by  cattle.  It  is  presei*ved 
by  the  Messrs.  Fieret,  to  whom  we  have  alluded,  in  the  follow- 
i)ig  manner :  A  ditch  is  dug  in  dry,  hard  soil,  and  the  pulp 
trodden  firmly  into  it,  filling  it  two.  feet  above  the  surface.  The 
whole  is  covered  with  two  feet  of  earth.  They  fatten  yearly 
eight  hundred  head  of  cattle  and  three  thousand  sheep.  They 
will  Ritten  in  one  hundred  days.  They  allow  cattle  eighty 
pounds  of  pulp,  five  pounds  chopped  straw,  and  five  pounds  oil 
cake,  daily.  The  sheep  are  each  allowed  six  pounds  pulp,  half 
pound  chopped  straw,  half  pound  oil  cake,  and  one  pound 
chaff.  Chopped  corn  stalks,  and  Indian  meal,  can  be  fed  with 
the  pulp  to  advantage  in  this  country.  The  beet  leaves  are 
also  an  excellent  fodder,  and  can  be  preserved  in  layers,  with 
salt  sprinkled  between  the  layers ;  and  fed  to  milch  cows  with 
the  pulp,  they  increase  the  flow  of  milk. 

Seed.  A  most  important  consideration  is  the  selection  of 
seed,  both  as  to  quality  and  variety.  At  present  the  seed  must 
be  imported.  We  recommend  Messrs.  B.  K.  Bliss  &  Son,  of 
New  York,  as  reliable  dealers  in  seeds,  and  they  will  gladly 
answer  all  inquiries  in  regard  to  their  cost,  etc.  But  it  should 
be  the  aim  of  the  cultivator  to  raise  his  own  seed.     The  White 


SPECIAL    CKOPS.  251 

Silesian  seems  to  uuite  the  necessary  qualities  for  the  best  sugar 
beet,  which  are  a  pear-shaped  root,  growing  wholly  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  soil  when  it  has  room  to  extend  itself;  a  smooth 
surface,  free  from  lateral  roots ;  a  firm  flesh,  and  medium  size. 
The  beets  for  seed  should  be  chosen  before  they  are  piled  or  put 
in  the  pits.  The  most  perfect  specimens  should  be  selected. 
Those  grown  in  very  rich  soil  are  not  as  good  for  seed  as  those 
grown  in  a  medium  soil.  iSTo  beets  should  be  selected  any  por- 
tion of  which  has  grown  above  ground,  nor  any  with  a  double 
or  imperfect  crown.  Cut  off  the  leaves  within  about  an  inch 
of  the  crown,  and  also  the  extreme  end  of  the  tap  root.  Dig  a 
trench,  as  before  described,  and  la}-  tlie  beets  in  carefully  in 
layers,  covering  each  layer  with  just  sufficient  earth  to  separate 
the  beets.  Form  a  conical  pile  three  feet  above  the  surface,  and 
cover  with  a  few  inches  of  earth,  increasing  the  covering  as 
cold  weather  advances,  to  prevent  freezing.  All  other  roots 
require  ventilation ;  and  although  it  is  claimed  by  Grant  and 
others  that  the  sugar  beet  does  not,  we  consider  it  safer  to  ven- 
tilate all  piles  or  pits.  This  can  be  done  by  setting  tiles  on  the 
top  of  the  beets,  at  convenient  distances,  and  stuffing  them  with 
straw,  as  is  recommended  for  all  roots.  As  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  set  out  the  beets  in  a  dry  soil 
that  has  been  deeply  plowed  and  heavily  manured  the  previous 
year.  Set  them  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  two  feet  apart  in 
the  rows,  mixing  a  couple  of  handfuls  of  bone  dust  with  the 
soil  when  the  beet  is  set.  Set  the  crowns  just  below  the  sur- 
face, and  press  the  earth  closely  about  them.  An  inch  of  earth, 
and  anotlier  handful  of  bone  dust  on  the  crown  of  the  plant, 
completes  the  setting.  The  French  cut  three  or  four  longitudi- 
nal slits  in  the  beet,  commencing  about  an  inch  below  the  crown. 
We  have  no  doubt  that  these  cuts  assist  the  plant,  enabling  it 
to  throw  out  more  and  stronger  roots,  and  consequently  pro- 


252  HOW   TO   MAKE  THE   FAEM  PAY. 

ducing  more  aud  better  seed.  As  soon  as  the  beets  sprout, 
weeding  and  cultivation  must  begin,  and  be  kept  up  until  the 
seed  riiiens.  Cut  awaj  weak  flower  stems,  and  when  the  seeds 
becrin  to  form,  pinch  off  the  tips  of  the  stalks.  Just  before  the 
seed  stalks  turn  brown,  cut  them  off  near  the  ground,  and  dry 
them  in  some  airj  and  sunny  place.  Thresh  out  the  seeds  in 
hot  weather,  blow  out  all  the  chaff  you  can,  and  spread  them 
out  until  they  are  thoroughly  dry,  occasionally  stirring  them. 
Put  into  small  sacks,  and  hang  in  a  dry,  airy,  secure  place,  until 
they  are  two  years  old.  Never  sow  one  year  old  seed.  Before 
sowing,  the  coarsest  of  the  seed  should  be  rubbed  between  two 
boards  and  partially  crushed,  or  they  will  clog  hfie  sower,  and 
the  seed  will  not  be  evenly  distributed. 

KoTATiON'  OF  Crops  and  Manures,  the  Adaptation  of 
Stock  to  the  Soil,  and  General  Management  of  Crops. 
The  theory  of  rotation  is  that  the  soil  contains  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  all  the  elements  of  plant  food ;  and  that  each  crop 
extracts  its  own  peculiar  elements  and  no  others.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly true.  Agricultural  chemistry  shoAvs,,  by  analyses, 
what  elements  are  extracted  by  each  crop.     For  instance. 

The  results  of  various  chemical  analyses  has  shown  that  red 
clover  is  composed  principally  of  potash,  lime,  and  carbonic 
acid,  and  that  the  grain  of  wheat  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  and  the  straw  of  silica.  Potatoes 
are  composed  principally  of  potash,  carbonic  acid,  and  phos- 
phoric acid;  turnips,  of  potash,  lime,  carbonic  and  sulphuric 
acids ;  peas  consist  principally  of  potash,  and  phosphate  of  lime ; 
the  grain  of  rye  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  potash;  the  straw  of 
rye  of  potash  and  silica.  M.  Sprengel  found  potash,  soda,  and 
sihca,  to  be  the  principal  ingredients  in  the  grain  of  maize,  and 
the  stalks  to  consist  principally  of  silica  and  lime.  The  ashes 
of  the  grape  vine  consists  principally  of  potash,  lime,  and 
phosi>horic  acid. 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  25o 

Analyses  also  show  the  composition  of  soils,  and  are,  in  some 
measure,  a  guide  in  adapting  crops  to  the  soil,  but  the  expecta 
tiou  cherished,  a  few  years  ago,  that  chemistry  would  solve  all 
the  difficulties  of  agriculture,  has  not  been  realized.  There  are 
so  many  considerations  besides  the  elements  in  the  soil  and 
crops,  that  chemistry  can  only  suggest  what  the  farmer  must 
prove  by  practice.  It  is  true  that  the  intelligent  farmer  will 
always  he  aided,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  principal  elements  of 
the  crops  he  cultivates,  of  the  soils  on  which  he  cultivates  them, 
and  of  the  manures  applied,  but  the  rain  and  the  dew,  the  air 
and  the  sunshine,  which  he  cannot  regulate,  will  often  change 
his  best  planned  results. 

All  soils  contain  mineral  matter  and  phosphate  of  lime  suffi- 
cient for  a  crop  of  any  kind ;  but  it  is  readily  seen  that  if  the 
same  crop  is  removed,  year  after  year,  and  no  equivalenl 
returned,  certain  elements  will  become  entirely  exhausted. 
But  if  the  elements  removed  can  bo  replaced  by  manures,  or 
such  a  succession  of  crops  raised  that  each  element  will  be 
taken  in  its  turn,  allowing  the  soil  an  interval  of  several  years 
to  recuperate,  the  soil  will  retain  its  fertility.  It  is  in  this  con- 
nection that  the  analyses  of  manures  are  valuable,  and  here 
that  chemistry  has  done  and  is  doing  useful  work  for  Agricul- 
ture. We  give  below  the  principal  elements  of  various 
manures  and  fertilizers. 

A  cord  of  leached  ashes  contains  about 

147  pounds  phosphoric  acid,  184  pounds  silex. 

41       "       oxide  of  magnesia,  21        "       oxide  of  iron, 

196       "       magnesia,  50        "       potash, 

1.057        "       carbonic  acid,  2,227       "       lime. 

Average  dung  of  a  cow,  for  one  year,  contains 

4.800  pounds  genie,  37  pounds  chalk, 

677       "       carbonate  of  ammonia,  24       "       common  salt, 

71       "       bone  dust,  .  15       "       sulphate  of  potash. 

37       "       plaster. 


o-A  now    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

A  family  of  six  persons  will  ordinarily  produce  per  day 
ubout  eighteen  pounds  of  excrement,  liquid  and  solid;  or,  in  one 
year,  six  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy  pounds,  containing 
twelve  pounds  of  chlorine,  fifty  pounds  of  salts,  two  hundred 
and  twelve  pounds  of  dry,  organic  matter.  In  the  latter  there 
will  be  forty-five  pounds  nitrogen.  This  is  equal  to  fifty-five 
pounds  of  jmre  ammonia,  or  one  hundred  and  forty-two  pounds 
of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  of  commerce.  See,  in  Chapter  III., 
directions  for  saving  and  utilizing  this  valuable  manure. 

The  manure  of  fattening  hogs  approaches  nearly  to  night  soil. 
Sheep  dung  comes  next  in  order.  Horse  manure  contains,  in 
one  hundred  parts,  about 

10.      carbon,  3.28  carbonate  of  ammonia, 

1.30  hydrogen,  .96  other  salts, 

9.50  oxygen,  Balance  water. 
.60  nitrogen, 

But  horse  dung  rapidly  loses  these  valuable  qualities,  unless 
composted  as  directed  in  Chapter  III. 

Guano  should  contain  from  thirty-four  to  thirty-eight  parts 
phosphates,  thirty-three  to  thirty-five  parts  organic  matter  and 
salts  of  ammonia,  and  sixteen  to  twenty-four  parts  water.  One 
hundred  pounds  cow's  urine  contains  forty  pounds  of  ammonia, 
and  eighty  pounds  of  the  most  powerful  salts  ever  used  by  the 
farmer ;  its  actual  value,  therefore,  is  nearly  double  that  of  the 
dung.  One  cord  of  loam  saturated  with  urine,  is  fully  as 
valuable  as  a  cord  of  solid  dung.  See  directions.  Chapter  III., 
for  saving  the  liquid  manure.  The  urine  of  the  hog  is 
still  more  valuable,  containing  one  fourth  more  ammonia,  and 
also  phosphates  of  which  the  urine  of  other  animals  is  destitute. 
We  wish  we  could  awaken,  in  the  mind  of  the  farmer,  an  alarm 
at  the  waste  of  these  valuable^  products  which   is  constantly 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  255 

goiijg  on  around  liim.  Two  hundred  pounds  of  Lones,  yielding 
one  hundred  pounds  of  bone  ash,  contain, 

Pliospliiite  of  lime,  88.00  pounds.         Soda 3.25  pounds. 

Carbonate  of  lirae..   6.00      '•                Alkuline    sulphates 
Magnesia 1.25      "  and  chlorides 1.50      " 

This  will  require  about  eighty-eight  pounds  of  oil  of  vitriol  to 
reduce  to  super  phosphate. 

The  above  analyses  show,  in  a  measure,  the  constituents  of 
the  various  crops  and  manures,  and  may  suggest  the  proper 
a})plication  of  the  one  to  the  other.  It  must  be  remembered, 
in  this  connection,  that  the  crops  can  take  up  nothing  but 
liquids;  and  the  most  powerful  manures,  unless  readily  soluble 
in  the  soil,  are  of  no  value  to  the  crops. 

No  application  of  manures,  however,  can  preclude  the  neces- 
sity of  a  rotation  of  crops  in  order  to  the  lest  results.  There  are 
elements,  both  in  the  soil  and  in  the  air,  that  the  nicest  analyses 
cannot  detect,  and  nothing  but  time  can  replace.  A  rotation 
of  manures  is  also  a  necessity.  The  farmer  who  applies  the 
same  manure,  whatever  crop  he  may  take  from  the  soil,  has 
yet  to  learn  the  first  principles  of  rotation ;  which  are  to  replace, 
as  nearly  as  may  be,  the  constituents  removed  by  the  crop. 
There  is  also  an  adaptation  of  manures  to  the  soil  as  well  as 
to  the  crop.  A  soil  already  full  of  lime  is  not  benefitted  by 
more. 

Stock  raising  and  mixed  husbandry  are  essential  requisites 
of  a  system  of  rotation  of  crops.  Farmers  must  keep  more  and 
better  stock  if  they  would  make  farming  pay.  Says  S.  E. 
Todd:  "  When  the  agriculture  of  our  country  is  characterized 
by  that  system  of  judicious  management  which  will  eventually 
|)revail — when  our  soils  shall  have  been  underdrained  as  they 
ought  to  be — when  they  shall  be  improved  in  fertility  by 
manuring  and  more  complete  pulverization — when  our  farmers 


25(5'  now  TO  make  farming  pay. 

have  learned  how  to  save,  to  make,  and  to  apply  manure  in  the 
most  profitable  manner— and  when  they  have  learned  to  turn 
their  ^rain  into  meat  which  will  be  worth  as  much  as  the  grain, 
while  the  manure  of  the  animals  fed  will  increase  the  amount 
of  the  next  crop  nearly  two  fold— then  we  may  not  only  reckon 
on  our  agriculture  as  being  progressive,  but  as  a  system  of  farm- 
ing that  'will  pay,'  and  be  worthy  of  universal  adoption." 
"  "What  then  is  paying  farming  ?  We  answer,  it  is  that  system 
of  management  in  which  our  old  worn  out  farms  are  renovated 
from  their  greatly  impoverished  condition,  the  DOor  land  ren- 
dered good  and  productive,  and  the  good  land  rendered  better, 
paying  the  cost  of  cultivation  and  the  interest  on  the  capital 
invested ;  and  leaving  a  profit  to  the  proprietor,  all  from  the 
resources  of  the /army  "We  want  to  sell  the  products,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  make  such  a  disposition  of  them  that  the  soil 
will  not  be  impoverished  by  removing  crops  from  it.  We  want 
to  keep  our  cake  and  eat  it  too,  in  a  certain  sense.  For  exam- 
ple :  if  a  farmer  raises  one  hundred  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  his 
aim  should  be  to  use  it  up  in  such  a  manner  that  his  soil  will 
not  be  impoverished.  The  same  is  true  of  his  other  crops  of 
cereal  grain  and  grass.  By  feeding  out  one  hundred  bushels 
of  corn  in  the  most  economical  manner,  and  to  the  best  kind  of 
swine,  cattle,  or  sheep,  and  by  saving  all  their  manure  and  apply- 
ing it  to  the  soil  where  the  corn  grew,  and  by  cultivating  that 
soil  in  a  most  thorough  manner,  its  fertility  may  be  improved." 
"  If  a  farmer  desires  to  raise  bountiful  crops,  of  any  kind  of 
grain  or  grass,  he  cannot  expect  to  be  able  to  do  it  on  a  soil 
that  has  been  exhausted  of  most  of  those  substances  which  are 
required  to  produce  that  kind  of  grain.  But  by  raising  stock 
m  connection  with  growing  grain,  by  feeding'  out  a  large  por- 
tion of  coarse  grain  to  animals  ;  by  husbanding  all  the  resources 
for  saving  and  preparing  fertilizing  materials  for  the  soil ;  and 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  257 

bj  adopting  a  judicious  system  of  rotation  of  crops  which  aro 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  to  the  locality,  the  grain  producing 
material  which  is  especially  adapted  to  promoting  the  growth 
of  each  kind  of  grain,  will  have  time  to  accummulate  in  the 
soil,  so  that,  whenever  a  given  crop  of  grain  or  grass  is  to  be 
grown,  there  will  be  such  an  abundance  of  it  that  not  onl}'  the 
stalks,  but  the  grain,  will  be  large  in  quantity  and  superior  in 
quality. 

"  In  case  a  farmer  keeps  sheep,  in  connection  with  grain 
raising,  he  will  want  one  or  more  cows,  to  furnish  milk  and 
butter.  Then,  lard  will  be  very  essential  for  culinary  purposes, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  value  of  pork  for  food.  Then  a  span  or 
two  of  good  horses  will  be  indispensable,  and  a  yoke  of  good 
oxen.  All  these  animals  are  absolutely  necessary,  even  on  a 
grain  farm.  Therefore,  where  such  animals  are  kept,  we  have 
all  the  elements  of  a  good  system  of  mixed  husbandry  to  begin 
with.  And  now,  if  every  thing  is  arranged  harnioniouslj',  in 
connection  with  a  judicious  system  of  rotation  of  crops,  pro- 
viding all  the  manure  is  made  and  saved,  and  properly  applied, 
that  can  be;  and  if  the  soil  is  thoroughly  drained,  where  it  is 
too  wet,  and  properly  cultivated,  and  every  operation  per- 
formed in  good  time,  and  in  a  farmer-like  manner,  we  may  rest 
assured,  that  success  will  attend  the  eftbrt  of  the  husbandman." 
"  In  order  to  come  fully  up  to  the  standard  and  practice  of  a 
thrifty  and  successful  cultivator  of  the  soil,  every  farmer  should 
calculate  to  keep  some  kind  of  stock,  neat  cattle  or  sheep,  to 
consume,  and  to  work  into  manure  the  corn  stalks,  straw,  and 
coarse  grain.  It  is,  and  always  has  been,  and  always  will  be, 
'  penny  wise,  and  pound  foolish'  policy,  to  keep  ^joor  animaJs, 
or  to  keep  animals  looor.  It  has  ever  been  a  mysterj-,  that  I 
could  not  unravel,  why  multitudes  of  farmers  could  be  so  re- 
gardless of  their  own  interests,  as  to  allow  their  animals,  which 


258  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  I  AY. 

come  into  the  baruyard  in  a  thrifty,  fleshy  conlitioii,  in  late 
autumn,  to  return  to  the  pasture  poor,  in  the  spring.  It  is  the 
worst  policy  on  the  whole  farm,  to  allow  animals  of  any  kind 
to  "TOW  poor.  A  farmer  should  not  attempt  to  keep  one  more 
animal  than  he  can  keep  in  a  growing  and  thrifty  condition. 
To  keep  too  many  half-starved  animals,  is  a  practice  which  de- 
serves the  severest  condemnation.  I  have  always  acted  on  the 
policy,  that  it  is  better  to  save  a  pound  of  fat  or  flesh,  than  to 
attempt  to  produce  it.  The  kind  of  soil  that  a  man  cultivates 
in  connection  with  the  crops  he  raises,  should  determine,  in  a 
great  degree,  what  kind  of  stock  he  should  keep  on  his  farm. 
If  a  man's  soil  will  produce  abundant  crops  of  wheat,  oats,  corn, 
and  grass ;  then  we  may  conclude  that  it  will  support  thorough- 
bred animals  of  the  largest  size,  whether  they  be  neat  cattle  or 
sheep.  If  neat  cattle,  those  that  have  a  large  infusion  of  Durham 
blood  will  be  found  quite  as  profitable,  and  doubtless  more  so, 
than  any  other  breed." 

On  a  hilly,  barren,  and  rather  unproductive  soil,  Mr,  Todd 
recommends  the  Devon  cattle,  and  South  Down  sheep,  or  a 
cross  between  the  Merino  and  South  Down.  (We  have  quoted 
thus  at  length  from  Mr.  Todd,  as  expressing,  better  than  we 
could  do  it,  our  idea  of  the  principles  of  rotation  and  mixed 
husbandry,  and  we  can  give  no  better  advice  just  here,  than  to 
advise  every  reader  to  procure  Mr.  Todd's  book,  "  The  Young 
Farmers'  ManuaV\  notwithstanding  its  exorbitant  price,  and 
we  can  assure  you  that  it  will  well  repay  a  careful  perusiti.) 
This  system  requires  improved  stock.  A  good  cow,  ox,  or 
sheepi  got  by  a  thoroughbred  male,  is  preferable  in  every  re- 
spect to  two  poor  ones,  by  grade  males.  They  give  more  milk, 
more  beef,  more  wool,  and  more  mutton,  in  proportion  to  the 
food  furnished  them,  and  the  manure  voided  is  more  valuable. 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  259 

Our  advice  to  farmers  is:     Never,  wlaen  avoidable,  put  any  am 
mal  to  a  grade  male,  but  always  to  a  thorouglibred. 

Sheep  will  often,  be  more  valuable  than  ueat  cattle  on  the 
farm.  A  farmer  can  take  care  of  sheep  with  less  labor  and  ex- 
pense, and  will  get  annual  returns  for  wool  and  mutton,  whereas 
neat  cattle  must  be  kept  three  or  four  years.  Sheep  will  eat 
coarse  grain  and  fodder,  which  for  cattle  should  be  ground. 
Neat  cattle  and  sheep  should  not  be  pastured  together,  as  the 
sheep  will  take  advantap^e  of  them  and  get  most  of  the  fine,  ten- 
der grass.  Pigs  should  always  form  a  part  of  this  system  of 
mixed  husbandry,  as  they  work  over  and  make  into  valuable 
manure  a  great  deal  that  would  otherwise  be  lost. 

Consuming  the  productions  of  the  soil  on  the  farm  is  the  key 
note  of  our  system  of  agriculture,  and  the  only  system  to  be 
recommended  for  universal  adoption.  Neglect  of  this  principle 
is  one  of  the  reasons  why  farming  pays  no  better.  "  A  mixed 
husbandry  is  a  system  of  farm  management,  in  which  raising 
grain  constitutes  only  a  portion  of  a  farmer's  employment,  while 
raising  stock  of  some  kind  is  a  chief  part  of  his  busincbS.  In 
other  words,  raising  stock  and  growing  grain  on  the  same  farm 
posesses  decided  advantages  over  that  system  of  husbandry  in 
which  nothing  but  grain  is  grown  or  stock  reared.  A  system 
of  mixed  husbandry  includes  all  the  good  practices  to  which  we 
have  made  allusion  in  this  chapter.  Every  farmer  must  judge 
for  himself  what  stock  to  keep,  what  crops  to  raise,  and  what 
system  of  rotation  to  pursue,  we  shall  therefore  only  indicate 
briefly  some  of  the  systems  of  rotation,  and  the  proper  place  of 
the  principal  crops  in  the  same. 

The  farm  is  divided  into  pasture,  meadow,  and  tillage  laud, 
the  latter  into  four,  five,  six,  or  seven  fields,  according  to  the 
number  of  crops  to  be  raised.  As  a  rule,  none  but  the  pastures 
should  be  fenced  off.  (See  "  Fences T)     The  seven  field  system 


20(.)  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    FAY. 

does  not  make  permanent  grass  lands,  but  gives  several  yeara 
to  «'rass  of  each  of  the  divisions  of  land,  and  gives  one  to  corn, 
one  to  oats,  and  one  or  two  to  wheat. 

Supposing  the  rotation  to  begin  with  corn,  a  cleansing  crop;  it 
is  followed  by  oats,  which  has  the  same  effect  in  that  respect  us 
the  corn  crop,  though  not  hoed.  It  makes  a  shade  at  midsum- 
mer, calculated  to  check  the  growth  of  weeds,  and  the  stubble 
being  short'lj  after  plowed,  it  has  the  effect  of  a  hoed  crop,  and, 
with  the  previous  corn  crop,  combines  to  leave  the  ground  in 
condition  for  grass  seeds.  The  oat  stubble  is  manured  at  mid- 
summer, with  the  contents  of  the  farmyard,  and  a  good  foun- 
dation is  laid  for  a  crop  of  wheat,  and  of  grass  following. 

Whether  clover  seed  alone,  or  timothy  or  other  grass  seeds, 
be  now  sown,  depends  upon  whether  one  or  two  crops  of  wheat 
are  to  be  taken  from  the  course.  If  two  crops,  then  clover  seed 
only  will  be  sown  the  following  spring.  From  this  sowing,  a 
crop  of  clover  hay  will  be  taken  the  next  year,  and  a  fallow 
prepared  for  wheat  the  coming  fall.  Upon  this  w^heat  is  sown 
timothy,  or  other  grass  seeds.  The  crops  should  nearly  all  be 
consumed  on  the  farm,  and  the  refuse  returned  to  the  soil. 
This  is  a  system  to  be  recommended.  It  makes  variety  in  the 
crops;  gives  the  soil  the  benefit  of  the  preserving  .effects  of  a 
long  standing  sod;  devotes  half  of  the  period  of  rotation  to 
ameliorating  treatment,  and  returns  not  only  the  coarser  pro- 
ducts to  the  soil,  but  feeds  at  home  a  large  proportion  of  the 
grain. 

The  following  is  a  good  six  course  rotation.  First  year  roots 
heavily  manured.  Second,  clover  limed,  and  second  growth 
plowed  under.  Third,  wheat.  Fourth  and  fifth,  grass,  two 
years.  Sixth,  corn,  rye  or  oats.  A  five  year  course  rotation 
First,  green  crop.  Second,  wheat.  Third,  grass.  Fourth,  roots 
Fifth,  corn  or  oats. 


SPECIAL   CROPS.  261 

By  this  plan  two  grain  crops  are  never  raised  off  the  same 
field  in  succession.  The  following  is  a  four  course  rotation, 
whicS,  in  some  localities,  will  do  very  well :  First  year,  corn, 
potatoes,  or  fallow,  manured.  Second,  oats.  Third,  clover. 
Fourth,  wheat. 

The  only  objection  to  this  course  is  that  one  grain  crop,  corn, 
is  followed  by  another  grain  crop,  oats ;  but  in  the  culture  of 
maize  the  soil  is,  or  should  be,  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds, 
and  being  a  dull  crop,  the  land  is  generally  in  good  heart  for 
cereals. 

Of  course  the  farmer  must  form  his  system  to  suit  his  own 
peculiar  circumstances,  but  will  do  well  to  adhere  to  the  princi- 
ple laid  down.  It  will  be  noticed  that  we  advocate  wheat  after 
clover,  or  more  literally  clover  before  wheat.  We  consider  it 
good  practice,  as  will  be  seen  by  reading  the  chapter  on  wheat 
culture.  In  many  wheat  growing  districts  the  rotation  is  limited 
to  wheat  and  clover,  two  seasons  in  clover  and  one  in  wheat, 
sheep  and  horses  consuming  the  clover  on  the  farm.  This  can 
only  be  good  practice,  however,  in  districts  covered  with  lime- 
stone and  plaster  beds.  Another  plan  is  to  raise  wheat  after 
potatoes,  commencing  the  rotation  with  corn,  heavily  manured 
and  thoroughly  cultivated,  following  this  with  potatoes  and 
barnyard  manure,  the  third  year  wheat,  and  then  two  years  in 
grass.  We  have  heretofore  spoken  of  turnips  and  wheat  in 
Chapter  Y.  A  crop  of  peas  is  one  of  the  best  to  precede  winter 
wheat;  they  take  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  wheat  producing 
material,  mature  rapidly,  and  when  fed  out  to  growing  stock 
return  full  value  to  the  soil.  They  leave  the  ground  mellow 
and  friable,  but  a  dressing  of  well  composted  manure  should  be 
plowed  in  after  the  peas  are  removed.  Wheat  was  formerly 
sown  after  Indian  corn,  but  as  it  takes,  in  large  measure,  the 
same  plant  food,  it  cannot  be  called  good  practice. 


202  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

The  sugar  beet  is  excellent  to  precede  all  grain  crops.  [See 
Chapter  on  Beets  for  sugar.)  Corn  on  sod  ground  is  the  common 
practice,  and  we  do  not  know  that  it  can  be  improved  'upon. 
We  are  aware  that  corn  is  often  raised  on  tbe  same  ground  for 
successively  five,  ten,  and  even  twenty  years,  but  such  a  prac- 
tice is  simple  folly.  AYe  should  not  follow  roots  with  corn  a,s  a 
o-erieral  rule,  although  we  have  met  with,  good  success  on 
heavily  manured  land.  The  grasses  are  usually  sown  with  and 
therefore  follow  grain  in  almost  any  system  of  rotation. 

The  rule  to  be  observed  in  all  rotations  is:  If  any  crop  takes 
up  a  large  proportion  of  any  given  element  from  the  soil,  do 
not  folloAV  it  with  another  crop  requiring  the  same  element. 
The  rotation  on  prairie  soils  is  often  confined  to  grass,  corn,  and 
wheat,  the  grain  being  all  removed,  and  the  straw  burned. 
This  is  an  exhaustive  process;  and  there  should  be  substituted 
for  it,  at  once,  a  more  extended  rotation,  or  at  least  a  system  of 
mixed  husbandry,  which  shall  consume  a  portion  of  the  grain, 
with  the  hay,  stalks,  and  straw,  on  the  farm,  and  return  them  to 
the  soil.  The  systems  of  rotation  for  cotton  and  other  crops 
are  given  in  connection  with  the  culture  of  those  crops. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  say,  raise  such  crops,  and  in  such 
quantities,  that  you  can  give  each  a  full  share  of  attention,  re- 
membering that  to  get  the  best  crops  requires  the  best  care,  and 
make  it  your  ruling  principle  that  the  best  market  for  your 
crops  is  in  the  manger,  the  stall,  and  the  piggery. 


ill  lii' 


PART  SECOND-STOCK  RAISING. 


CHAPTER   IX. 


HORSES    AND    MULES. 


'N  BEEBDING  HOESES  for  farm  use,  quickness  ot 
working,  power  to  pull  loads,  and  ability  to  endure 
constant  daily  labor,  are  the  prime  qualifications  to 
be  aimed  at. 

Speed,  draught,  and  endurance.  We  say  sj^eed,  for  a  horse  that 
can  harrow,  or  rake  two  acres  while  another  is  doing  one,  or 
that  can  go  to  mill,  or  market,  in  one  hour,  when  it  takes 
another  two,  is  worth  to  his  owner,  other  things  being  equal, 
twice  as  much  as  the  other.  In  the  choice  of  a  stallion,  then, 
for  breeding  good  horses,  the  more  blood  compatible  with  thtj 
size  required  the  better;  the  "pare  blooded,"  high-bred  horse, 
having  greater  quickness,  strength,  bottom,  health,  and  vigor 
of  constitution,  as  well  as  greater  courage. 

Black  Hawk,  whose  portrait  forms  the  frontispiece  to  this 
chapter,  is  a  good  specimen  of  the  roadster.     {Fig.  68.) 

The  blood  should  be  on  the  side  of  the  stallion ;  breed  up, 
not  down.     Never  put  a  mare  to  a  stallion  of  inferior  blood. 

The  stallion  should  be  free  from  vices  of  temper  and  disposi- 
tion, as  he  will  surely  transmit  these  to  his  progeny.  He  will 
also  transmit  diseases  and  malformations,  therefore  these  should 

1)0  avoided.     The  general  description  for  a  stallion  for  the  pur 
IT  2G."> 


2(56  now  TO  make  the  faem  iay. 

pose  of  the  firmer  is— sixteen  hands  high  ;  fore  legs  above  the 
knee,  and  hind  legs  above  the  hock,  long  and  muscular;  below 
these  joints,  short  and  bony ;  joints  round  and  well  set,  short 
backed,  well  ribbed  up,  short  in  tbe  saddle  place,  and  long 
below  it ;  high  withers,  broad  loins,  broad  chest,  straight  rump, 
a  hic'h  muscular  crest,  a  lean  well  set  head,  broad  nostrils, 
small  curs,  and  a  small  clear  eye.  (See  fig.  09.)  A  dark  bay  is 
the  best  oolor,  an  iron  grey  next,  then  black,  and  other  dark 
shades.  The  mane  and  tail  should  always  be  darker  than  the 
hair  of  the  body.  The  prevaiHng  method  of  using  stallions 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  The  unscrupalous  owners 
ot  stallions  tax  them  to  a  degree  ruinous  to  them  and  their 
progeny.  No  stallion  should  be  used  regularly  as  a  breeder, 
until  he  is  four  years  old.  When  three,  he  may  be  put  to  a 
half  dozen  mares,  and  his  qualities  tested,  but  too  much  must 
not  be  expected  of  his  stock,  at  this  age.  If  it  is  passable,  keep 
him  for  a  stallion ;  with  moderate  usage  his  colts  will  be  g. ^od 
until  he  is  twelve  or  sixteen.  But  the  present  monstrous  prac- 
tice of  allowing  stallions  to  serve  from  sixty  to  eighty  mares  in 
a  single  season  of  three  months,  rapidly  deteriorates  the  stock. 
Twenty  mares,  or  at  most  two  a  week,  for  the  season,  is  all  that 
any  stallion  can  be  taxed,  without  serious  loss  in  the  quality  of 
his  colts.  And  instead  of  being  confined  all  the  time  in  the 
.stable,  eating  heating  food,  and  only  seeing  the  mare  when  led 
out  for  copulation,  they  should  be  allowed  to  run  together  fur 
a  day  or  two,  in  the  pasture ;  both  the  horse  and  ihe  mare  will 
enjoy  this  season,  and  the  superiority  of  the  foal  will  abundant- 
ly repay  such  an  allowance.  You  will  raise  horses  with  much 
less  disposition  to  be  vicious. 
Our  breed  of  horses  will  continue  to  deoienerate  as  lonar  as 

o  o 

the  present  exhaustive  practice  is  continued.     The  only  practi- 
cal remedy,  that  we  now  see,  is  for  farmers  to  club  together  and 


HORSES  AXD  MULES.  267 

purchase  a  stallion,  or  raise  one  among  themselves,  keeping 
him  for  their  own  breeding.  This -coarse  has  been  largely 
practiced  in  some  communities,  and  a  marked  and  most  profit- 
able improvement  in  the  stock  has  been  the  result. 

Ix  THE  Choice  of  the  Mare,  size,  symmetry,  and  sound- 
ness, are  to  be  regarded  as  essentials.  ("Beauty  from  the 
dam ;  temper  and  disposition,  from  the  sire.")  She  should 
have  a  roomy  frame,  a  little  more  than  the  average  length 
from  hip  to  shoulder,  sloping  hips,  wide  chest,  deep  girth, 
strong  quarters,  and  particularly  a  wide  deep  pelvis ;  permitting 
the  passage  of  the  foal  into  the  world  uninjured.  She  should 
be  gentle,  free  from  all  vicious  habits,  and  from  all  constitu- 
tional diseases  or  deformities,  such  as  diseases  of  the  lungs, 
Qyes^  or  spavins,  bad  feet,  or  any  bony  enlargepients,  as 
she  will  almost  surely  transmit  these  ill  shapes,  even  if 
she  herself  is  excellent.  Never  breed  from  a  sulky,  baulky, 
savage,  or  vicious  mare,  unless  you  wish  to  perpetuate 
the  breed.  It  is  true,  these  are  often  overcome  by  the  sire, 
but  the  risk  is  too  great  to  be  advisable.  Before  putting 
her  to  the  stallion,  by  careful  usage  and  feeding,  get  her 
into  the  most  perfect  state  of  health,  not  over  loaded  with 
fat,  but  in  a  first  rate  condition.  Her  state  at  the  time  of  coi- 
tion, will  have  a  lasting  effect  upon  the  foal.  Gestation  should 
commence  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  There 
should  be  mhtual  adaptation,  between  the  sire  and  the  dam, 
in  both  form,  size,  and  all  other  important  characteristics.  The 
mare  should  be  a  little  larger  than  the  horse,  unless  the  mare 
be  too  low,  when  she  may  be  bred  to  a  horse  a  trifle  taller,  but 
not  of  the  leggy  kind.  A  low  mare  to  a  leggy  horse,  to  pro- 
duce height,  is  a  mistake.  Any  great  difference  in  size  will 
usually  produce  distortions.  If  either  is  defective  in  any 
point,  bo  sure  the  other  is  perfect  in  that  point.     If  the  colt  ie 


268  HOW  TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAT. 

desired  for  the  farm,  put  the  mare  to  a  farm-horse,  if  for  the 
carriage,  to  a  stallion  adapted  for  a  roadster.  If  the  design  is 
10  improve  the  breed,  without  special  reference  to  either,  a 
pure  blooded  horse  will  certainly,  under  our  limitations,  accom- 
plish the  purpose.  If  your  stock  is  good,  you  may  breed  in 
and  iu,  for  two  generations,  but  never  more,  that  is  with  near 
blood  relations,  and  if  your  stock  is  degenerated,  cross  it  at 
once,  with'  some  distinct  strain  of  pure  blood,  to  reinvigorate 
and  strengthen  the  stock.  Where  stock  has  already  been  long 
inbred,  breed  up,  by  stinting  the  mares  to  the  best  thorough- 
bred stallion  that  can  be  found,  broad  chested,  and  strong 
loiued,  about  the  height  of  the  mare,  but  stouter.  The  fillies 
from  this  cross  will  be  larger  and  stouter  than  their  dams,  and 
from  them  naay  be  bred  again,  still  larger  and  stouter  horses, 
by  the  same  process. 

The  Canadian  horse,  we  think,  all  things  considered,  the  best 
breed  for  the  farmer,  and  if  special  care  were  taken  to  breed 
only  from  the  largest  and  most  perfect  specimens,  or  to  breed 
the  mares  to  thoroughbreds  of  the  Norman  stock,  the  breed 
might  be  greatly  improved.  It  possesses  endurance,  but  needs 
a  little  increase  in  size,  and  decrease  in  weight,  and  increase  in 
speed.  Judicious  breeding,  with  this  object  in  view,  will 
abundantly  repay  the  breeder.  We  cannot  close  this  subject 
without  entering  our  strongest  protest,  against  the  abuse  of  the 
mare  often  practiced.  She  should  never  be  put  to  the  stud 
before  she  is  three  years  old,  and  it  is  usually  much  better  to 
wait  still  another  year,  that  she  may  perfectly  mature.  Again; 
let  her  have  more  of  the  companionship  of  the  horse ;  a  single 
connection  does  not  satisfy  her ;  let  them  run  together  two  or 
three  days,  in  a  retired  pasture,  the  disposition  of  your  colt 
will  be  enough  better  to  warrant  it.  Thirdly,  do  not  make  her 
bring  a  colt  every  year,  it  is  too  great  a  tax  upon  her,  and  the 


HORSES  AXD   MULES.  271 

colts  will  not  be  worth  any  more.  Two  inferior  colts  are  no 
better  than  one  first  class.  Again,  don't  try  to  get  colts  from 
a  poor  old,  worn  out  mare,  that  after  years  of  hard  labor,  has 
earned  the  right  to  rest.  It  is  a  cruelty  to  her,  and  the  foal 
will  be  nothing  but  an  abortion  and  a  disgrace. 

The  Mare  intended  for  Breeding,  should  be  subjected 
only  to  light  labor,  and  this  should  be  continued  through  the 
first  months  of  gestation,  taking  care  that  she  be  not  subjected 
to  any  strains,  or  great  fatigue.  When  not  required  to  work, 
if  the  weather  is  good,  permit  her  to  run  in  the  pasture.  When 
the  weather  is  inclement,  she  should  have  shelter.  Her  food 
should  be  liberal  and  nutritious.  Clover,  lucerne,  green  corn, 
ruta  bagas,  and  carrots,  a  few  old  and  thoroughly  dried  oats, 
and  steamed  bran  mashes,  are  the  best  food  during  gestation 
and  suckling.  She  has  two  lives  to  support,  and  her  food  should 
be  moist,  easily  digested,  and  nutritious. 

She  should  be  carefully  groomed,  and  most  kindly  treated, 
all  through  the  period  of  gestation,  if  you  expect  from  her  a 
good  dispositioned  foal.  During  the  last  six  or  eight  weeks 
she  should  be  subjected  to  no  labor,  removed  from  all  other  ani- 
mals, allowed  to  roam  at  will,  or  taken  out  and  gently  exercised. 
As  she  comes  nearer  the  time  of  foaling,  keep  her  where  she 
can  be  watched,  and  assistance  rendered  if  any  should  be  needed. 
When  the  period  arrives,  the  time  occupied  by  the  mare  in  foal- 
ing is  short,  and  her  pain  severe.  We  cannot  approve  of  foal- 
ing in  the  field.  Lead  her  in  on  to  the  barn  floor,  or  under  a 
shed  well  littered.  Let  all  your  actions  and  words  be  gentle 
and  kind — a  harsh  tone  is  unnecessary,  and  may  be  injurious. 
Even  the  voice  of  a  stranger,  or  of  one  of  whom  she  is  afraid, 
adds  to  the  sufferings  of  the  mare  at  this  time.  The  hour  of 
labor  being  near  at  hand,  fasten  a  pair  of  light  hobbles  to  the 
fetlocks  of  both  hind  legs,  and  ropes  from  them  run  between 


272  HOW  TO   MAKE  THE   FARM   PAY. 

the  fore  legs.  This  should  be  done  by  some  one  in  wbom  sh( 
recognizes  I  friend.  Thej  should  be  held  firmly,  to  prevent 
her  striking  out  at  the  attendant  who  assists  the  birth. 

After  the  birth,  bring  a  pail  of  warm  milk  gruel,  and  leave 
the  marc  and  foal  to  themselves.  Entire  quiet  for  two  or  three 
hours  is  the  best  medicine.  After  this,  give  her  a  meal  of  pre- 
pared food.  Do  not  resort  to  purgations  if  she  does  not  imme- 
diately expel  the  after-birth.  Some  writers  recommend  a  qjiiart 
of  ale  once  in  three  hours ;  if,  after  the  third  dose,  it  is  not 
expelled,  inject  cold  water  until  it  is. 

The  colt  is  now  the  object  of  care.  If  the  dam  is  in  good 
condition,  she  will  need  no  medicine.  After  a  month  or  six 
TS'eeks,  the  labor  of  the  mare  should  be  gradually  resumed,  and 
the  colt  allowed  to  run  with  her ;  but  not  yet  on  tbe  roads.  If 
the  colt  is  strong,  he  may  be  weaned  in  six  months — except 
that  fall  colts  should  not  be  weaned  until  the  spring  grass 
appears.  The  future  animal  is  now  in  your  hands,  and  will  be 
about  what  you  make  him.  Half  the  diseases,  and  all  the  vices 
of  the  horse,  are  the  result  of  man's  treatment  of  him.  Unvary- 
ing kindness  and  attention  now,  are  a  thousand  times  better 
than  the  whip  or  the  horse-breaker  by  and  by.  He  should  be 
coaxed  to  take  morsels  from  the  hand,  petted  and  fondled.  The 
lesson  is  soon  learned,  and  he  learns  to  regard  men  as  friends, 
and  to  do  their  bidding.  It  is  surprising  how  universally  men 
repel  the  instinct  of  confidence  and  affection  in  the  horse,  and 
think  it  is  more  manly  to  assert  their  authority  in  harsb  and 
threatening  tones,  which  only  awaken  dread  and  fear.  The 
colt  should  be  warmly  housed  and  sheltered  during  the  winter. 
Thousands  of  good  colts  are  injured  for  life  by  being  compelled 
to  stand  out  without  shelter,  and  with  scant  food.  Chopped 
feed  moistened,  bran  mashes,  etc.,  are  even  more  necessary  for 
the  colt  than  for  the  mature  animal. 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  278 

If  the  colt  is  to  be  castrated,  it  should  be  done  when  he  ia 
from  four  to  six  months  old.  "We  would  repeat  here,  that  the 
supply  of  stallions  is  altogether  too  small,  and  urge  upon  farm- 
ers the  desirableness  of  preserving  entire  their  best  male  colts. 
Castrating,  if  done  early,  is  a  safe  operation,  and  may  be  done 
by  the  farmer  himself.  Find  the  orifice  through  the  lining  of 
the  belly ;  trace  it  back  to  the  testicle,  a  distance  at  this  ago  of 
only  two  or  three  inches  ;  bring  down  the  testicle  with  the  two 
forefingers.  The  vessels  will  bleed  but  little.  Apply  a  little 
fine  salt  and  turpentine,  and  the  evil  effects  will  be  soon  re- 
moved. The  longer  castration  is  delayed,  the  more  difficult  and 
dangerous  it  becomes. 

We  have  been,  in  all  this  chapter,  considering  the  method  of 
breeding  good  horses.  Those  who  are  satisfied  with  the  poor, 
scrubby,  inferior  horses  so  common  all  over  the  country,  which 
cost  just  as  much  to  get,  and  just  as  much  to  keep,  as  a  good 
horse,  will  probably  continue  the  old  method  of  breeding,  hap- 
hazard, from  broken  down,  half-starved  mares — and  when  they 
get  a  colt,  will  ruin  all  his  good  qualities  by  neglect  and  un- 
kindness. 

Breaking  and  Training  the  Colt,  on  the  present  system, 
engenders  nearly  all  the  so  called  vices  of  the  horse.  The 
horse  is  not  by  nature  vicious.  Judicious  training  of  the  colt 
will  break  up  any  vices  that  may  have  been  inherited.  Within 
a  week  from  his  birth  the  training  should  commence.  When 
you  take  a  mash  to  the  mare,  seat  yourself,  and  let  her  eat  out 
of  your  dish,  at  the  same  time  offering  some  tempting  morsel 
to  the  colt,  take  advantage  of  his  acquaintance  to  handle  him  a 
little  pat  his  neck  and  'gradually  to  handle  him  all  over  until 
you  can  lift  his  feet,  handle  his  ears,  and  look  in  his  mouth, 
without  his  showing  any  signs  of  fear.  If  you  always  act  and 
speak  kindly  he  will  know  no  cause  for  fear.     A  few  moments 


«^74  HOW    TO   MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

each  day  will  suiricc  to  accomplish  all  this,  and  much  more,  be 
fore  he  is  weaned.  A  bit  made  of  a  green  stick  may  be  held 
■n  his  mouth  by  strings,  until  he  will  open  his  mouth  readily  to 
ake  it,  when  the  colt  bit  and  bridle  may  be  put  in  its  place ; 
after  this  has  been  tried  a  few  times  he  may  be  led  about  a  little 
wiih  it  beside  the  dam,  he  may  then  be  tied  by  it  a  few  minutes 
at  a  time  until  he  will  stand  easy.  All  this  while  it  should  be 
done  gradually,  and,  without  a  harsh  word  or  a  blow,  should  oe 
done  firmly.  If  the  colt  is  inclined  to  resist  any  of  the  opera- 
dons,  gently  but  firmly  insist  and  persist  until  he  learns  that 
whatever  you  want  of  him  he  must  do,  and  that  instead  of  be- 
iua  hurt,  be  is  rewarded  when  he  does  what  is  wanted.  He 
will  soon  learn  that  man  is  his  master  as  well  as  his  friend,  and 
will  never  forget  it ;  no  more  will  he  ever  forget  abuse,  or  un 
kinduess. 

He  should  now  be  walked  around  with  a  bag  over  his  back, 
first  loose  and  then  strapped  on,  then  the  stirrups  attached  and 
allowed  to  dangle,  until  the  fear  of  any  thing  of  the  sort  is  re- 
moved. When  he  is  a  year  old  he  may  be  reined  up  occasion- 
ally to  the  surcingle  and  allowed  to  mouth  the  bits,  and  ^f  de- 
signed for  a  saddle  horse  the  semblance  of  a  man  put  on  his 
back,  or  for  a  farm  horse,  the  different  portions  of  the  harness 
put  on.  and  taken  off  occasionally. 

During  his  second  year  he  may  be  tied  beside  some  steady 
horse,  and  taught  to  walk  and  trot,  to  be  guided  by  the  lines 
without  the  shafts,  to  be  backed  into  the  shafts,  and  finally  to 
draw  the  buggy  himself,  all  by  slow,  easy  stages,  and  all  the 
danger  and  difficulty  of  breaking  a  wild  colt  when  he  is  wanted 
is  avoided.  If  h*e  is  turned  out  to  pasture,  the  person  who  car- 
ries him  salt  should,  as  often  as  once  a  week,  give  a  few  mo- 
ments to  some  portion  of  the  above  training. 

The  common  method  of  letting  the  colt  run  wild  until  he  is 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  275 

two  or  three  years  old,  and  then  beginning  his  training,  is  un- 
natural, cruel,  harmful  in  every  way.  A  colt  gentled  in  the 
way  we  have  described  is  worth  at  the  age  of  three  years  double 
the  value  of  the  unbroken  colt.  Neglected  till  he  is  three 
years  old  the  colt  can  never  he  properly  broken.  He  may  be  sub- 
dued to  sullen  obedience,  but  by  the  above  method  he  may  be 
made  the  willing  servant  of  man,  whom  he  has  learned  to  regard 
as  his  friend,  as  well  as  master.  Nothing  but  the  most  stupid  dis- 
regard of  the  law  of  kindness  can  make  this  patient,  docile  and 
naturally  obedient  animal,  vicious. 

But  as  there  are  some  who  will  still  persist  in  destroying  this 
most  valuable  trait  of  character  in  their  most  valuable  property, 
we  shall  give  directions  for  breaking  these  already, half  spoiled 
animals. 

The  more  high  spirited  and  the  mure  valuable  the  colt  is,  the 
more  likely  is  he  to  be  spoiled,  by  trying  to  do  at  three  years 
old  the  work  that  should  have  been  done  before  he  was  one. 

He  should  be  brought  into  the  stable,  and  visited,  and 
handled  often,  until  he  is  somewhat  used  to  it,  then  portions  of 
the  harness  tried  on ;  if  he  can  be  accustomed  to  it  without 
showing  fear,  lead  him  out  into  the  yard,  and  make  him  turn  to 
the  right  or  left  at  the  word  or  the  reins.  If  he  refuses  to  obey, 
which  is  quite  likely,  we  know  of  no  way  but  to  whip  him  into 
subjection.  When  he  does  obey  caress  and  reward  him.  If 
you  succeed  in  making  him  obey  heio,  fasten  him  beside  a 
steady  horse  with  a  light  wagon,  and  make  him  go,  peaceably 
if  he  will,  forcibly  if  you  must.  If  after  all  these  operations  he 
shies  from  the  harness,  tries  to  run  from  the  wagon,  or  refuses 
to  draw,  do  not  give  it  up,  but  use  every  exertion  to  bring  him 
to  submission,  and,  finally,  to  the  process  known  as  taming. 
No  horse  properly  gentled  and  trained  according  to  the  above 
directions  will  need  taming,  but  as  the  majority  of  colts  are 


27,;  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

never  trained  a  great  many  horses  will  have  to  be  tamed,  for 
which 

Rarey's  Method  is  the  best.  It  consists  in  fastening  up  the 
left  fore  leg,  by  a  strap,  buckled  tight  over  the  ankle,  and  the 
arm  near  the  body,  and  the  second  strap  attached  to  the  right 
foot,  run  through  the  surcingle  to  the  right  hand  of  the  tamer, 
while  the  left  holds  the  bridle.  See  fig.  70.  The  horse  is  now 
harmless,  and  should  be  made  to  hop,  when  a  vigorous  pull 
with  the  right,  will  throw  him  on  to  his  knees,  where  he  can 
be  held  until  he  is  ready  to  turn  on  his  side,  which  he  should 
be  encouraged  to  do.  These  operations  will  take  from  fifteen 
minutes  to  three  hours,  according  to  the  strength  and  spirit  of 
the  horse.  ^When  once  fairly  down,  he  should  be  caressed, 
handled,  and  a  saddle  or  portions  of  the  harness  put  on  to  him 
until  he  finds  that  none  of  them  will  do  him  any  harm.  This 
throwing  should  be  repeated  several  times,  until  the  horse 
readily  submits,  and  allows  his  master  to  do  whatever  he  pleases. 
By  this  method  Mr.  Rarey  has  tamed  the  most  vicious  of  horses. 

How  TO  Stable,  Feed,  and  Groom  a  Horse.  No  man  has 
any  right  to  torture  a  dumb  animal.  It  is  poor  economy  to 
breed  disease  and  death,  in  so  valuable  an  animal  as  the  horse. 
Yet  both  these  things  are  done  in  most  stables.  They  are 
abodes  of  torture  and  death.  Each  horse  should  be  allowed,  at 
least,  six  by  nine  feet  of  stall  room,  that  he  may  have  room  to 
turn  about,  change  his  position,  lie  down,  or  stand  up,  as  he 
plea-ses,  during  the  long  weary  hours  that  he  is  a  prisoner.  The 
partition  between  these  stalls  should  be  solid,  only  the  height 
of  the  horse's  chest ;  the  balance  should  be  open  work.  In  this 
stall  he  should  not  be  tied  by  the  head,  as  this  prevents  the 
change  of  position,  of  which  we  speak.  He  should  be  allowed 
the  freedom  of  at  least  a  six  by  nine  feet  cell.  The  present 
-nethod  of  tying  a  horse  in  a  narrow  stall,  with  the  floor  slant- 


277 


HORSES  AND  MULES.  279 

ing  backwards,  is  the  cause  of  the  diseases  of  the  feet  and  joints, 
so  common  and  so  disastrous.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  floor 
slant  backward  to  save  the  urine,  but  the  horse  should  never 
be  forced  to  sleep,  or  stand  long,  in  that  position ;  if  he  has  the 
freedom  of  the  stall,  he  will  choose  his  own  position.  We 
allow  the  horse  nine  feet,  and  there  should  be  at  least  six  more 
to  the  stable  doors.  No  matter  how  many  horses  there  are,  no 
horse  should  have  less  than  this  space,  and  twelve  feet  in 
height.  It  is  a  thousand  times  better  to  have  no  loft  at  all 
over  the  horses,  to  give  them  the  clear  space  to  the  roof,  and 
light  and  air  their  stables  from  the  roof;  but  as  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  persuade  most  farmers  to  do  this  much  for  the 
health  and  comfort  of  the  animal  that  serves  him  so  faithfullv, 
we  will  say  that  no  stable  for  a  horse  should  be  one  inch  less 
than  twelve  feet  high,  well  lighted,  and  well  ventilated.  We 
do  not  mean  by  this  that  there  should  be  cracks  in  the  floor,  and 
doors,  and  sides,  by  which  cold  currents  of  air  are  let  in  upon 
the  poor  shivering  creature,  but  that  there  should  be  some 
regular  outlet  for  the  impure^  and  inlet  for  i\ie  pure  air. 

If  you  still  persist  in  having  a  loft  over  your  stable,  there 
should  be  left  at  least  a  space  of  three  feet,  between  the  loft 
and  the  back  of  the  stable,  and  this  space  opening  into  the  back 
of  the  stable  and  extending  to  a  ventilator  at  the  roof,  will 
carry  off  one  half  the  diseases  that  now  affect  your  horses. 
The  impure  air  that  most  horses  breathe,  is  a  most  flagrant 
violation  of  all  the  principles  of  health.  Shut  yourself  up  in  a 
contracted  room  for  months,  eat,  drink,  sleep,  urinate,  etc.,  in 
the  close  quarters,  and  how  long  before  you  would  wish  an  end 
to  your  existence  ?  But  the  lungs  of  the  horse  are  as  sensitive 
as  yours,  his  smell  is  keener,  his  eye  is  as  tender.  This  brings 
us  to  the  matter  of  light ;  blindness  in  horses  is  in  three  cases 
out  of  four  the  result  of  dark  stables. 


280  now   TO   MAKE  THE   FAEM   FAY. 

The  borse  can  see  in  the  dark,  but  not  in  total  darkness. 
Nothing  thrives  without  light.  The  stables  should  have  the 
sunlight  by  day,  and  whatever  light  there  is  at  night.  If  the 
best  plan  is  adopted  and  the  stables  run  to  the  roof,  they  can 
well  be  lighted  by  windows  in  the  roof.  But,  however  this 
may  be,  the  light  should  come  from  above  and  behind  the 
horse.  A  twelve  feet  stable  will  allow  of  a  window  over  the 
door,  for  there  should  be  a  door,  six  feet  wide  and  eight  feet 
high,  behind  each  horse ;  this  door  should  be  cut  in  halves, 
both  ways,  making  four  quarters,  either  one  or  all  of  which  can 
be  opened  or  closed  at  pleasure.  They  should  be  wide  and 
high,  in  order  that  there  might  be  no  danger  of  the  horse 
hitting  either  his  head,  or  his  hips,  in  going  out  and  in;  it 
should  be  divided  in  order  that  in  the  summer  the  upper  half 
can  be  kept  opened,  and  a  draft  of  cool  air  supplied. 

The  stable  should  be  cleaned  out  and  aired  every  morning, 
and,  if  the  horse  stands  in  it  at  all  during  the  day,  at  night  also. 
The  manure  should  not  only  be  shovelled  entirely  out  of  the 
stable,  but  the  floor  should  be  thoroughly  washed  down  with 
water,  as  recommended  in  the  chapter  on  manures,  not  only  to 
save  the  manure,  but  to  save  the  eyes,  nose,  and  lungs  of  the 
horse  from  the  ammonia  generated  by  tbe  fermenting  urine. 
This  ammonia  is  the  fruitful  cause  of  many  of  the  diseases  of 
the  horse.  Not  only  should  the  impure  air  be  as  far  as  possible 
excluded,  but  the  horse  absolutely  requires  fresh  air  if  you 
would  keep  him  in  a  state  of  health.  This  can  be  secured  by  a 
very  cheap  and  simple  contrivance.  An  air-box,  eight  inches 
square,  should  be  run  through  the  whole  length  of  the  building, 
each  end  being  open  to  the  air,  but  protected  by  a  screen  of 
slats  or  wire.  This  box  may  be  about  even  with  the  nostrils,  and 
openings,  an  inch  square,  made  in  it  in  each  stall.  In  most 
stables  the  mangers  are  too  high.     The  horse  naturally  eats  off 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  281 

the  ground.  This  brings  us  to  the  subject  of  Food.  The  pasture 
•is  the  natural  feeding-ground  of  the  horse.  Tender,  juicy  gr:iss 
and  twigs  are  his  natural  food.  His  teeth  are  soft,  his  throat, 
stomach,  and  intestines  are  sensitive.  In  feeding  the  horse, 
these  plain  facts  are  generally  overlooked  or  ignored.  No  posi- 
tive rule  for  feeding  all  horses  can  be  given  ;  but  the  foo'i 
should  be  soft,  juicy,  easily  digested.  It  should  be  clean  and 
sweet.  Clean,  fresh  water  should  be  always  within  his  reach. 
The  farmer's  horse  can  and  should  have  more  or  less  pasturage. 
When  the  grass  is  green  and  tender,  in  the  spring,  the  horse 
delights  in  it.  In  the  warm  summer  nights,  if  possible,  he 
should  be  permitted  to  roam  at  his  pleasure  in  the  pasture, 
rather  than  be  confined  in  the  heated  stable,  tormented  by  flies 
and  other  insects.  The  cool,  dewy  grass  will  be  very  beneficial 
to  him.  When  confined  in  the  stable  in  warm  weather,  the 
upper  half  of  the  stable  door  should  be  open,  and  he  be  free  to 
thrust  his  head  out  into  the  night  air  if  he  choose,  which  he  cer- 
tainly will.  We  have,  in  the  chapter  on  breeding,  referred  to 
the  food  necessary  for  the  marc  and  foal,  and  will  only  speak 
liere  of  the  food  of  working  horses. 

Too  much  hay  and  too  little  grain  is  the  mistake  in  feeding 
working  horses.  For  ordinary  work,  from  eight  to  ten  pounds 
of  hay,  (by  which  we  mean  the  best  of  hay,  properly  prepared,) 
and  twelve  quarts  of  good  heavy  oats  is  amply  sufficient  for 
regular  feed.  They  should  be  fed  with  a  lock  of  hay  and  a 
half-pail  of  water  on  opening  the  stable ;  and  when  the  stables 
have  been  cleaned  and  aired,  and  the  horse  groomed,  he  should 
have  the  other  half-pail  of  water,  and,  if  going  out,  six  quarts  of 
oats,  if  not,  four  quarts,  and,  after  these  are  eaten,  four  or  five 
pounds  of  hay.  Horses  should  be  watered,  if  convenient,  during 
the  forenoon,  and  certainly  at  noon,  when  they  should  have  four 
quarts  more  of  oats,  and  when  they  return  at  night,  should  be 


232  now  TO  MAKE  THE   FARM  PAT. 

cleaned,  watered,  and  have  their  oats  and  hay  without  foil.  Two 
or  three  pecks  of  clean  carrots,  turnip^,  beets,  or  potatoes,  a  few 
at  a  time,  will  be  grateful  to  them,  and  invaluable  in  regulating 
the  bowels  and  cooling  the  blood.  A  mash  of  stewed  bran  and 
oats  once  a  week  is  not  too  much  to  ask  for  such  a  faithful 
slave  and  will  tend  to  his  health  and  usefulness.  If  he  is  to  be 
put  to  severe  work,  the  amount  of  grain  must  be  increased  and 
of  hay  diminished. 

The  condition  in  which  the  hay  and  grain  is  given  is  another 
important  consideration.  The  natural  food  of  the  horse  is  soft 
and  j  uicy ;  hay,  oats  and  corn  are  hard,  harsh,  and  dry.  One 
third  less  fodder  is  necessary  where  it  is  moistened  and  softened. 
All  hay  for  the  horse  ought  to  be  chopped  and  moistened  an 
hour  before  feeding.  Oats  should  be  ground  and  mixed  with 
the  hay  in  the  form  of  provender.  Corn  should  never  be  given 
whole,  unless  steamed  or  soaked,  and  the  same  with  oats.  We 
repeat  that  this  is  economy,  as  two  thirds  of  the  amount  will  give 
the  horse  as  much  or  more  sustenance  than  before,  and  the  teeth 
and  digestive  organs  will  last  much  longer.  The  best  of  the 
grasses  for  the  horse  is  timothy,  then  herds  grass  and  clover. 
The  only  grain  suitable  is  the  oat.  Corn  should  always  be 
used  sparingly,  as  it  works  many  disorders  in  the  system,  as 
do  also  rye,  barley,  wheat,  and  bran.  If  any  of  these  are  used,  it 
should  be  ground,  with  oats  for  chopped  feed.  Some  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  tastes  of  the  horse.  If,  after  long  feeding 
with  one  continual  round  of  the  same  food,  he  loses  his  appetite, 
make  a  change.  Do  not  allow  your  horse  to  run  down  during 
the  cold  weather,  it  is  then  that  he  needs  the  best  of  food  and 
shelter.  If  he  works  hard  for  you  through  the  spring,  summer, 
and  fall,  you  owe  him  a  good  winter's  keep,  and  you  lessen  his 
vigor,  and  shorten  his  term  of  usefulness,  if  you  deny  it  to  him. 
The  natural  age  of  the  horse  is  forty  years,  and  at  twenty  a  horse 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  2^'6 

should  be  in  his  prime.  Steady  and  severe  labor  need  not  wear 
out  the  horse  before  this  time,  if  he  be  properly  cared  for  from 
the  hour  of  his  conception,  through  all  the  stages  of  liis  exist- 
ence. This  sounds  strangely,  because  the  carelessness  and 
cruelty,  the  meanness  and  ignorance  of  man,  has  shortened  by 
more  than  one  half  the  natural  term  of  his  existence. 

The  horse  delights  to  be  the  faithful  servant,  slave,  and  friend 
of  man.  He  will  tax  his  strength  and  powers  of  endurance  to 
the  utmost,  at  the  bidding  of  his  master.  Such  faithfulness 
should  be  returned  by  kindness  ajid  attention.  Harsh  words, 
kicks  and  blows  for  every  supposed  offence  of  the  unreasoning 
creature,  are  marks  of  a  most  contemptible  character. 

In  addition  to  stabling  and  feeding,  Grooming  the  Horse  is 
of  more  importance  than  is  usually  allowed  among  farmers. 
Grooming  is  hard,  tedious,  disagreeable  business,  and  is, 
therefore,  very  much  neglected.  Daily  grooming  is  absolutely 
essential  to  the  health  of  the  horse  in  his  imprisoned  state.  The 
dust  of  the  stable,  and  the  mud  of  the  street,  will  soon  stop  up 
the  pores  of  the  skin  without  grooming.  Except  in  cold  and 
stormy  weather,  the  horse  should  be  groomed  out  of  doors 
between  his  feeds  in  the  morning. 

Every  portion  of  the  body  should  be  combed,  and  rubbed,  and 
brushed,  and  in  warm  weather  sponged.  And  here  Ave  would 
protest  against  the  universal  use  of  the  curry  comb.  Some 
horses  do  not  mind  it,  even  like  it,  but  to  some  horses  with  ten 
der  skins  it  is  an  implement  of  torture,  and  instead  of  being 
glad  to  be  groomed  they  shrink  and  shy,  and  perhaps  kick  ana 
bite,  and  are  severely  punished  as  vicious.  Try  the  same  im- 
plement on  your  own  skin  and  see  how  you  like  it.  When  a 
horse  is  thus  sensitive  to  the  curry  comb  it  should  only  be  used 
to  comb  the  mane  and  tail,  and  to  scratch  the  legs,  and  a  hair 

cloth  and  brush  used  for  grooming.  Savs  Herbert,  *'  In  ordinary 
18 


2S4  HOW  TO   MAKE    THE   FARM    PAY. 

cleaning  in  the  morning  the  head  should  be  first  dressed.  The 
hair  should  be  lifted  and  deranged  lightly,  not  stretched  or 
torn  with  the  curry  comb ;  and  then  rubbed  well,  in  all  direc- 
tions, both  against  and  across  the  grain  of  the  hair  as  well  as 
Kith  it,  until  it  is  entirely  clean  from  dust  and  dandruff.  The 
tars  should  be  gently  stripped  and  pulled  with  the  hand  from 
the  roots  to  the  points;  and  the  whole  head  should  then  be 
washed  snftoothly  and  evenly  as  the  hair  ought  to  lie.  The 
neck,  back,  shoulders,  loins,  croup,  and  quarters  follow,  the 
same  plan  being  used,  except  that  in  dressing  these  parts,  while 
the  comb  is  used  lightly  and  dexterously  with  one  hand,  the 
hrvlkh  is  employed  in  removing  the  scurf  with  the  other.  The 
flexures  of  the  skin  at  the  insertion  of  the  limbs  are  parts  that 
require  especial  care,  as  the  dust  is  most  apt  to  collect  in  these 
places. 

"  This  done  the  horse  must  be  thoroughly  wisped  all  over  with 
bunches  of  dry  straw  till  his  coat  is  quite  clean  and  glossy, 
when  it  may  be  gone  over  for  the  last  time  with  a  fine  soft 
brush  or  a  light  duster."  When  he  is  broughi  m  from  his 
daily  toil  and  stabled  for  the  night,  the  process  should  be  care- 
fully repeated ;  all  mud,  sand,  and  dirt  must  be  removed  from 
the  legs  and  belly,  and  the  legs  rubbed  by  hand  until  they  are 
warm. 

The  horse  should  have  a  good  bed  of  clean  litter,  straw,  or 
sawdust,  not  deep,  biit  with  room  for  him  to  lie  in  any  position 
that  stiits  him.  Most  horses  should  be  blanketed  in  cold 
weather,  but  to  some  horses  a  blanket  is  an  annoyance  and  pre- 
vents rest.  As  rest  is  what  the  horse  needs  after  his  day's  labor, 
he  should  be  accommodated  by  allowing  him  to  go  without  his 
blanket. 

The  practice  of  singeing  and  clipping  horses  in  the  fall  is 
abominable  and  dangerous.  Just  as  his  master  is  about  to  put  on 


HORSES    AND    MULES.  285 

his  flannels  and  great  coat  his  horse  is  deprived  of  the  warm 
hair  that  has  been  growing  for  his  protection  against  the  winter 
chills,  and  disease  is  almost  surely  the  consequence. 

The  practice  of  clipping  the  fetlocks  is  undoubtedly  bad,  as 
the  heel  of  the  horse  is  tender,  and  when  exposed  is  subject  to 
many  diseases.  Nature  has  provided  the  fetlock  as  a  protection, 
and  as  such  let  it  remain.  Never  in  grooming  dash  cold  water 
upon  the  legs  of  the  horse.  Use  water  with  a  sponge;  or  after 
washing  with  soap  and  warm  water,  cold  water  may  be  turned  on 
the  back  from  a  watering-pot  to  rinse  off  the  suds  ahd  shut  the 
pores. 

This  should  never  be  done  in  the  stable  where  the  horse  has 
to  sleep,  unless  there  be  u  chance  to  air  it  and  dry  it  before 
night. 

How  TO  Buy,  Use,  and  Sell  a  Horse.  It  is  useless  to 
try  to  buy  a  very  good  horse  at  a  very  low  price.  People  do 
not  exchange  gold  dollars  for  dimes.  A  perfect  horse,  thanks 
to  bad  breeding,  bad  training,  and  bad  care,  is  a  rare  thing,  and 
is  not  parted  with  except  for  a  fair  equivalent.  If  the  horse  is 
well  and  sound,  and  is  offered  low,  be  sure  he  has  been  spoiled 
in  training,  and  will  fail  you  when  you  noed  him  most.  Men 
will  prevaricate  and  deceive  in  regard  to  a  horse,  who  would 
not  in  other  things — for  such  is  the  common  custom — so  the 
buyer  must  always  judge  for  himself.  The  eye  should  be  ex- 
amined from  the  front,  with  the  head  a  little  shaded.  If  there 
are  any  white,  filmy  spots,  or  streaks,  on  the  eye,  it  denotes 
inflammation,  which  is  likely  to  return,  and  detracts  from  the 
value  of  the  animal.  Next  to  the  eyes,  or  rather  before  them 
in  importance,  is  the  condition  of  the  lungs.  Owing  to  our 
miserable  stables,  a  large  proportion  of  our  horses  are  more  or 
'ess  diseased  in  the  lungs. 

Broken  AVind  will  be  detected  by  galloping  a  horse  up  hill 


2-,;  now  TO   MAKK   THE   FARA    PAY. 

a  huli.Jr.jd  yards,  and  then  jumping  oat;  apply  the  ear  to  the 
chest,  and  a  double  expiration  will  be  heard.  Thick  AVind, 
roaring,  and  wljislling,  are  only  the  earlier  stages  of  broken 
wind,  and  can  be  detected  by  the  above  process.  Another 
rnetliod  of  detecting  these  defects,  is  to  grasp  the  throat  from 
the  front,  and  compress  it  until  he  is  forced  to  cough.  A  sound 
borsi?  will  cough  once,  and  recover  his  wind  with  a  clear,  sonor- 
ous inhalation  and  exhalation.  The  diseased  horse  will  utter  a 
broken,  rattling  cough,  and  recover  his  breath  with  a  long, 
wlieezing,  laVjorious  rattle. 

Defkcts  ix  the  Legs  and  Feet  cannot  always  -be  dis- 
.-overed,  but  there  are  certain  marks  that  surely  indicate  them. 
White  spots  on  the  knees  show  that  the  horse  has  broken  his 
knees  at  some  time  or  other,  and  as  it  is  usually  by  falling, 
which  is  likely  to  occur  again,  the  chances  are  that  a  broken 
kneed  horse  is  a  stumbler.  Says  Herbert,  "  In  examining  the 
legs  of  a  horse,  the  purchaser  should  first  stand  with  his  face  to 
the  broadside  of  the  horse  as  he  stands  on  flat  ground,  and  ob- 
serve whether  he  rests  perpendicularly  on  all  his  legs,  having 
the  natural  proportion  of  his  weight  on  each  leg  stmightly, 
squarely,  and  directly ;  or  whether  he  stands  with  all  his  legs 
8tradd4cd  outside  of  their  true  aplomb  ;  or  with  all  drawn  to- 
gether under  the  centre  of  his  belly,  as  if  he  were  trying  to 
stick  them  all  into  a  hat;  or  lastly,  whether  he  favors  one.  or 
more  of  his  legs,  either  by  pointing  it  forward,  or  by  placing  it 
in  any  position  in  which  no  weight  at  all,  or  a  very  small  stress 
of  weiglit,  is  thrown  upon  it.  A  horse  may  apparently  favor 
one  foot  accidentally  from  a  casual  impatience  or  restlessness. 
He  is  not  therefore  to  be  rejected  because  he  points  a  toe, once 
or  twice.  But  if  he  seem  to  do  so  he  should  be  constantly 
brought  back  to  his  original  position,  in  which  he  must  bear 
equally  on  each  foot,  wlicn,  if  he  be  found  constantly  to  favor 


HORSES    AXD    MULES.  287 

the  same  foot  in  tlie  sanio  manner,  sometliing  seri(^us  must  ha 
suspected  which  gives  the  liorse  uneasiness  and  pain,  tliough  not 
perhaps  sufTicient  in  degree  to  produce  present  lameness. 

If  the  toe  of  a  fore  foot  be  pointed  forward  it  indicates  disease 
of  the  coffin  bone,  almost  incurable.  If  botli  fore  feet  are  thrown 
forward  and  botli  hind  I'cct  thrown  back  it  indicates  founder. 
If  with  all  his  feet  drawn  together  under  him  lie  is  used  up.  If 
his  knees  beid  forward  and  his  legs  tremble  he  has  been  knocked 
up  with  hard  work  or  hard  driving. 

CuiiiiY  IIocKS,  or  a  protuberance  at  the  commencement  of  the 
shank  bone  are  objectionable  in  young  horses.  After  tlic  side 
view  take  a  front  view,  and  see  that  the  horse  is  not  bow  legged  or 
knock  kneed.  Sl'LENTS  are  small  pieces  of  bone  extending  from 
the  shanks,  and  if  so  near  the  knee  as  to  interfere  with  the  ac- 
tion of  the  joint,  or  so  far  back  as  to  interfere  with  the  sinews, 
will  produce  lameness.  The  Back  Sinews  sometimes  give  way, 
and  although  healed  are  never  as  good  as  new.  Run  the  hand 
downward  from  the  knee  to  the  fetlock  with  the  nail-  of  the 
thumb  and  middle  finger  in  the  groove  between  the  bone  and 
sinew.  If  the  sheath  be  round,  hard,  straight,  and  even,  well; 
but  if  there  are  knots,  or  soft  places,  something  is  wrong;  if 
pinched  at  these  places  the  horse  will  wince. 

lilNGBONE  is  a  bony  excresence  around  the  foot,  just  above 
the  hoof.  It  is  one  of  the  worst  of  defects.  Sidebone  is  the 
same,  only  it  extends  but  part  way  ar<mnd  the  hoof.  Bone 
spavin  is  a  bony  excrescence  on  the  inside  of  the  hock-joint,  and 
can  he  discovered  by  the  hand.  Bog  spavin  occurs  a  little  inside 
and  below  the  bone  spavin  ;  it  is  a  collection  of  the  fluid  that 
lubricates  the  joint,  and  gives  under  the  pressure  of  the  liaiil. 
Blood  spavin  is  of  the  same  nature,  and  detected  in  the  sann  way. 
These  are  sufficient  rea.sons  for  refusing  to  purchase  a  horse. 
The  Age  of  a  IIorse  cannot  be  told  by  his  teeth,  if  he  be 


2^8  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

iironerly  fed.  The  cruelly  which  makes  the  soitioothed 
horse  eat  hard  haj,  grain,  and  corn,  causes  his  teeth  to  wear 
down,  and  in  proportion  as  they  are  worn  down,  his  age  is  cal- 
culated. A  horse,  properly  fed,  at  twenty  years,  should  have 
as  goml  teeth  as  most  horses  now  do  at  ten  years. 

How  TO  USE  A  Horse;  as  not  abusing  it.  Overworking  is 
a  common  method  of  abuse.  Do  not  overwork  the  mare  with  a 
foal ;  neither  work  the  colt  too  early ;  for  every  year  that  you 
delay  putting  the  colt  to  hard  work,  you  will  gain  two  years  in 
bis  longer  usefulness.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  colt  that  is 
not  put  to  hard  work,  till  six  years  old,  will  be  as  good  at  fifteen, 
as  another  will  at  ten,  if  put  to  work  at  three  years  old.  Never 
pair  a  strong  horse  with  a  feeble  horse.  Make  your  loads  suit- 
able to  the  roads  you  have  to  go  on,  and  do  not  strain  your 
bor.se  through  a  quag  or  plowed  field  with  the  same  load  you 
consider  sufficient  for  level  ground.  Beating  a  horse  is  usually 
worse  than  useless.  Never  allow  a  hired  man  to  strike  a  horse 
a  blow.  Absolutely  forbid  it,  and  discharge  a  man  for  it  as  you 
would  for  picking  your  pocket.  The  cruelty  of  men  to  these 
poor  dumb  beasts  is  not  only  barbarous  and  sickening,  but  is 
also  ruinous.  Millions  of  dollars  worth  of  horse  flesh  is  ruined 
by  these  brutal  punishments.  The  horse  kindly  treated  delights 
to  serve  bis  master,  and  will  strain  every  nerve  to  accomplish 
his  commands.  Brutality  only  causes  fear  and  stubbornness, 
Striking  a  horse  with  a  hoe,  shovel,  or  other  tool,  kicking  in 
the  abdomen,  striking  with  a  club,  and  such  punishments,  are 
acta  of  which  any  decent  man  will  never  be  guilty.  Kicking  a 
mare  with  foal  is  so  perfectly  abhorrent  that  it  seems  as  if  no 
man  would  ever  do  it;  but  it  is  done,  always  to  the  injury, 
and  often  to  the  death  of  the  foal.  Slitting  and  cropping  the 
ears,  nicking  and  docking  the  tail,  are  cruelties  that  ought  to  be 
wholly  abandoned.     The  horse  is  not  absolutely  your  property 


^  y-  y^"^  —  ^  JC  7^_wO  Jv  »-•  O  <o  -4  r-  Iji  —  i»  O  ac  -~j  C5  tn  *■  Ci  lO  »-  O  t 


c  r  -I 


-  -5  "^  if  £  c  c  c  '-■  r"  c  r"  «-^  '*  n:  c  ?■ 
. '  :■  -  o  -  =  ?  :<  V,  X  '     o    -•  .■* 


j  —  —  —  o 


«i-^ 


'^  "^Q* 


00  M^  en  1^  U  to  ■i' 

c/i  r<  F-  .-•  ^  p  r  Q 

r.  y. :-  -  ^  5  3 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  291 

like  a  board,  wliich  you  may  saw,  cut,  burn,  or  nail  at  your 
pleasure.  Nor  have  you  a  right  to  sell  a  horse  to  one  whom 
you  know  to  be  a  hard,  cruel  master.  When  you  sell  never 
cover  up  or  hide  any  defects ;  state  fairly  the  good  and  bad 
qualities  of  your  horse,  and  set  your  price;  if  bought  on  your 
terms,  no  warranty  is  necessary,  and  no  lawsuifs  will  follow. 
To  sell  an  unsound  horse  for  sound  is  a  transaction  of  the  same 
nature  as  passing  a  counterfeit  note,  and  no  upright  man,  if  he 
looks  at  the  subject  rightly,  will  do  it.  The  good  points  of  a 
draught  horse  are  :  large  feet  and  legs ;  square  shoulders ;  a 
broad,  muscular  neck,  strong  and  thick  at  the  junction  with  the 
shoulders ;  a  round,  wide  breast ;  short  legs ;  short  upright  pas- 
tern ;  a  short  back ;  large,  broad  hindquarters ;  a  short  thigh, 
with  strong  muscles ;  (if  the  muscles  here  are  weak  and  thin, 
the  horse  is  defective.)  Such  a  horse  as  we  have  described  is 
only  fit  for  draught.  As  most  farm  operations  require  a  steady, 
slow  movement,  a  heavy  team  is  better  than  a  light  one.  A 
horse  weighing  seven  hundred  might  be  just  as  strong  as  one 
weighing  fourteen  hundred,  and  yet  he  will  not  be  able  to 
haul  a  load  with  the  same  ease,  and  would  need  a  stronger 
hames,  and  stronger  whiffletree.  A  light  liorse,  drawing  a 
heavy  load,  must  move  quick  and  expend  great  muscular  force; 
while  the  heavy  horse,  hauling  the  same  load,  does  it  largely  by 
the  momentum  of  his  body.  The  momentum  of  a  heavy  team 
tends  to  keep  a  load  in  motion  ;  whereas  a  light  team  must  do 
it  with  their  muscles,  which  is  very  exhausting.  As  to  mares  or 
geldings  for  teams,  a  recent  writer  states,  that  when  he  had  only 
a  few  acres  of  land  to  plow,  he  found  a  team  of  good  mares  the 
most  profitable.  He  had  them  drop  their  foal  before  they  were 
needed  for  spring  labor,  or  else  after  their  spring  labor  had  been 
done,  and  thus  got  two  good  colts  annaally.  which  in  good  part 
paid  the  expense  of  keeping  the  team.  We  should  say  that  such  a 


292  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

team  should  only  be  in  the  hands  of  a  most  careful  and  reliable 
workman.  In  case  a  farmer  keeps  two  teams,  one  of  mares  and 
one  of  geldings,  he  can  give  the  latter  the  heavy  work  and  the 
mares  the  light  work,  usually  to  good  advantage.  Says  S.  E. 
Todd,  "  Horses  can  turn  the  grindstone,  do  the  churning,  pitch 
our  hay,  hoe  our  corn,  dig  our  potatoes,  and  do  almost  any  thing 
else,  and  do  it  with  ease,  and  keep  fat,  too,  if  we  will  only  think 
foT  them,  and  give  them  the  word  to  go  ahead  and  to  stop. 
Our  business  is  to  think,  and  it  is  theirs  to  do  the  work.  When 
[  see  a  little  man  lifting  and  tugging,  hour  after  hour,  to  load  a 
few  tons  of  hay,  and  get  it  on  the  mow,  while  he  has  two  fat 
horses  standing  idle,  which  could  do  it  in  a  few  minutes,  I 
always  think,  what  a  dunce  you  are,  to  make  such  a  beast  of 
burden  of  yourself,  when  the  Creator  has  given  you  such  strong 
nninials  to  perform  your  hard  labor." 

It  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  with  a  little  exercise  of  ingenu- 
ity, and  a  small  outlay  for  tackle,  nearly  all  of  this  hard  labor 
can  be  done  by  the  horses.  Every  thing  that  can  lessen  the 
hard  labor  of  the  farm,  is  worthy  of  consideration,  and 
especially  every  thing  that  will  save  time,  during  the  busy  season 
of  harvest. 

Anatomy  of  the  Hokse.  The  precediug  cut,  {Fig.  71  A.) 
gives  a  correct  representation  of  the  frame  of  the  horse,  and  the 
position  of  the  different  parts,  of  which  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  speak,  in  treating  of  the  diseases  of  the  horse.  The  skeleton 
is  composed  of  two  hundred  and  forty-seven  separate  bones, 
thirty-one  of  which  are  in  the  spine,  thirty-seven  in  the  thorax, 
three  in  the  pelvis,  seventeen  in  the  tail,  the  fore  extremities 
forty,  the  hind  extremities  thirty-eight,  the  cranium  ten,  face 
and  jaws  eighteen,  teeth  forty,  ears  eight,  tongue  five. 

The  hoofs  are  the  foundation,  and  hold  the  coffin  bone  (31), 
resting  on  this  is  the  lower  pastern  bone  (30),  with  an  opening 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  293 

in  the  back,  holding  the  navicular  bone  (132).  Next  is  the  upper 
pastern  bone  (29),  ujwn  which  rest>j  the  shank  bone  (24),  wiih 
the  sessamoid  bone  (27,  28).  The  knee  joint  has  seven,  some- 
times eight  bones.  Back  of,  and  just  belo\7  the  knee,  is  a  small 
thin  bone,  extending  down  the  front  shank,  nearly  its  whole 
length,  called  the  splint  bone  of  the  foreleg  (25,  26).  Above 
the  knee  is  the  main  bone  of  the  leg,  called  the  radius  or  the 
arm  (15),  above  the  arm  the  elbow  (16),  and  still  higher  the 
humerus  or  shoulder  bone  (I'i).  In  the  hind  leg,  the  bones  are 
the  same  until  we  reach  the  hock  joint,  which  has  six  bones. 
The  shank  has  two  splint  bones.  Above  the  hock  joint  is  the 
tibia,  the  largest  oi'  all  the  bones  (38).  The  stifle  joint  is 
formed  by  the  tibia,  and  the  femur  or  thigh  bone,  which  is  next 
above  (87).  It  is  covered  in  front  b}^  the  knee  pan  or  2^<^l^'i^ 
(v).  The  six  bones  of  the  hips  complete  the  bones  of  the  legs. 
The  bones  of  the  head  and  neck  are  easily  comprehended,  by 
an  examination  of  the  skeleton.  The  bones  of  the  skull,  are 
thin  plates  locked  or  dovetailed  together,  to  prevent  displace- 
ment. The  head  and  neck  are  joined  at  (e),  by  the  ligament, 
known  as  whit-leather,  and  it  is  here,  that  Poll  Evil  and  Fistula 
have  their  origin.  The  bones  of  the  spine  are  linked  together 
by  lock-joints.  The  scapula  or  shoulder  blade  unites  the  fore- 
leg to  the  frame  (13).  Some  of  the  above  bones  are  solid, 
others  hollow,  while  the  ends  or  heads  of  all  the  bones  that 
form  the  joints,  and  all  the  small  bones  of  which  the  joints  arc 
composed,  are  spongy,  as  are  also  the  ribs,  shoulder  blades,  and 
back  portions  of  the  jaw  bones.  It  is  in  these  spongy  bones 
that  diseases  make  their  appearance. 

The  movements  of  all  these  bones  are  governed  by  the  mus- 
cles and  tendons,  the  muscles  all  ending  in  tendons,  and  being 
joined  to  the  bones  by  cartilages.  The  strength  of  the  horse 
is  in  the  muscles,  and  they  should  be  full  and  hard.     They  are 


294  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

composed  of  fibrine  and  albumen,  the  latter  slieathing  eacb 
muscle,  preventing  friction,  loosens  and  lubricates  the  fibres, 
assists  their  growth,  and  renders  them  elastic  and  flexible  ;  and 
the  food  should  be  such  as  to  give  the  largest  amount  of  muscle. 

The  horse  is  lined  with  membranes.  They  form  a  fine  coat- 
ing over  the  bones,  the  brains,  bowels,  kidneys,  heart,  lungs, 
and  line  all  the  cavities  of  the  body. 

The  constr.uction  of  the  skin,  and  the  purposes  it  serves,  are 
the  sjmie  as  in  other  domestic  animals,  and  will  be  treated  of, 
as  will  other  portions  of  the  system,  in  the  specific  chapters 
'  relating  to  diseases. 

Diseases  of  the  Bones.  Big  head  and  big  jaw,  are  the 
result  mainly  of  bad  food  and  bad  treatment,  although  water 
and  climate  favor  its  development.  It  is  mostly  confined  to 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Alabama, 
where  the  horse  is  fed  through  many  months,  often  on  corn  and 
corn  stalks,  dirty,  rotten,  and  mouldy,  from  standing  too  long 
in  the  field.  Says  Stewart,  in  the  '■'•American  Farmer's  JSorse 
Booh,''  (the  best  authority  on  the  horse  in  this  country,)  "  On 
such  food,  two  thirds  of  the  horses  at  the  South  are  compelled 
to  live,  and  as  a  consequence,  more  than  one  half  of  them  suffer 
continually  from  fever.  No  wonder  they  have  Big  head,  and 
every  other  disease  that  horse  flesh  is  heir  to  ;  the  only  marvel 
is,  that  they  are  ever  well,  or  indeed  that  they  live  at  all.  Tc 
feed  them  corn  exclusively  is  bad  enough,  but  when  that  corn 
i.s  rotten,  and  eked  out  by  mouldy  fodder,  the  condition  of  the 
poor  animals  is  deplorable." 

To  Dr.  Stewart  belongs  the  credit  of  discovering  the  causes 
and  applying  the  remedies  to  this  disease.  In  its  first  stages,  it 
may  be  detected  by  running  the  thumb  up  under  the  lip,  beside 
the  under  jaw  bone.  The  symj  toms  are,  an  enlargement  of  nasal 
bone,  the  skin  and  muscles  of  the  head  harden,  and  pulling  the 


HORSES  AST)    MULES.  295 

lips  fails  to  move  tbem  ;  there  is  a  constant  sleepiness  wliilo 
standing,  a  drawing  up  of  the  feet,  running  eyes,  stilY  joints, 
hard,  dry  skin,  and  great  diHiculty  in  voiding  the  dung,  -which 
is  hard,  black,  and  dry.  The  appetite  continues  good.  The 
treatment  should  commence  as  soon  as  the  symptoms  are  dis- 
covered. It  consists,  first,  in  bleeding.  "Where  the  disease  is  in 
its  early  stages,  take  three  pints  of  blood  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks,  in  bad  cases  two  or  three  quarts  at  intervals  of  a  week. 
After  bleeding,  apply  corrosive  liniment,  with  a  small  mop,  to 
the  parts  affected.  The  liniment  should  then  be  dried  in  with 
a  hot  iron  held  near  the  skin,  but  in  no  case  allowed  to  touch. 
In  mild  cases  apply  for  two  weeks  every  other  day.  In  severe 
cases,  use  it  every  other  day  of  every  other  week,  until  diges- 
tion becomes  improved,  which  is  the  sign  of  success.  To  relieve 
the  other  portions  of  the  body,  give  the  horse  a,  tablespoonful 
of  stramonium  three  times  a  week,  every  other  week,  as  Idng  as 
it  may  seem  necessary.  Stramonium  is  the  seed  of  the  thorn 
apple  or  jimson  weed  ;  it  is  the  best  known  -horse  medicine. 
The  horse  should  be  allowed  rest,  quiet,  and  good  housing 
until  fully  recovered. 

Former  methods  of  treating  this  disease  by  extracting  teeth, 
burning,  etc.,  were  barbarous,  and  are  now  worse  than  useless. 

SwiNNEY,  or  inflamation  of  the  shoulder  or  hip,  is  caused  by 
a  strain,  and  aggravated  by  diseases  of  the  feet.  The  symptoms, 
at  first,  appear  only  in  the  feet  and  legs,  but  may  be  distin- 
guished from  founder  by  the  animal's  unwillingness  to  lie  down 
and  his  evident  suffering  when  compelled  to  do  so  by  exhaus- 
tion. There  is  great  fever  at  the  shoulder,  the  flesh  becomes 
hard,  and  the  skin  adheres.  At  this  stage  apply  the  corrosive 
liniment  three  or  four  times  a  week,  for  a  month  or  so,  or 
until  the  symptoms  disappear.  The  second  stage  of  swinney  is 
called  big  shoulder ;  the  flesh  and  tendons  of  the  breast  shrink 


296  now  TO  make  farming  pay. 

and  tbe  bone  at  the  shoulder  joint  grows  larger.  The  feet  are 
nearly  always  diseased,  and  no  cure  can  be  effected  until  the 
feet  are  restored  to  a  more  healthy  condition,  for  which,  {see 
Diseases  of  the  Feet,)  at  the  same  time,  apply  the  corrosive  lini- 
ment to  the  shoulder,  and  loosen  the  skin  by  rubbing  and  pull- 
ing it  daily. 

BoxE  Spavin  is  an  enlargement  on  the  inside  of  the  hock, 
below  the  joint,  and  is  usually  ruinous  to  the  horse  unless 
promptly  treated.  It  is  caused  either  by  a  blow  or  a  sprain, 
and  is  transmitted  by  breeding.  Undoubtedly,  hard  usage, 
improperly  constructed  stables,  and  other  abuses,  aggravate  the 
disease. 

Never  breed  from  a  sprained  stud  or  mare,  and  do  not  let 
the  colt  run  too  soon,  or  too  much,  on  the  roads.  The  symp- 
toms of  spavin  are  so  plain  that  the  man  who  takes  care  of  the 
horse,  and  does  not  discover  it  in  its  earliest  stages,  must  be  a 
very  careless  observer.  The  lameness  is  irregular ;  the  horse 
will  step  lame  in  the  morning,  or  after  standing  for  some  time ; 
sometimes  a  bunch  appears,  but  often  not  for  many  weeks ;  the 
difliculty  will  gradually  increase  and  the  joint  become  stiff.  On 
observing  any  symptoms  of  it,  make  an  examination,  and  the 
enlargement  may  be  felt  by  the  hand.  Give  the  horse  rest  at 
once,  and  apply  the  corrosive  liniment  four  times  a  week  every 
other  week,  as  long  as  necessary.  The  blister  and  the  applica- 
tion of  mercurial  salve  is  often  beneficial,  but  all  cutting,  firing, 
or  other  barbarous  uses  are  to  be  condemned.  If  not  attended 
to,  in  its  early  stages,  it  readily  becomes  incurable. 

Lameness  of  the  Hock  should  be  treated  with  the  corrosive 
liniment,  and,  in  case  it  is  broken,  perfect  rest  is  the  only  cure. 
Ring  Bone  occurs  at  the  cof&n-joint,  and  admits  of  cure  in  its 
early  stages,  but  not  afterwards.  It  is  often  bred,  and  often 
caused  by  a  bad  formation  of  the  legs.     Eest  and  treatment, 


HORSES    AND    MULES.  297 

the  same  as  for  spavin,  should  be  given  upon  its  Qrst  appear- 
ance. Club  foot  is  simply  the  worst  stage  of  ring  bone.  Stifle 
or  lameness  of  the  stifle  joint,  as  well  as  all  bruises  and  injuries 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  stifle  joint  or  patella,  induces  heat  and 
tenderness,  which  increase,  if  the  horse  continue  to  be  used,  to 
terrible  suffering  and  permanent  injury.  Give  immediate  rest 
and  an  application  of  corrosive  liniment  every  other  day  for  a 
week  or  ten  days.  Splint  is  an  enlargement  on  the  splint 
bone,  and  usually  interferes  but  little  with  the  usefulness  or 
comfort  of  the  horse,  except  a  little  inflammation  at  first.  Apply 
a  lotion  (see  Remedies)  to  a  pad,  fastening  it  over  the  spot,  and 
moisten  often  until  inflammation  subsides.  When  a  splint  inter- 
feres with  a  tendon  or  appears  to  be  troubling  a  horse,  give  a 
few  applications  of  the  corrosive  liniment. 

Stumbling  is  the  effect  of  a  bad  formation  of  the  joints  and 
limbs  and  not  a  vice.  Sway  back  is  a  deformity  caused  by 
riding  a  colt  before  it  is  strong  enough  to  bear  such  a  weight. 

There  are  various  other  bone  diseases  which  require  the 
skill  of  an  educated  veterinarian,  and  if  a  serious  lameness 
cannot  be  traced  to  any  part  a  veterinary  surgeon  had  best  be 
consulted.  Most  of  these  lamenesses  are  the  result  of  misuse ; 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  them.  Loads  should  be 
moderated  to  the  strength  of  the  animal.  The  horse  is  not 
matured  until  eight  years  of  age,  and  should  never  be  taxed 
to  his  full  strength  previous  to  this  time.  The  appointments 
of  the  stable  should  be  such  as  to  preclude  accidents  to  the 
limbs. 

Diseases  of  the  Feet  are  among  the  most  injurious,  as 
v/ell  as  the  most  painful,  to  which  the  horse  is  subject;  and 
when  it  is  discovered  that  there  is  any  trouble  with  the  feet,  its 
cause  should  be  at  once  discovered,  and  prompt  measui-es  taken 
for  relief.     Most  diseases  of  the  feet,  if  taken  in  their  earliest 


298  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FAKM   PAY. 

stases,  can  be  so  fiir  subdued,  as  to  preserve  the  usefulness  of 
the  horse.  This  is  not  only  economy,  but  mercy  likewise. 
Navicular  Disease,  so  called,  is  a  disease  of  the  small  bone, 
forming  the  projection  of  the  heel,  and  resting  upon  the  frog. 
Severe  bruises  upon  the  frog,  by  stones,  frozen  earth,  and  the 
like,  extend  to  this  bone,  and  disease  sets  in.  A  horse  appa- 
rently sound,  suddenly  becomes  lame  in  one  of  the  fore  feet. 
No  cause  is  discernible ;  he  points  the  toe  out  several  inches, 
whether  standing  or  travelling ;  in  travelling  the  toe  is  made  to 
'  touch  the  ground  before  the  heel;  the  horse  favors  that  foot,  at 
all  times;  no  enlargement,  or  inflammation,  are  discovered. 
This  is  the  first  stage,  and  a  cure  is  now  wholly  Avithin  your 
power,  if  you  act  at  once.  In  the  coursfe  of  a  week  or  two,  the 
lameness,  which  was  slight,  disappears,  and  is  forgotten,  but  ere 
long  it  appears  again,  with  renewed  violence.  There  is  now  an 
ulcer  on  the  navicular  bone,  and,  like  an  ulcerated  tooth,  is  a 
most  painl'ul  affliction;  the  horse  is  in  agony ;  every  step  is  con- 
centrated agony.  The  navicular  bone  begins  to  decay,  the  hoof 
shrinks,  and  fracture  of  the  bone,  or  rupture  of  the  hoof,  end 
the  usefulness  of  the  animal.  It  often  leads  to  rmgho7ie,  foot 
evil,  narraiv  heel,  thrush,  greasy  heel,  hoof  rot,  sand  crack,  and 
other  afflictions  of  the  feet.  As  a  prevention,  the  frog  should 
be  kept  from  the  ground  by  paring  the  frog,  and  by  refraining 
to  pare  down  the  hoof  behind ;  or,  when  necessary,  putting 
leather  under  the  shoe  at  the  back,  as  is  recommended  by 
English  farriers. 

The  treatment,  in  the  first  stage  of  the  disease,  is  simple 
enough.  Put  the  horse  in  the  stable  yard,  or  in  the  stable,  if 
it  gives  room  for  him  to  choose  his  own  position  at  his  pleasure. 
Feed  liberally  of  grain,  to  keep  up  the  vigor  of  the  body,  soak 
the  foot  an  hour,  in  hot  or  warm  water,  every  other  night  for  a 
fortnight,  and  apply  the   corrosive  liniment  the    intervening 


HORSES  AXD  MULES.  291' 

aiglits.  After  another  fortnight's  rest,  tlie  work  may  be  re- 
sumed. But  if  the  disease  is  neglected  at  first,  and  ulcers 
allowed  to  form,  treatment  becomes  much  more  difficult  and 
uncertain.  The  object  now  is  to-  form  an  abscess,  and  thus  an 
outlet  for  the  ulcerated  matter.  Apply  the  liniment  to  the  frog, 
the  bottom  and  back  part  of  the  foot,  and  also  to  the  heel.  Cut 
out  any  decayed  matter  from  the  bottom  of  the  foot  and  appl^ 
the  liniment  freely.  Continue  this  course  until  the  foot  re- 
covers, whether  it  be  two  months  or  six.  If  you  can  produce 
a  discharge  of  the  ulcerated  matter  a  cure  is  sure.  Keep  his  con- 
dition good.  Give  him  a  dose  of  sulphur  {see  Remedies)  every 
other  day  for  a  week.  If  the  treatment  does  not  produce  an 
abscess  or  subdue  the  lameness,  after  two  or  three  months,  Neu- 
rotomy is  the  last  resort.  The  lioofs  of  the  horse,  like  the  nails 
of  man,  are  a  secretion,  and  are  naturally  hard  and  strong ;  but 
when  disease  is  present,  in  any  part  of  the  leg  or  foot,  the  secre 
tion  becomes  imperfect,  and  soft  hoof,  or  brittle  hoof,  is  the 
result.  Any  disease  of  the  foot  leads  to  others.  This  shows  th»" 
necessity  of  instant  attention,  even  to  the  slightest  lameness. 

Cracked  Hoop  is  one  of  the  ailments  from  a  feverish  con 
dition  of  the  feet  induced  by  other  diseases.  Narrow  he 
causes  the  front  of  the  hoof  to  crack.  When  the  hoof  is 
not  properly  pared  in  shoeing,  the  hoof  will  crack  in  the 
quarters.  Founder  produces  brittleness,  brittleness  produces 
contraction,  and  contraction  is  one  cause  of  cracks.  Cracks 
often  extend  to  the  sensitive  part  of  the  foot,  the  flesh  grows 
into  them  and  the  pain  of  stepping  on  the  foot  must  be  intense. 
AYe  advise,  first,  that  the  disease  which  causes  faulty  hoof  be 
removed,  and  the  crack  will  heal.  In  the  meantime,  if  the 
crack  does  not  extend  to  the  flesh,  carefully  clean  out  all  sand, 
dirt,  etc.,  pare  down  the  edges  of  the  crack,  and  cover  it  with  a 
bandage,  smeared  with  pitch,  so  as  to  prevent  any  dirt  froru 


300  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

getting  ill.  Keep  tliis  on  until  the  hoof  grows  over.  The 
hoof  will  grow  an  inch  in  about  ten  weeks.  The  horse 
should  not  be  put  to  hard  labor.  When  tlie  crack  extends 
doum  the  whole  hoof,  and  into  the  sensitive  part  of  the  foot, 
wash  it  out  with  the  chloride  of  zinc  lotion,  {see  Remedies^] 
until  bleeding  ceases,  then  bind  the  parts  together  by  wires,  as 
in  sewing  up  a  wound.  Give  the  horse  perfect  rest  until  the 
union  is  complete,  and  then  remove  the  wires.  Dr.  Dadd 
claims  to  have  done  the  same  thing  successfully  with  waxed 
threads.  The  crack  had  better  be  covered  with  pitch,  and  a 
bar  shoe  worn.  To  prevent  a  partial  crack  from  extending  the 
wliole  length  of  the  hoof,  draw  lines  with  a  red  hot  iron  in  the 
shape  of  a  V,  from  the  coronet  to  the  crack.  These  lines 
should  only  be  through  the  outer  crust  of  the  hoof. 

Hoof  Rot  is  a  very  common  and  annoying  complaint. 
English  writers  call  it  pumice  foot;  and  some  American  writers, 
tender  foot,  but  no  horse's  foot  is  tender  unless  diseased  or  injured. 
It  often  causes  various  other  diseases  of  the  foot  and  joints,  and 
is  as  often  caused  by  them.  Its  symptoms  are  a  dry  rot  of  the 
bottom  of  the  feet,  which  appears  chalky,  and  may  be  dug  out 
with  the  knife.  The  frog  sinks  away,  and  the  ankle  joints  are 
swollen  at  times,  after  long  standing.  If  caused  by  some  other 
disease,  that  must  be  first  treated.  The  direct  treatment  for  the 
hoof  rot  is,  after  cleaning  out  all  the  decayed  matter  from  the 
bottom  of  the  foot,  pare  down  the  frog  and  sides  of  the  hoof 
and  apply  the  corrosive  liniment  four  times  a  week,  for  two 
weeks.  Moisten  the  horn  twice  a  day,  with  glycerine  ointment. 
{See  Remedies).  Now  shoe  the  horse  with  a  dish  shoe ;  that  is,  a 
bar  shoe  having  the  web  hollowed  out  like  the  sides  of  a  dish ; 
the  only  part  which  touches  the  ground  being  the  rim  of  the 
inner  circle,  or  else  with  a  light  shoe,  thick  in  the  web,  but 
narrow.     A   stopping,  of  leather   or  gutta   percha,  forming  a 


HORSES  AND  MULES.  301 

cushion  for  the  yet  tender  sole,  will  enable  the  horse  now  to 
resume  work. 

Corns,  so  called,  are  an  accompaniment  of  hoof  rot,  or  some 
other  disease,  which  should  be  first  treated.  They  are  not 
properly  corns,  but  consist  of  patches  of  blood  or  matter  forced 
into  the  horn  from  above.  When  the  hoof  is  cut  away,  a  red 
spot  is  discovered,  which  will  grow  brighter  the  more  the  hoof 
is  cut  away.  If  not  attended  to  promptly,  ulcers  are  formed, 
and  the  confined  matter  finds  an  opening  either  at  the  heel,  or 
the  coronet,  sometimes  continuing  around  the  foot  and  causing 
the  hoof  to  drop  off  entirely.  Cure  the  hoof  rot,  and  as  a 
general  thing  the  corns  will  disappear. 

Stone  Bruise,  Nail  Pricks,  and  bruises  of  the  feet,  should 
all  be  treated  with  a  few  applications  of  the  corrosive  liniment. 
The  bar  and  shoe,  and  tow  filling,  to  ease  the  pressure  upon  the 
injured  part,  are  to  be  recommended.  The  best  immediate 
remedy,  when  the  liniment  is  not  at  hand,  is  water  on  a  flan- 
nel bandage,  and  fastened  around  the  fetlock.  It  should  be 
kept  wet. 

Narrow  Heel,  or  contraction  of  the  hoof,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  a  resultant  from  navicular  disease,  and  always  denotes  a  dis- 
eased condition  of  some  other  portion  of  the  foot ;  for  so  long  as 
the  foot  is  sound,  it  will  secrete  healthy  horn ;  and  if  there  is 
no  fever  to  dry  it  up,  it  will  not  contract.  With  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  disease,  the  foot  will  again  secrete  healthy  horn. 
When  this  is  assured,  the  horn  should  be  frequently  rubbed 
with  the  glycerine  ointment.  The  common  practice  of  filling 
'  the  foot  with  cow  dung,  is  based  on  the  idea  that  the  foot  should 
be  kept  moist,  which  is  correct.  But  it  can  be  much  better 
accomplished  by  stuffing  with  wet  rags,  which  also  tend  to  keep 
the  foot  clean.  The  cow  dung  tends  to  produce  other  disorders 
of  the  feet.     A  soft  pasture  is  nature's  remedy  for  all  ailments 


302  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY. 

of  the  horse's  foot.  In  cold,  stormy  weather,  however,  the 
horse  whatevei  may  be  his  condition,  should  have  ^  dry  stable, 
plenty  of  room,  and  good  bedding. 

Founder,  acute  or  sub-acute  inflammation  of  the  feet,  {Lami- 
natis,)  is,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  the  most  common  of  all 
horse  complaints.  It  is  caused  by  bad  usage.  On  examination 
of  the  feet,  it  is  found  that  there  is  some  other  disease,  generally 
hoof  rot,  and  we  have  never  seen  feet,  otherwise  sound,  attacked 
with  founder — or,  more  properly,  inflammation — which  leaves 
tlie  horse  foundered.  Keep  the  feet  sound  and  healthy,  and  you 
need  not  fear  founder.  The  immediate  causes  of  inflammation 
in  unsound  feet,  are  various.  Overheating,  and  sudden  cooling ; 
a  change  from  the  cold  and  wet  to  the  stable,  where  he  stands 
in  hot  dung ;  long  standing  in  some  mud  hole ;  a  long  journey 
on  a  hard  dry  road ;  over-feeding  after  great  exhaustion;  or  over- 
drinking when  hot; — will  produce  inflammation  which  is  likely 
to  terminate  in  the  feet.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  some- 
times suddenly  transferred  to  the  feet.  The  symptoms  are  rest- 
lessness and  frequent  changing  of  the  fore  feet.  There  is  an  in- 
clination to  lie  down,  but  a  fear  of  doing  so,  and  three  or  four 
feints  will  often  be  made  before  he  succeeds.  He  will  lie  quietly 
for  awhile,  and  seem  to  be  relieved.  When  he  attempts  to  rise, 
the  pain  is  so  great  that  he  falls  back  again  upon  his  side.  The 
nose  is  often  laid  upon  the  fore  feet,  as  if  to  indicate  the  seat  of 
the  pain  and  ask  relief.    This  is  the  first,  or  sub-acute  stage. 

Remove  the  shoes  as  carefully  as  possible,  cleanse  the  feet  with 
soap  and  water,  fasten  a  sponge  to  the  sole,  and  bandage  the  feet 
with  thick  bandages.  Keep  these  bandages  wet  with  the  arnica  ' 
mixture  {see  Remedies)  for  several  days.  Give  the  patient  gruel, 
scalded  mashes,  and  boiled  roots.  Give  daily  a  dose  of  sulphur 
and  cream  of  tartar.  Dilute  the  drink  with  cream  of  tartar. 
This  is  the  ordinary  form  of  inflammation,  taken  in  its  first 


HORSES   AND    MULES.  308 

stages,  and  usually  yields  to  the  above  treatment ;  but  some- 
times it  progresses  so  far  that  the  flesh  quivers,  the  eyes  glare, 
the  nostrils  are  distended,  the  breath  is  jerking,  the  flanks  are 
tucked  up,  the  back  is  roached,  the  head  is  erect,  the  mouth 
firmly  closed,  the  fore  legs  are  pushed  far  forward,  and  the  hind 
legs  advanced  to  take  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  the  feet  are 
constantly  on  the  move.     This  is  the  acute  stage. 

Eemove  the  shoes,  bleed  from  the  jugular  vein  from  two  to 
four  quarts,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  animal,  and  insert 
a  pint  of  warm  water  into  the  veins  by  a  large  syringe.  Pur- 
gation and  perspiration  will  ensue,  and  the  horse  will  be  re- 
lieved. We  do  not  often  advocate  bleeding,  but  believe  this  to 
be  a  case  where  it  will  always  be  beneficial.  Now,  drench  the 
horse  with  hot  salt  and  water,  bathing  his  feet  and  legs  with  it, 
and  rubbing  them  dry  with  a  rough  cloth  or  brush.  Repeat 
the  bathing  and  rubbing  three  or  four  times  in  the  course  of 
an  hour;  and  after  this  apply  turpentine,  or  the  corrosive  lini- 
ment, to  the  foot,  just  at  the  edge  of  the  hair.  Do  not  work  the 
animal  until  well  over  the'attack ;  and  then  proceed  to  cure  the 
hoof  rot,  or  other  disease,  which  may  have  caused  it.  It  often 
affords  relief  to  split  open  the  little  knob,  in  the  long  hair,  at  the 
back  of  the  fetlock.  For  an  established  founder,  the  following 
prescription  is  given  by  Dr.  Stewart :  "  Flour  of  sulphur,  one 
pound ;  cream  of  tartar,  quarter  of  a  pound  ;  saltpetre,  quarter 
of  a  pound;  pulverized  'jimson'  seed  or  stramonium,  one  pint. 
Mix,  and  make  seven  doses,  giving  one  every  day  for  a  week.' 
At  the  same  time,  use  the  corrosive  liniment  on  the  feet. 

QuiTTOR  is  caused  by  wounds,  bruises,  pricks,  neglected 
corns,  etc.  Pus,  or  matter,  collects,  and  moves  upward  through 
the  tissues  for  an  outlet.  It  causes  severe  pain,  but  makes  no 
sign  until  it  reaches  the  coronet,  when  swelling  begins.  When 
this  is  discovered,  remove  the  shoe,  pare  the  sole,  soak  the  hoof 


r,o.i  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

ill  warm  water  for  several  hours,  make  an  opening  in  the  hoof 
below  the  simis,  or  swelling,  and  apply  a  poultice— the  object 
being  to  get  a  discharge  downward.  If  this  does  not  succeed, 
slit  up  the  sinuses  or  swellings,  and  inject  tincture  of  blood  root. 
If  you  secure  a  discharge  from  the  opening  in  the  sole,  inject 
blood  root,  and  the  cure  is  soon  complete. 

Canker,  and  Cracked  Heels,  or  Grease,  are  only  continuations 
or  developments  of  a  disease  known  as  Thrush,  which  is 
usually  caused  l)y  filthy  stables.  A  horse  who  stands  in  filth 
all  the  time,  will  probably  have,  sooner  or  later.  Thrush — and 
then,  Greasy  or  Cracked  Heel.  As  we  have  said  before,  the 
stable  should  not  only  be  cleaned  out  and  washed  down  in  the 
morning,  but,  if  the  animal  has  been  in  the  stable  during  the 
day,  all  filth  should  be  removed,  and  a  bed  made  of  clean  litter. 
Thrush  and  Grease  are  usually  the  signs  of  filth,  and  they  are 
a  disgrace  to  the  owner,  which  should  make  him  hang  his  head 
with  shame.  Thrush  is  sometimes  caused  by  other  diseases, 
but  in  such  cases  it  appears  in  the  fore  foot ;  while,  in  the  hind 
foot,  it  is  always,  we  believe,  the  result  of  inexcusable  negli- 
gence. It  is  a  foul  discharge,  which  has  the  power  of  decom- 
posing the  horn.  It  is  known  by  its  disgusting  smell.  It 
appears  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  It  should  be  treated  by  soak- 
ing pieces  of  cloth  in  the  corrosive  liniment  and  pressing  them 
into  the  cleft  of  the  frog  and  heel  at  night,  removing  them  in 
ihe  morning.  Do  this  about  five  nights  a  week,  until  all  smell 
is  removed.  Canker,  as  before  stated,  is  a  second  stage  of 
Thrush,  the  horn  not  only  being  decomposed,  but  fungoid  or 
spongy  horn  being  secreted.  For  treatment,  c\.ft  away  all  the 
poor  horn,  and  apply  the  chloride  of  zinc  lotion,  adding  enough  . 
flour  to  thicken  it.  Fasten  on  a  pad.  Ee-dress  daily,  or  every  1 
other  day,  and  at  each  dressing  cut  away  all  faulty  horn.  Any 
-jontrivance  which  will  press  the  pad  to  the  foot  will  answer 


HORSES    AND    MULES.  305 

the  purpose.  Mayhew  recommends  putting  ou  the  shoe  and 
putting  in  wedges. 

Cracked  Heels,  called  by  English  farriers  Grease,  is  a  dis- 
ease "which  follows  thrush,  and  can  often  be  said  to  be  only 
a  continuation  of  it.  It  is  the  oozing  out  of  the  ulcerated 
matter  attending  disease  within.  Either  the  cofBn  or  the  navi- 
cular joint  is  affected.  The  skin  of  the  heel  becomes  dry  and 
feverish,  cracks  open,  and  foul  matter  exudes.  If  not  checked, 
the  whole  heel  becomes  a  mass  of  putrefaction,  lilthy  and  ofi'en- 
sive.  Grease  never  occurs  when  there  is  a  decent  attention  to 
the  care  of  the  animal.  To  let  it  go  on  after  it  is  once  discov- 
ered is  shameless  brutality,  and  should  be  a  State  Prison  offence. 
A  growth  o^  funr/ics,  or  proud  flesh,  will  commence  from  the 
sores,  which  will  soon  harden  and  become  horny.  During  all 
this  time  the  poor  creature  suffers  untold  agony.  As  a  preven- 
tive of  Cracked  Heels  we  recommend  clean  stables,  good  bed- 
ding, rubbing  the  legs  when  the  horse  comes  in  from  the  wet, 
and  a  warm  dry  stable  in  cold  and  wet  weather.  The  practice 
of  dashing  water  on  the  heels  and  leaving  them  to  dry  as  best 
they  will,  is  a  fruitful  cause  of  diseased  feet.  When  the  legs 
are  wet  they  should  always  be  rubbed  dry  with  a  cloth,  or  a 
wisp  of  straw. 

As  soon  as  cracked  heels  are  discovered,  or  the  heel  becomes 
dry,  hot  and  scurfy,  wash  with  soap  and  water,  and  rub  dry; 
tlien  apply  the  corrosive  liniment  for  three  or  four  days.  After 
this,  iipply  the  glycerine  ointment  for  the  same  length  of  time. 
If  the  disease  is  not  discovered  until  the  grease  begins  to  exude 
and  hang  on  the  hair  about  the  fetlock,  cut  off  all  the  long  haii, 
and  pursue  the  same  course  as  above.  In  either  case,  give  the 
horse  almost  entire  rest  while  operating  on  him,  or  a  cure  will 
be  doubtful.  An  hour's  moderate  exercise  daily  will  be  benefi* 
cial.     We  will  not  o-ive  directions  for  treatina;  the  worse  stages 


306  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

of  the  disease,  for  we  cannot  believe  that  any  man  ii  telligent 
enough  to  read  this  book,  will  allow  it  to  go  on  after  it  is  once 
discovered. 

Diseases  of  the  Glands  and  Nasal  Membranes.  Gland- 
ers is  a  fearful  disorder,  bred  by  filth,  and  spread  by  conta- 
gion. It  is  found  mostly  in  the  close,  filthy,  ill  ventilated 
stables  of  the  city,  where  impure  air,  water,  and  food,  are 
more  coniaton.  From  these  it  is  transferred  to  the  farmer's 
stables  by  various  means.  Horses  purchased  in  the  city  and 
tjansferred  to  the  country,  carry  the  infection  with  them.  The 
Hirmer's  horse,  put  up  at  the  city  stable  when  he  goes  to  market, 
or  to  court,  contracts  the  affection.  Eating,  or  drinking,  after 
glandered  horses,  is  often  sufficient  to  transmit  it.  The  snort  of 
one  horse  to  another  will  sometimes  carry  the  infection  even  at 
a  distance  of  several  yards.  The  symptoms  are  running  of  one 
nostril,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  left;  the  fluid  thin  and 
transparent ;  it  increases,  grows  thicker,  and  more  sticky ;  its 
color  changes  towards  yellow ;  it  becomes  clotted  with  mucus, 
and  long  sticky  white  threads  of  mucus  hang  to  the  nostrils. 
This  soon  changes  to  a  stream  of  filthy  j9z<5,  thicker,  darker,  and 
sonietitnes  bloody.  These  are  the  first  two  and  curable  stages 
of  the  disorder.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  other  secretions 
running  from  the  nose  by  its  gluemess  or  stickiness,  and  in  the 
second  stage  by  its  sickening  smell.  During  these  early  stages 
of  glanders,  the  horse  loses  flesh,  the  air  passages  are  affected, 
the  breathing  becomes  difficult,  the  glands  swell,  ulcers  form  in 
the  nostrils,  and  the  discharge,  which  was  only  from  one  nostril, 
extends  to  both,  and  sometimes  to  the  eye.  A  gland  adheres 
to  the  inside  of  the  jaw;  the  nostril  changes  color  and  becomes 
pallid.  As  a  consequence  of  this  state  of  things  the  horse  loses 
his  spirits,  appetite  fails,  the  coat  stares  and  is  easily  rubbed  off, 
and  the  horse  rapidly  goes  down.     Unless  taken  now  a  cure  is 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  307 

impossible,  for  every  bad  symptom  rapidly  increases ;  tumors 
form  in  the  head,  and  Farcy,  Avhich  is  only  another  name  for  the 
last  stage  of  glanders,  ends  the  miserable  existence.  The  dis- 
covery of  a  cure  for  glanders  by  Dr.  Stewart,  entitles  him  to 
the  gratitude  of  all  owners  of  horses.  Preventive  measures 
should  be  taken  against  this  disease.  The  ill  ventilated  and  foul 
stable  should  be  aired  and  cleaned,  the  manger  washed  out  every 
day,  and  the  drinking  pail  kept  as  clean  and  sweet  as  if  for  your 
own  use.  When  the  farmer  puts  his  horse  in  a  strange  stable 
he  should  insist  that  the  manger  be  washed  out  before  his  horse 
eats  from  it :  when  leaving  a  strange  stable  the  nostrils  should 
be  sponged  out.  When  the  manure  is  thrown  into  a  basement 
under  or  near  the  horse,  powdered  charcoal  thrown  upon  it  will 
not  only  save  the  ammonia  and  nearly  double  its  value  as 
manure,  but  will  prevent  this  ammonia  from  entering  the  nose 
and  lungs  of  the  horse.  A  half  peck  for  the  dung  of  each 
animal  will  be  sufficient. 

We  give  Dr.  Stewart's  treatment  for  Glanders.  "Bleed  in  the 
neck  vein,  removing  about  three  quarts  of  blood.*  Have  ready 
a  strong  decoction  of  tobacco,  of  which  put  one  gill  in  a  pint 
of  warm  water  and  turn  this  down  the  horse.  It  will  make  him 
very  sick,  but  it  will  affect  him  much  less  than  when  in  health, 
and  thus  used  is  not  really  dangerous.  Wash  out  his  nostrils 
with  the  tobacco  decoction,  weakened  with  water,  as  directed  in 
the  next  section  for  staggers.  Be  at  pains  to  reach  as  high  up 
the  nostrils  with  the  mop  as  you  can.  The  mixture  must  be  as 
hot  as  he  can  bear  it.     Continue  this  treatment  from  two  to  four 

weeks,  or  until  a  favorable  change  is  apparent.  Use  the  mo]» 
, , t 

*  We  do  not  think  Dr.  Stevvixrt  means  to  advise  bleeding  in  the  fir-i 
stage  of  the  disease,  but  only  when  there  is  considerable  inflammation,  ul- 
ceration, and  enlargement  of  the  glands.  At  any  rate  two  or  three  quarts 
of  blood  is  a  small  loss  to  an  animal  having  sixty  to  eighty  quarts. 


308  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

in  the  uose  for  eight  or  ten  days ;  drench  with  the  tobacco  mix 
lure  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  of  three  days.  Give  the 
horse  as  much  sulphur  and  resin  as  you  can  get  him  to  eat,  for 
the  space  of  ten  days.  A  full  dose  will  be  four  ounces  of  sul- 
phur, and  two  of  resin,  both  pulverized.  Let  the  food  be  light 
and  relaxing,  grass  if  it  is  in  season ;"  if  not,  boiled  roots  thick- 
ened with  shorts,  and  salted.  A  quantity  of  salt  should  be 
placed  where  the  animal  can  help  himself.  "Attend  promptly 
to  disinfecting  your  stable.  Fumigate  it  with  tobacco-smoke 
while  the  horse  is  in  it.  Make  him  and  all  his  companions  in- 
hale as  much  of  the  smoke  as  you  can.  Fill  the  stable  with 
the  smoke  until  you  can  no  longer  remain  in  it  yourself.  Wash 
every  part  of  it,  and  especially  the  mangers,  with  a  strong  de- 
coction of  tobacco,  and  keep  pounded  tobacco  leaves  in  every 
feeding  place  used  by  any  horse  that  has  been  exposed  to  the 
disease."  An  occasional  fumigation  of  the  stable  when  any  in- 
fectious disease  is  suspected,  will  act  as  a  preventive. 

Blind  Staggees  is  a  disease  known  only  on  the  newly 
cleared  plantations  of  the  Southern  States,  and  is  caused  by 
eating  worm-eaten  corn.  The  worm  leaves  a  peculiar  and 
poisonous  dust  on  the  corn,  which  the  horse  inhales,  the  pas- 
sages from  the  eyes  to  the  nose  are  closed,  inflammation  ensues, 
the  poison  is  carried  to  the  brain,  and  the  horse  goes  deaf,  blind, 
and  raving  mad.  Cure  is  doubtful  if  not  discovered  before  the 
mad  stage.  Bleed  freely,  give  the  tobacco  decoction  recom- 
mended for  glanders,  and,  if  possible,  add  a  half  pound  of 
ei)som  salts.  While  still  under  the  effects  of  this  medicine  give 
two  ounces  of  laudanum  in  a  little  warm  water.  Your  object 
is  to  get  the  horse  quiet,  and  to  prevent  spasms.  Make  a  soft 
swab  or  mop  on  the  end  of  a  stick,  and  swab  out  the  nostrils 
with  the  decoction  of  tobacco  and  warm  water.  This  is  to 
open  the  passages  to  the  eye,  and  as  soon  as  a  discharge  can  be 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  309 

eftected,  the  horse  is  out  of  clanger ;  repeat  the  swabbing  out 
every  day  until  the  cure  is  complete.  As  soon  as  a  discharge 
is  effected  from  the  head,  draw  a  blister  immediately  over  the 
brain. 

If  any  one  must  feed  worm-eaten  corn,  let  it  be  swept  and 
brushed  to  scatter  the  poison.  Tobacco  dust  in  the  manger  will 
act  as  a  preventive..  Watch  the  horse  under  such  circum- 
stances, examine  the  nostrils  often,  and  if  these  little  passages 
are  closed,  the  nostrils  inflamed,  and  the  head  hot,  not  a 
moment  is  to  be  lost.  Prompt  action  is  the  only  hope.  Dis- 
temper, or  Strangles,  is  another  contagious  disease,  alto- 
gether too  common.  It  is  often  designated  as  horse-ail.  It 
appears  in  all  horses,  but  usually  in  the  colt,  when  taken  either 
from  his  mother's  milk,  or  the  tender  grass  and  fresh  air  of 
the  pasture ;  confined  in  a  narrow,  dark,  dirty  cell,  standing 
and  sleeping  in  its  own  filth,  and  fed  on  dry  food.  Such  a 
change  is  sufficient  to  induce  distemper.  "We  believe  that  it  is 
always  caused  by  some  such  violent  change,  and  is  spread  by 
infection.  It  seems  to  be  an  effort  of  the  system  to  adapt  itself 
to  the  change.  The  symptoms  are,  in  the  first  stage,  a  general 
derangement,  some  fever,  quick  pulse,  a  dry,  hacking  cough, 
sore  throat,  and  running  at  the  nose. 

This  discharge  can  be  distinguished  from  glanders  "by  always 
being  white ;  the  neck  soon  becomes  stiff,  the  throat  becomes 
swollen,  an  abscess  forms,  the  swelling  is  hard  and  hot,  the  lever 
becomes  high,  the  breathing  is  oppressed,  food  and  drmk  are 
refused,  the  swelling  comes  to  a  head,  and,  being  opened,  the 
animal  speedily  recovers.  The  above  symptoms  are  exceed- 
ingly suggestive ;  first,  of  care  in  making  the  change  from  the 
pasture  to  the  stable,  from  green  food  to  dry,  from  the  mother's 
milk  to  fodder,  or  any  other  great  change  in  the  habits.  All 
change  should  be  gradual.     Second,  it  suggests  what  we  liave 


310  HOW   TO   MAKE    THE   FARM   PAY. 

hofore  urged,  air,  liglit,  ventilation,  and  cleanliness  in  the  stable. 
As  a  preventive,  when  one  horse  has  the  disease  separate  him 
from  the  rest,  where  they  cannot  possibly  take  his  breath,  and 
fumigate  and  wash  with  tobacco  water  as  recommended  after 
glanders-.  Treatment. — Wash  the  neck  and  throat  with  a  strong 
decoction  of  tobacco,  as  hot  as  the  horse  can  bear  it,  two  or 
three  times  a  day.  Give  sulphur  and  resin,  two  pounds  of  the 
former  to  one  of  the  latter.  Contrive  to  make  the  horse  eat  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  this  every  day,  for  several  days.  Give 
mashes,  boiled  oats,  or  green  feed,  but  no  corn.  If  the  swelling 
continues,  but  does  not  soften,  poultice  with  steaming  mashes  ; 
when  it  softens  open  it  at  once. 

Dr.  Stewart  recommends  bleeding  three  pints,  "  then  take 
and  thoroughly  mix  together  one  tablespoonful  of  gunpowder, 
one  of  lard,  one  of  soft  soap,  one  of  gum  myrrh,  and  two  of  tar ; 
put  a  spoonful  of  this  down  the  horse's  throat,  as  far  as  you  can, 
with  a  paddle  or  spoon,  twice  a  day."  Nasal  Gleet  is  usually 
a  continuation  of  distemper,  or,  rather  of  the  discharge  accom- 
panying distemper.  We  confess  that  we  do  not  know  its  cause. 
The  symptoms  are  an  irregular  discharge,  often  mixed  with 
blood.  It  will  sometimes  cease  for  a  few  days,  and  then  recur. 
The  discharge  changes  color  with  the  food.  Leave  the  horse  to 
himself,  in  an  ordinary,  dark,  ill  ventilated,  filthy  stable,  and 
you  will  soon  have  an  incurable  case  of  glanders.  If  this  is  not 
desired,  treat  the  same  as  for  distemper,  washing  out  the  nose 
daily  with  the  tobacco  water,  until  the  discharge  ceases.  Good 
pa.-;ture,  if  in  mild  weather,  and  good  stabling,  if  cold  or  wet, 
are  requisite.  If  stabled  give  some  green  food  and  roots,  with 
daily  out-door  exercise. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye  are  almost,  if  not  wholly,  unknown 
m  the  wild  horse,  being  the  result  of  the  carelessness  or  cruelty 
of  man.     They  are  very  seldom  hereditary,  as  a  blind  mare  will 


HORgES   AND    MULES.  311 

prodace  ciilts  witli  the  best  of  sight.     They  are  in  no  way  con- 
nectecl  with  the  teeth,  as  is  often  supposed.     The  term,  "Natu- 
rally WEAK  Eyes,"  so  often  used,  is  folly,  as  thei-e  is  no  such 
thing  as  naturally  weak  eyes.     The  Creator  has  provided  ever_y 
horse  with  perfect  vision,  and  it  is  the  ignorance  or  recklessnes:^ 
of  man  that  destroys  it.     Other  diseases  of  the  head  will  some- 
times affect  the  eye;  when  the  disease  is  cured,  the  eye  will 
recover.     There  are  three  causes  which  account  for  nearly  all 
cases  of  disease  of  the  eye.     The  first  is  ammonia.     The  dung 
and  urine  constantly  give  out  ammonia ;   it  is  often  so  strong 
as  to  make  you  sneeze  and  your  eyes  to  water,  even  when  in  the 
stable  for  a  few  minutes  ;  what  then  must  be  the  effect  upon 
the  sensitive,  tender  eye  of  the  horse,  who  stands  in  it  hour  after 
hour.     It  is  the  cause  of  three-fourths  the  cases  of  weak  and 
diseased  eyes.     It  can  only  be  lessened  by  having  the  urine 
drained  off  as  it  fiills,  by  removing  the  dung,  by  daily  washing 
down  the  stable,  and  by  admitting  fresh  air  at  the  head,  and 
having  ventilation  at  the  back  of  the  stable,  for  all  which  full 
directions  have  been  given.     The  second  cause  which  renders 
the  first  much  worse  is  the  want  of  light.     Nothing  thrives 
without  light,  and  the  frequent  change  from  the  dark  stable  to 
the  glare  of  day,  and  vice  versa,  produces  a  very  injurious  effect. 
{See  Construction  of  Stables)     The  third  cause  is  from  injuries 
to  the  eye,  from  hay  seed  dropping  into  the  eye,  from  cuts  of 
the  lash,  and  blows  about  the  head.     The  former  is  prevented 
by  having  no  lofts  over  the  stable,  and  by  putting  the  hay  where 
the  horse  can  reach  it  without  stretching  up  his  head.   The  latter 
is  prevented  by  kindness  instead  of  cruelty.     The  general  treat- 
ment for  Weak  Eyes,  Simple  Ophtha.lmia,  or  Inflammation 
OF  THE  Eyes  ;  Sore  Eyelids  ;  and  simple  injuries  of  the  eye, 
causing  soreness  or  inflammation,  is  easy,  and  should  never  be 
neglected,  as  these  simple  affections  readily  become  serious  dis- 


312  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE   FARM    FAY. 

orders.  When  the  eyelid  is  closed,  and  tears  drop  from  it, 
attend  to  the  case  at  once.  Remove  all  the  causes  of  the  disease. 
Examine  the  c^'C  and  remove  any  hay  seed  or  other  substance 
that  may  have  caused  it.  Bind  a  cloth  over  the  eyes,  and  wet 
it  with  arnica  and  water,  one  pint  of  water  to  an  ounce  of  arnica. 
Repeat  this  for  several  nights,  sponging  the  eye  several  times  a 
day  with  cold  water.  If  inflammation  is  excessive,  and  white 
spots  are  sepn  on  the  eye,  indicating  sores  or  abscess,  bleed  three 
pints,  and  use  the  eye-wash  invented  and  prescribed  by  Dr. 
Stewart.  {See  Remedies.)  The  blood  should  now  be  attended  to. 
Give  two  or  three  ounces  of  sulphur,  every  other  day  for  a  week, 
and  every  other  week  for  six  weeks.  If  inflammation  does  not 
decrease,  bleed  the  inner  surface  of  the  eyelid,  or  the  eye  vein. 
Give  no  corn,  but  green  food  or  roots.  Specific  Ophthalmia, 
or  Moon  Eyes,  is  a  terrible  disease,  without  cure.  It  is  caused  by 
the  fumes  of  impure  stables.  Symptoms: — Swollen  eyelids,,  tears; 
the  circumference  of  the  ball  is  inflamed  ;  the  horse  cannot 
bear  the  lid  to  be  lifted  in  the  light,  but  will  submit  in  the 
shade,  the  iris  loses  its  bright  color,  and  grows  lighter;  the 
whole  eye  is  disorganized.  *Soon  these  symptoms  disappear 
only  to  break  out  again  with  renewed  violence.  Sometimes  it 
atUicks  one  eye,  sometimes  both ;  it  changes  from  one  eye  to  the 
other,  disappears  and  returns,  but  continually  grows  worse,  and 
finally  produces  total  blindness  in  one  or  both  eyes.  To  check 
the  disease,  and  save  one  eye,  should  be  attempted.  The  horse 
should  have  a  roomy,  well-ventilated  stall,  perfectly  dark  in 
front,  but  well  lighted  from  behind  or  above.  Open  the  eye 
vein,  and  puncture  the  interior  of  the  lid.  Put  a  cloth  saturated 
with  cold  water  over  both  eyes,  at  night,  and  if  the  eyelids  are 
very  much  inflamed  add  one  ounce  of  arnica  to  a  pint  of  water, 
and  keep  the  cloths  wet  with  this  during  the  forenoon.  Give 
green  food,  or  roots,  but  no  corn,  and  but  little  hay.     Give  the 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  313 

following  preparation  :  Powdered  sassafras,  three  ounces  ;  skunk 
cabbage,  three  ounces;  gentian,  three  ounces;  sulphur,  two 
ounces  ;  elm  bark,  eiglit  ounces;  ginger,  two  ounces;  salt,  three 
ounces.  Mix,  and  divide  into  twelve  powders,  giving  one  every 
night  with  the  food.  Let  every  farmer  who  has  a  horse 
attacked  with  this  disease,  raise  or  remove  his  loft,  give  venti- 
lation, light,  etc.  This  will  cost  money,  but  the  price  of  one 
good  horse  will  pay  for  a  good  deal  of  carpenter  work.  The 
little  washer,  cosily  stowed  away  in  the  .nner  corner  of  ihe  eye, 
called  the  haw,  which  serves  to  wash  the  eye  and  clean  it  of 
specks,  dust,  and  grit,  sometimes  becomes  inflamed  and  pro- 
trudes over  the  eye,  in  the  form  of  a  white  hook,  and  is  there- 
fore called  a  Hook,  and  is  sometimes  removed  by  persons  who 
should  knoAV  better.  This  deprives  the  horse  of  his  onlv  re- 
source to  keep  his  eye  clean.  When  much  inflaaied,  prick  it 
slightly ;  pull  the  lids  apart,  and  apply  the  eye  wash  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  and  the  inflammation  will  disappear. 

The  various  affections  of  the  eyes  are  the  cause  often  of  shy- 
ing, fright,  wheeling,  sudden  starts,  running,  backing,  turning 
out  of  the  road,  and  all  eccentric  movements  of  the  horse.  He 
sees  imperfectly,  and,  being  timid,  acts  accordingly.  Whipping 
in  such  cases  is  barbarous,  mean,  and  cowardly,  besides  being 
worse  than  useless.  Instead  of  further  fear,  confidence  should 
be  restored  by  kind  words.  If  the  oiuner  always  speaks  kindly 
to  the  beast,  he  will  soon  learn  confidence,  and  the  sound  of  his 
voice,  during  fright,  will  do  more  good  than  the  whip  or  the 
rein.  When  frightened,  speak  kindly  before  you  draw  the  rein, 
then  draw  it  gently,  talking  all  the  time,  not  in  loud,  harsh 
tones,  but  mildly. 

Diseases  of  the  Muscles  and  Tendons. 

Poll  Evil,  and  Fistula,  are  the  same  disease  appearing  in 
different  places — Fistula  on  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  just  under 


314  nO-^   TO   MAKE   THE    FAEM   PAY. 

the  upper  portion  of  the  shoulder  blade,  in  the  cartilage  marked 
Q  in  the  skeleton.     Poll  Evil  occurs  in  the  neck,  just  back  of 
the  ears  near  the  point  marked  E  in  the  skeleton.     Both  are 
caused  by  bruises  against  the  top  of  a  low  stable,  or  the  sides 
of  a  narrow  stall— against  the  top  of  a  low  doorway,  or  against 
the  sides  of  a  narrow  one.     It  is  strange,  that  to  save  a  few 
dollars,  or  a  little  space,  men  will  thus  allow  their  valuable 
property  to  ,be  injured.     These  diseases  are  sometimes  caused 
by  blows  ;  by  the  saddle  ;  and,  rarely,  by  rolling  on  a  stone  or 
stick.    The  tendon  becomes  swollen  and  painful ;  the  horse  tries 
to  rub  the  place  against  the  sides  of  his  stall,  which  only  aggra- 
vates the  evil.     A  sijiall  swelling  appears.     Any  person  who 
watches  his  horses  with  any  care,  will  discover  the  evil  before 
it  goes  farther.    When  the  above  symptoms  are  discovered,  put 
the  hand  to  the  places  mentioned.     There  will  be  heat  and  ten- 
derness, even  if  the  swelling  has  not  appeared.     At  this  stage, 
apply  the  corrosive  liniment  every  morning  for  a  week  or  ten 
days.    If,  however,  there  is  a  considerable  swelling  before  it  is 
discovered,  or  if,  after  applying  the  corrosive  liniment  as  above, 
the  swelling  should  continue,  an  abscess  has  formed,  and  prompt 
measures  are  required.    The  following  is  Dr.  Stewart's  valuable 
prescription :  "  Spread  a  thin  coating  of  May  Apple  liniment 
(see  Remedies)  over  the  whole  tumor  every  morning,  washing  it 
off  at  night,  and  then  greasing  the  surface  of  the  tumor.     Con- 
tinue this  three  or  four  days,  until  pus  begins  to  ooze  out; 
increase  the  liniment,  apply  every  other  day,  and  let  it  be  on  a 
day  and  a  night,  but  never  longer.    Always  wash  it  off  thor- 
oughly with  warm  soapsuds,   and   grease  with    any  kind   of 
grease."     If  the  tumor  is  not  made  to  discharge,  cut  it  with  a 
sharp  knife,  at  its  junction  with  the  body.     If  the  May  Apple 
liniment  is  not  to  be  had,  apply  a  linseed  poultice,  or  a  poultice 
^f  equal  parts  of  sugar,  soap,  and  powdered  bloodroot. 


HORSES   AXD   MULES.  315 

Bog  axd  Blood  Spavins,  so  called,  are  not  spavins,  and 
bear  no  resemblance  to  spavin.  They  are  of  the  same  nature  as 
Wind  Galls  and  Thorough  Pin  ;  but  where,  and  why,  these 
diseases  got  their  odd  names,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive.  The 
spavins  appear  at  the  hock ;  wind  galls  at  the  ankles ;  thorough 
pin  on  the  back  part  of  the  hock  joint.  Because  they  do  not 
often  cause  immediate  lameness,  they  are  said  to  be  harmless. 
But  how  would  a  man  like  to  have  liis  injuries  anO  sores 
judged  in  the  same  way  ?  They  are  caused  by  severe  strain, 
and  by  blows  and  kicks  on  the  legs,  such  as  brutal  men  often 
give.  They  should  never  be  opened,  as  they  cause  a  permanent 
running  sore. 

Apply  the  corrosive  liniment  three  or  four  times  a  week  for 
three  or  four  weeks,  and  if  no  improvement  occurs,  let  them 
alone.  When,  however,  they  produce  stiffness  of  /he  joints, 
or  infliimmation,  apply  the  liniment  until  it  disappears.  CuRB 
is  an  enlargement  on  the  back  of  the  leg  below  the  hock.  Give 
rest,  and  corrosive  liniment.  It  is  a  dangerous  injury,  and  will 
often  render  the  horse  useless  unless  a  long  rest  and  treatment 
are  given. 

Tetanus,  or  Lock  Jaw,  though  not  very  common,  is  an  ex 
ceedingly  painful  and  dangerous  disease.  It  is  usually  caused 
by  wounds,  bruising  either  nerves  or  tendons,  such  as  prick  in 
shoeing,  nicking,  docking,  broken  knees,  galls,  etc.,  etc.  It  is 
also  caused  by  such  abuse  as  hard  driving  and  standing  in  the 
cold  or  wet.  The  horse  first  grows  fidgety,  the  ears  are  set,  the 
muzzle  protruded,  the  head  elevated,  the  nostrils  remain  dila- 
ted, the  muscles  grow  rigid  ;  upon  lifting  the  head,  the  "  haw" 
projects  over  the  eye;  the  tail  is  raised,  the  belly  contracts,  the 
legs  are  straddled  and  stiff,  the  eye  is  sunken,  the  whole  body 
becomes  hard  and  contracted,  the  jaws  are  locked,  and  agony 

and  starvation  make  short  work  of  the  sufferer.     If  the  svmp- 
20 


316  UOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM    FAY. 

loms  are  discovered  before  the  jaws  become  locked,  make  a 
mash  by  boiling  a  peck  of  bran  in  a  gallon  of  water.  The  bran 
should  be  in  a  loose  bag;  and  after  boiling  twenty  minutes,  bind 
this  bag  to  the  throat  as  hot  as  it  can  be  borne;  at  the  same  time 
fasten  a  quilt,  or  a  couple  of  large  blankets,  over  him.  Just 
before  binding  on  the  bag,  give  a  quart  of  corn  meal  gruel.  If 
you  can  thus  produce  perspiration,  you  will  be  likely  to  save 
locked  jaw.' 

If,  however,  the  jaw  should  be  locked  before  action  is  taken, 
or  become  locked  in  spite  of  the  means  taken,  resort  must  be 
had  to  bleeding  and  opiates.  Bleed  two  quarts  from  the  neck 
vein,  then  stop  the  flow  for  half  an  hour;  then  bleed  three 
quarts  again ;  stop  the  flow,  and  again  bleed  three  or  four  quarts. 
Never  bleed  continuously  in  any  case. 

Now  have  ready  the  bran  mash  and  quilt,  adding  a  little  to- 
bacco juice  and  camphor  to  the  water.  Dissolve  a  quarter  of 
a  pound  of  salts  in  a  half  pint  of  warm  water,  and  add  one 
ounce  of  laudanum.  Turn  this  slowly  down  the  horse's  throat, 
by  means  of  a  tunnel  or  open  horn  inserted  between  the  front 
and  back  teeth.  After  three  hours,  give  the  corn  meal  gruel ; 
and  in  three  more,  two  ounces  of  salts.  Give  the  gruel  every 
six  hours.  In  the  mean  time,  let  a  pail  of  gruel  stand  where 
he  can  stick  his  nose  into  it  with  ease,  and  he  will  suck  it  up 
himself  as  soon  as  his  sufferings  abate.  If  all  these  measures 
should  fail  of  relief,  cut  the  scab  from  his  fore  leg,  grate  it  fine 
on  a  coarse  file,  put  a  teaspoonful  in  each  ear,  and  dust  a  little 
up  his  nose. 

Cramps,  or  spasms  of  the  muscles,  are  caused  by  over-exer- 
tion during  the  day,  and  cramped  confinement  during  the  night. 
The  horse  loses  control  of  his  limbs;  one  moment  they  may  be 
stiff  and  rigid,  the  next  they  may  jerk  and  twitch  with  more  or 


HORSES   AND    MULES.  817 

less  violence.  Rub  the  legs  with  salt  aud  water,  and,  wheu  dr}', 
with  the  corrosive  liniment. 

Kheumatism  is  a  common  complaint.  It  mostly  afifects  the 
joints,  shoulders,  and  hips,  but  often  the  chest  also.  It  follows 
colds  and  chest  affections.  Driving  a  horse  into  a  pond  when 
heated,  exposure  to  cold  wind  or  rain,  excessive  exertion,  and 
sudden  changes,  are  all  causes  of  rheumatism.  It  is  more  likely 
to  attack  a  high  conditioned  horse  than  a  lean  horse.  The 
symptoms  are  the  same  in  cramps,  but  more  marked ;  the  limbs 
swell,  it  flies  from  one  part  to  another,  and  sometimes  to  the  heart, 
where  it  proves  fatal.  Sometimes  it  settles  in  the  feet  and 
becomes  founder^  again,  it  settles  in  the  chest,  and  the  horse  is 
said  to  be  chest  foundered.  Rub  the  legs  with  salt  and  water 
as  for  cramps,  and  give  a  quart  of  salt  and  water,  as  hot  as  the 
horse  will  take  it.  The  bo\vel^  can  be  relieved  by  an  injection 
of  the  same.     Give  two  or  three  doses  of  "  jimson  seed." 

For  spasms  of  the  muscles,  or  twitching  of  the  muscles  in 
any  part  of  the  body,  rub  with  salt  aud  water,  and  when  dry, 
apply  the  corrosive  liniment.  In  cases  of  String  Halt  apply 
the  liniment  to  the  hip,  at  the  junction  of  the  spine,  and  to  the 
back  part  of  the  foot,  daily,  for  a  month.  Give  two  doses  of 
"jimson  seed"  the  first  week,  and  one  dose  a  week  for  the 
next  three  weeks.  If  the  string  halt  is  confirmed  there  is  not 
much  use  of  touching  it.  When  it  first  appears  the  above  treat- 
ment often  removes  it  or  makes  it  less. 

Diseasks  of  the  Skin  and  Ears.  As  all  hardships  first 
fall  upon  the  skin,  it  is  no  wonder  that  it  is  often  di.sL.asod. 
Scratches.  This  troublesome  affection  is  caused  by  stable 
filth,  helped  hy  a  bad  state  of  the  system,  the  blood,  and  tl.o 
digestion.  It  makes  its  appearance  on  the  back  side  of  the 
foot,  in  the  form  of  dry,  scabby  patches,  which  are  very  itchy, 
and  the  horse,   scratching  them  with  the  other  foot,  extends 


318  HOW   TO    MAKE  THE   FARM   PAT. 

tliem  upward  to  the  fetlock,  until  they  form  a  solid  mass,  oftcD 
i-aw  and  bleeding.  It  is  readily  discovered  from  the  continual 
scratching  of  the  horse,  whence  it  is  called  scratches.  Use  the 
corrosive  liniment,  four  times  a  week,  until  cured.  Feed  green 
food  or  roots,  mashes,  etc.  For  swelled  legs  or  ankles,  from 
whatever  cause,  apply  the  liniment  as  directed  above.  Surfeit 
is  a  gener  d  disease  of  the  skin,  indicating  a  thick  and  impure 
state  of  the  blood.  Little  pustules  appear  upon  the  skin,  and 
the  oily  secretion  whose  work  it  is  to  moisten  and  lubricate  the 
surface  exudes  from  them.  Bleed  the  horse  from  two  to  four 
quarts,  according  to  size  and  condition,  give  two  doses  of  sul- 
phur and  resin,  rub  the  skin  where  the  pustules  have  appeared, 
with  an  ointment  of  sulphur  and  lard  in  equal  parts.  Do  this 
two  or  three  nights,  turn  him  to  pasture,  or  let  him  have  a 
week's  rest,  and  he  will  be  as  good  as  new.  Mange  is  a  disease 
into  which  neglected  surfeit  will  run.  It  is  also  caused  by 
negligence,  filth,  lack  of  grooming,  starvation,  bad  digestion,  and 
bad  condition  generally.  It  is  exceedingly  contagious;  any 
tiling  it  touches  will  carry  contagion ;  it  is  accompanied  by  a 
little  insect,  but  whether  the  insect  is  the  cause  or  the  effect  is 
not  fully  ascertained.  The  first  symptoms  are  a  scurf,  or  scabby 
eruption  of  the  skin,  usually  about  the  mane,  accompanied  by  ex- 
cessive itchiness.  The  skin  becomes  scaly,  peeling  off  and  leaving 
raw,  red  spots,  often  bleeding.  The  horse  rubs  himself  as  if  he 
would  tear  the  skin  from  his  body,  everywhere  he  rubs  he  leaves 
dandruff,  scurf,  or  scabs  to  infect  other  animals,  unless  prevented. 
If  the  horse  is  in  good  condition,  he  has  probably  been  in- 
fected. Wash  the  whole  body  in  lime  water.  Make  an  oint- 
nient  of  one  pint  each  corrosive  liniment,  sulphur,  and  lard 
and  anoint  the  whole  body,  from  the  nose  to  the  hoof;  spread 
thin  as  possible,  but  see  that  every  part  is  touched.  If  fair 
weather,  let  the  horse  out  during  the  day,  but  keep  him  in,  in 


HORSES    AXD    MULES,  Si'J 

cold  or  wet  weather,  or  n,t  night ;  in  two  days  wash  again  with 
lime  water.  If  the  horse  is  in  low,  poor  condition,  give  a  dose 
of  sulphur  and  resin  every  third  day,  for  two  weeks,  and  feed 
well  with  green  feed,  steamed  oats,  boiled  roots,  etc.  The 
former  treatment  will  be  of  little  avail  unless  you  now  bring 
him  into  good  flesh  and  condition. 

Hide  Bound.  This  very  peculiar  disease  is  caused  by  the 
drying  up  of  the  secretions  which  make  the  skin  soft  and  pliable, 
and  the  hair  sleek  and  glossy.  Any  complaint  attended  with 
much  fever,  will  do  this.  It  is  also  caused  by  exposure,  and  by 
poor  ventilation.  The  skin  becomes  dry  and  hard,  adhering  to 
the  flesh ;  the  hai  is  rusty  and  staring,  the  digestion  is  usually 
very  much  impaired,  and  the  excrement  is  dry,  hard,  and  black. 
The  blood  is  corrupt,  thick,  dark  and  feverish.  Bleed ;  taking 
two  to  three  quarts,  give  a  tablespoonful  of  "jimson  seed" 
three  times  on  every  third  day.  Let  the  horse  have  sulphur 
and  resin  in  his  food,  as  previously  directed.  Grreen  food,  or 
roots,  good  stabling,  fresh  air,  and  rest  will  do  the  remainder. 
Stiff  Complaint  is  only  an  aggravated  case  of  Hide  Bound. 
Warts.  Seed  warts  are  not  of  much  account,  unless  they  ap- 
pear where  they  will  be  likely  to  become  chafed.  Blood  warts 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear.  In  either  case 
grease  the  skin  for  three  inches  about  the  wart  with  tallow. 
Make  a  strong  solution  of  potash,  one  and  a  half  pounds  to  one 
pint  of  water.  Touch  the  end  of  the  wart  with  this,  morning 
and  evening,  always  applying  the  grease  before  doing  so. 
Apply  the  potash  every  other  day,  always  scraping  off  the  dead 
matter  before  doing  so.  Do  not  let  the  potash  touch  any  thing 
but  the  wart.  After  the  wart  is  reduced  apply  corrosive  lini- 
ment a  few  times  at  intervals  of  two  days.  Keep  them  grease il, 
but  wash  off  the  grease  before  putting  on  the  liniment.  Har- 
ness Galls,  Saddle  Galls,  Warbles,  and  Sit  Fasts,  arft  alJ 


320  HOW    TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

ailloreut  .levelopments  of  the  same  thing,  namely  galhag  by 
harness,  saddle,  shafts,  etc.  When  such  a  gall  is  observed, 
wash  cleau  with  cool  water,  and  when  dry  cover  with  an  adhe- 
sive plaster  of  common  salve.  If  swollen  and  matterated,  leave 
a  slit  in  the  plaster  for  the  escape  of  the  matter. 

In  bad  cases  use  the  corrosive  liniment  until  healing  begins, 
then  put  on  the  plaster.  When  they  harden  like  corns,  leaving 
the  edges  sare,  remove  the  hard  portion  with  a  knife  and  apply 
the  chloride  of  zinc  lotion  until  they  begin  to  heal,  then  apply 
plaster  as  before.  Scabby  eruptions  of  the  ears  are  to  be 
washed  with  strong  soapsuds,  and  anointed  daily  with  the  sul- 
phur ointment.  Tumors  appearing  on  different  portions  of  the 
body  should  be  treated  at  once  with  the  corrosive  liniment. 

Deafness,  and  most  diseases  of  the  ear,  are  the  results  of  vio' 
lence,  beating  over  the  head,  pinching  and  pulling  the  ears,  etc. 
If  tumors  or  swellings  appear  within  reach  of  the  little  mop, 
apply  the  corrosive  liniment.  If  within  the  ear  inject  small 
"^uautities  of  the  eye-wash.     {See  Remedies.) 

Diseases  of  the  Brain  and  Nervous  System  are  usually 
fatal.  Water  on  the  brain ;  hydrophobia ;  epileptic  fits ;  phre- 
uitis  or  inflammation  of  the  brain,  and  insanity  are,  so  far  as  we 
know,  wholly  incurable.  Dr.  Stewart  thus  writes  of  Apoplexy  : 
Apoplexy  is  caused  by  .a  pressure  of  blood  upon  the  brain. 
It  is  hardly  recognized  by  the  farmer,  and  he  would  probably 
bo  surprised  to  know  how  many  horses  die  of  it  yearly.  The 
animal's  death  is  usually  attributed  to  some  other  disease,  and 
the  treatment  pursued  aids  in  hastening  the  result.  Perhaps 
nearly  one-fourth  of  those  severe  attacks  of  disease  which  go 
among  the  masses  by  the  name  of  bots  are  really  apoplexy." 

It  is  often  mistaken  for  staggers  or  some  other  disease  of  the 
stomach.  High  feeding  and  little  exercise  are  often  the  immo- 
diate  cause,  but  these  are  not  suiBcient  to  account  for  it  without 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  321 

Other  and  predisposing  causes.  Apoplexy  is  always  cliaracler- 
ized  by  giddiness  and  wildness  of  motion,  and  nearly  always  by 
a  staggering  gait.  Hence  the  reason  why  it  is  so  frequently 
mistaken  for  "the  staggers." 

Its  severe  symptoms  in  the  next  stage  are  profuse  sweating, 
a  trembling  of  the  whole  frame  and  especially  of  the  knees ;  a 
wild,  wistful  look  and  a  twitching  of  the  skin,  and  jerking  of  the 
ears.  Youatt's  description  is  perfect.  'The  actual  illness  is 
perhaps  first  recognized  by  the  horse  standing  with  his  head 
depressed.  It  bears  upon  or  is  forced  against  the  manger  or  the 
wall,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  weight  of  the  animal  is 
evidently  supported  by  this  pressure  of  the  head.  As  ue  thus 
stands  he  is  balancing  himself  from  one  side  to  the  other  as  if 
he  Were  ready  to  fall ;  and  it  is  often  dangerous  to  stand  near 
him  or  to  move  him,  for  he  falls  without  warning.  If  he  can 
get  his  muzzle  into  a  corner  he  will  sometimes  continue  there 
motionless  for  a  considerable  time,  and  then  drop,  as  if  he  were 
shot;  but,  the  next  moment  he  is  up  again  -syith  his  feet  almost 
in  the  rack  {we  think  the  last  is  a  rare  exhibition.  0.  W.  D.). 
He  sleeps  or  seems  to,  do  so,  as  he  stands,  or  at  least  he  is  nearly 
or  quite  unconscious  of  surrounding  objects.  When  he  is 
roused,  he  looks  vacantly  around  him.  Perhaps  he  will  take  a 
lock  of  hay  if  it  is  offered  to  him,  but  ere  it  is  half  masticated 
the  eye  clo?;ea,  and  he  sleeps  again  with  the  food  in  his  mouth, 
soon  afterwards  he  is  perhaps  roused  once  more.  The  eye 
opens,  but  it  has  an  unmeaning  glare.  The  hand  is  moved  be- 
fore him,  but  the  eye  closes  not ;  he  is  spoken  to,  but  he  hears 
not.  The  last  act  of  voluntary  motion  which  he  will  attempt  is 
usually  to  drink ;  but  he  has  little  power  over  the  nniscles  of 
deglutition,  and  the  fluid  returns  through  the  nostrils."  These 
are  the  first  stages ;  foaming,  gnashing  of  teeth,  twitching,  wild- 
ness and  cmvulsions  follow.     As  there  is  a  pressure  of  blood 


322  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

wliioh  is  fearfully  cougested,  bleeding  must  be  resorted  to. 
Take  first  a  couple  of  quarts.  In  ten  to  twenty  minutes  as 
much  more.  Between  these  bleedings  give  a  pint  of  hot  salt 
and  water,  with  a  teaspoonful  of  cayenne  pepper,  and  half  an 
ounce  of  laudanum  in  it.  If  the  horse  is  not  weak  from  the 
bleeding,  in  ten  or  twenty  minutes  bleed  again,  until  he  shows 
signs  of  weakness.  Mix  one-half  ounce  each  of  gentian  and 
tringer,  and. four  ounces  epsora  salts;  make  two  doses.  Give  one 
four  hours  after  the  laudanum,  the  other  twelve  hours  later. 
Give  a  warm  meal  gruel  after  this  until  the  bowels  are  free. 

If  the  horse  recovers,  take  pains  to  prevent  his  getting  in  high 
condition  again,  as  he  will  almost  surely  have  another  attack. 

Palsy,  or  partial  paralysis,  is  a  rare  disease,  is  not  well 
understood,  and  no  treatment  is  sure.  Nervous  spasms,  in 
which  the  horse  becomes  frightened,  agitated,  and  trembling, 
without  apparent  cause,  are  usijally  treated  with  the  whip, 
which  can  only  aggravate  them.  Give  the  horse  a  little  quiet, 
pat  his  head,  talk  soothingly  to  him,  and  a  few  minutes  will 
restore  his  tranquillity.  Relax  the  system  by  giving  only  soft 
food. 

Diseases  of  the  Teeth  and  Mouth. — Few  people  com- 
pare animals  with  themselves,  when  called  upon  to  care  for  their 
wants,  but  in  most  respects,  physically,  they  are  alike,  and  the 
same  causes  produce  the  same  effects  in  each.  As  the  child 
suffers  in  teething,  and  the  aduh  from  toothache,  so  do  the  colt 
and  the  horse,  under  like  circumstances.  During  suckling,  the 
mother's  milk  prevents  the  evil  effects  of  teething,  but  after 
weaning,  the  colt  is  liable  to  various  diseases  from  this  cause. 
The  process  by  which  the  first  teeth  are  removed,  and  replaced 
by  the  permanent  set,  is  wonderful  and  curious,  but  we  have 
not  space  to  describe  it.  During  all  this  period,  or  into  th 
third  year,  there  is  always  more  or  less  soreness  and  inflamma- 


e 


HORSES   AXD   MULES.  82-3 

tion.  A  tooth  striving  to  push  through  the  gums  at  one  end, 
and  to  fasten  its  fangs  :it  the  other,  is  a  serious  matter,  and  it 
should  be  aided  in  its  upward  course  by  cutting  the  gums.  The 
mouth  should  be  often  examined,  and  wherever  a  tooth  is  try- 
to  push  its  way  through,  with  a  sharp  knife,  cut  from  the  bas(i 
of  the  tooth  to  the  point.  If  this  is  not  done,  inflammation  will 
often  extend  to  the  throat,  the  head,  and  the  eyes.  The  inflamed 
condition  of  the  mouth,  constantly  tends  to  sour  stomach.  The 
practice  of  putting  out  the  colt  to  pasture,  and  leaving  him  for 
weeks  to  take  care  of  himself,  is  to  be  severely  condemned.  In 
this  time,  he  may  lay  the  foundation,  and  we  know  that 
thousands  of  colts  do  thus  lay  the  foundation  of  serious  diseases 
of  after  life.  The  colt  should  be  often  visited,  examined,  and 
handled,  if  you  desire  a  sound  or  reliable  horse.  Pasture  is  best 
for  him  in  summer,  but  will  not  excuse  neglect.  In  winter 
keep  him  warmly  and  comfortably  housed,  give  provender,  m  t 
feed,  a  few  oats,  roots,  and  other  light  diet,  but  no  solid,  heating 
food.  Keep  a  little  salt  where  he  can  easily  get  at  it,  and  occa- 
sionally put  half  a  dose  of  sulphur  in  his  feed.  Good  wood 
ashes,  put  often  in  the  bottom  of  the  manger,  will  neutralize 
the  sour  stomach.  Toothache  we  believe  to  be  very  common 
among  horses,  not  alone  from  decayed  teeth,  but  from  biting 
pebbles,  grit,  etc.,  in  the  food,  and  from  hard  substances  getting 
between  the  teeth.  The  head  is  often  carried  on  one  side,  or 
pressed  against  the  wall,  saliva  dribbles  from  the  lips,  the  food 
is  allowed  to  fall  from  the  mouth.  One  day  the  horse  eats  little, 
and  is  low  spirited ;  the  next  day  he  makes  up  for  both,  show 
ing  the  same  condition  as  in  men.  If  the  symptoms  continually 
grow  worse,  the  teeth  should  be  examined,  and  the  decayed  one 
removed.  If  the  breath  is  hot  and  offensive,  the  saliva  thick 
and  stringy,  give  sulphur,  four  ounces;  if  possible,  an  ounce  of 
"jimson  seed."     Put  ashes  in  the  manger,  as  directed  for  colts. 


324  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

Green  limbs  of  the  poplar  are  most  excellent  in  these  cases,  and 
will  be  eaten  greedily.  Scurvy  of  the  teeth  is  only  a  form  of 
decay,  the  decayed  portion  being  left  on  the  surface.  Treat  aa 
above,  and  when  the  stomach  recovers  its-  healthy  tone,  the 
crust  can  be  removed  with  a  coarse  file.  The  tooth  should  be 
sandpapered  after  filing.  Before  closing  the  subject  of  the 
teeth,  we  would  say  that  the  practice  of  feeding  unground  grain 
toyouiigcolts,  before  the  permanent  teeth  are  set,  is  injurious, 
not  only  at  the  time,  but  in  after  years. 

There  are  many  abuses  of  the  horse's  mouth  by  bit  and 
bridle ;  and  mouth  and  tongue  are  often  chafed  and  wounded 
by  those  who  profess  to  have  feeling  for  brutes.  Severe 
pulling  and  ^'- sawinrj^  on  the  bits,  pulling  up  hard  and  sudden- 
ly, and  all  like  practices,  except  w^hen  absolutely  necessary  for 
personal  safety,  are  to  be  condemned.  Always  say  whoa, 
before  yuu  begin  to  pull  on  the  bit,  and  then  pull  up  steadily. 

Lampas  us  a  disease,  is  only  imaginary,  it  is  an  inflammation 
of  the  muscles  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  The  old  resorts  to 
burning,  and  caustics,  are  horrible.  If  the  inflammation  is 
severe,  make  a  slight  cut  in  the  muscles,  chse  to  the  teeth,  wash 
the  mouth  and  gums  with  some  cooling  lotion,  weak  arnica  and 
water,  or  weak  chlorate  of  potash. 

Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Lungs  are  common  in  our 
climate,  as  well  to  horses  as  to  man.  But  climate  is  not  all. 
The  horse  has  huge  lungs,  and  absorbs  large  quantities  of  air 
at  each  breath;  to  breathe  this  air  over  again  is  injurious. 
When  we  take  into  our  account,  that  in  ninety-nine  stables  out 
of  one  hundred,  the  air  is  not  fit  for  the  horse  to  breathe  at  all, 
and  that  this  air  has  to  be  breathed  over  and  over  many  times  for 
lack  of  ventilation,  it  is  a  wonder  that  any  horse  has  sound  lungs. 
Colds,  m/uen^a,  (<' pink-eye,"  "horse-ail,"  so-called  by  many 
Korse  jockeys,)  are  produced  in  the  horse  in  just  the  smne  manner 


HOESES   AND   MULES.  326 

as  in  men.  Ileating  and  exposure  afterwards ;  a  hard,  wet 
drive  without  being  properly  dried,  rubbed  down,  warmly 
housed,  well  bedded,  etc.  Such  are  the  causes.  Swelled 
THROAT.  In  this  term  we  include,  sore  throat,  enlarged  glands, 
and  laryngitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  larynx.  In  all  these 
developments  of  cold,  there  is  more  or  less  soreness,  swelling, 
redness  of  the  eye,  an  increase  of  mucus  from  the  nose,  dullness, 
stiffness,  failure  to  eat,  slobbering  of  saliva,  etc.  To  discover 
laryngitis,  apply  the  ear  to  the  windpipe  from  the  chest  to  the 
head ;  as  you  proceed,  carefully  listening,  up  the  neck  you  will 
hear  a  little  gurgle,  which  increases  to  a  wheeze  or  whistling 
sound.  All  these  affections  lead  to  bronchitis,  consumption, 
and  death.  The  place  to  stop  them  is  here  at  the  outset,  the 
time  is  now,  when  first  discovered.  If  a  mild  case,  dussolve 
half  an  ounce  of  extract  of  belladonna  in  two  quarts  of  water. 
Put  half  a  pint  in  a  bottle,  hold  up  the  horse's  head,  and  turn 
it  into  the  mouth ;  let  him  retain  it  thirty  seconds,  drop  the 
head,  and  it  will  run  from  his  lips.  Repeat  this  at  least  three 
or  four  times  a  day.  Give  no  hay  or  whule  grain  ;  only  green 
food,  roots,  boiled  grain,  mashes,  gruel,  and  such  soft  food 
should  be  given  during  any  soreness  or  inflammation  of  the 
throat.  If  the  attack  is  severe,  or  increases  in  spite  of  the  above 
treatment,  open  the  neck  vein,  and  bleed  two  or  three  quarts. 
Prepare  chloride  of  zinc,  three  drachms ;  extract  of  belladonna, 
half  an  ounce ;  tincture  of  capsicum,  two  drachms ;  water,  one 
gallon,  and  use  as  directed  for  the  belladonna  and  water. 
Apply  the  corrosive  liniment  on  the  outside  of  the  throat,  not 
more  than  two  mornings  in  succession.  Cough  is  an  accom- 
paniment to  almost  every  disease  of  the  throat  and  lungs. 
The  first  cough  should  be  noticed,  and  its  cause  ascertained. 
The  disease  which  causes  it  should  be  attacked.  Dr.  Stewart 
recommends  the  gunpowder  mixture,  (See  Remedies,)  and  if  he 


326  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE    FARM  PAY. 

v;iaads  in  stable,  as  much  sulphur  and  resin  as  he  will  eat. 
Uudoubtedl}^  a  piece  of  rock  salt  in  the  manger  is  beneficial  in 
nil  throat  and  lung  complaints.  Grass  in  its  season,  and  soft 
food  as  above,  are  nature's  remedies.  Broken  Wind,  Heaves, 
roaring,  wheezing,  and  various  other  difficulties  in  breathing, 
are  all  of  one  nature,  and  ought  to  be  all  classed  as  one.  They 
are  incurable  in  the  present  state  of  science.  Such  horses 
should  never  be  driven  hard,  far,  fast,  or  heavily  loaded.  Feed 
and  water  before  starting,  and  never  put  them  to  work  when 
the  stomach  is  distended  with  food. 

Diseases  of  the  Chest  and  Lungs.  Chest  Founder. 
Symptoms,  stiffness  of  shoulders  during  action,  pain  in  the 
breast  when  touched.  Give  hot  salt  and  water,  and  wash 
the  breast  in  the  same.  If  on  the  second  day  the  symptoms 
grow  no  better,  apply  the  corrosive  liniment,  and  give  a  pint 
of  hot  salt  and  water,  in  which  mix  half  an  ounce  of  ginger, 
and  a  drachm  of  tartar  emetic.  Bronchitis  is  one  in  the  lisc 
of  maladies  that  follow  each  other  from  cold  to  consumption. 
First  cold,  then  enlarged  glands,  swelled  throat,  bronchitis, 
pneumonia,  congestion,  and  last,  consumption.  When  will 
men  learn  that  care  for  their  animals  which  shall  prevent 
this  train  of  maladies.  Dr.  Dadd  thus  gives  the  symptoms  of 
Bronchitis.  "  Veterinarians  recognize  this  disease  under  three 
aspects,  viz.: — 

1.  "Acute,  as  when  the  horse  is  suddenly  attacked  with  an 
irritable  cough  and  sore  throat,  with  the  usual  febrile  symp- 
toms, sucli  as  quick,  wiry  pulse ;  membranes  of  the  ncse  and 
mouth  redder  than  usual,  accelerated  respiration ;  great  anxiety 
of  countenance,  etc.,  etc. 

2.  "  Chronic  bronchitis,  which  sets  in  after  the  acute  has  sub- 
sided.  This  stage  is  marked  by  a  discharge  of  watery  and  some- 


HORSES   AND   MULES.  327 

limes  mucous  fluid  from  the  nose;  and  the  act  of  respiration  is 
performed  with  a  vheezing  noise. 

3.  '■  The  third  variety  has  been  named  the  epidemic."  Give 
two  oances  of  Epsom  salts,  in  a  pint  of  salt  and  water,  pretty 
warm  ;  while  this  do.-e  is  being  prepared,  wash  the  wliole  neck 
and  chest  with  a  decoction  of  tobacco,  weak,  but  hot.  Now  put 
one  ounce  each  of  gentian  and  ginger  in  a  quart  of  water,  and 
boil  until  one  half  evaporates.  Divide  this  into  four  doses, 
and  give  night  and  morning.  Continue  these  until  improve- 
ment in  the  patient  is  perceptible.  We  also  wish  to  cover 
the  jnucous  membranes.  Slippery  elm  is  the  best  possible 
article  ;  into  two  quarts  of  boiling  water,  stir  just  enough  to 
thicken  it,  not  quite  as  thick  as  cream ;  make  four  doses  of  it, 
and  give  twice  daily.  Keep  the  bowels  loose  by  means  of 
warm  gruels  and  mashes.  Dadd  says:  "i^me  /tW,  scalded  and 
set  before  the  animal  warm,  answers  two  purposes,  viz.,  that  of 
relaxing  the  engorged  surfaces  of  the  nose  and  throat,  and  also 
has  a  relaxing  effect  on  the  bowels.  If  the  bowels  should  re- 
main closed,  inject  warm  soapsuds.  Pneumonia,  or  inflamma- 
tion of  the  iungs,  is  the  next  stage  of  the  disease;  it  is  usually 
ushered  in  with  a  chill,  (the  horse  shivering  all  ovei),  succeeded 
by  unnatural  warmth  of  the  body  and  coldness  of  the  extremi- 
ties ;  the  pulse  is  quick,  breathing  short,  quick,  and  hard  ;  a  sure 
symptom  is  the  icy  coldness  of  the  extremities.  If  you  do  not 
conclude  to  end  these  sufferings  with  the  bullet,  treat  vigorously 
as  recommended  for  bronchitis.  Congestion  is  the  last  stage  of 
pneumonia,  and  unless  death  follows  immediately,  the  horse  is 
spared  for  the  finishing  stroke  of  Consumption,  for  which  we 
prescribe  no  cure,  as  there  is  none. 

Diseases  of  the  Stomach  and  Bowels. 

The  BoT  is  a  natural  inhabitant  of  the  stomach  of  the  horse. 
His  history  is  as  follows :  The  gadfly,  that  torment  of  the  horse. 


828  m>^^'   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

attaches  hor  eu'gs  to  his  hair,  tliey  hatch,  and  the  little  grub  is 
linked  oft'  hy  the  horse  and  swallowed.  Sometimes  several 
huiKlrod  will  thus  be  deposited  in  the  stomach.  They  attach 
»hein.<«el\'es  to  the  uppoi-  part  of  the  stomach,  where  they  spend 
the  winter  an<l  p.iss  oft'  in  the  following  season  to  make  room 
for  another  company.  They  seldom  do  any  harm.  In  raro» 
1.  .■.„....„  they  obstruct  the  entrance  of  food.  It  was  formerly 
i  that  they  injured,  and  sometimes  killed  the  horse, 
and  there  are  still  those  ignorant  enough  to  give  powerful  doses 
of  medicine  **to  kill  the  bots,"  or,  "to  drive  out  the  bots." 

Now,  if  it  were  worth  while  to  attempt  to  kill  them,  or  drive 
them  out,  it  cannot  be  done.     No  medicine  can  be  given  strong 
enough  to  kill  them.     They  will  live  for  months  corked  up  in 
(spirits  or  poison.     But  supposing  the  dose  given  would  kill,  it 
can  only  reach  a  very  small  proportion  of  them.     They  are 
:  riily  fastened  where  the  dose  goes  over  them  like  a  shower 
;'.i'  ;i,  and  has  no  eft'cet,  except  on  a  few  stray  ones  who  may  be 
wundering  about  oft"  their  guard.     When  examined  under  the 
microscope,  they  are  seen  to  have  a  little  mouth  no  larger  than 
the  point  of  a  needle,  wdiich  they  can  close  at  their  pleasure 
and  refuse  all  d/yses  you  may  send  them.     It  is  said  that  they  eat 
through  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  and  cause  death ;   this  is  not 
w).    They  have  no  power  to  eat  the  stomach  U7itil  ft  becomes  so 
i     used  that  death  must  surely  folloiv.     The  stomach  of  a  horse 
apparently  sound,  killed  by  accide       will  often  be  found  eat 
through.   It  is  probable  that  they  att     'c  some  weak  or  partially 
'         ■•.     Any  one  who  will      gamine  them    under   the 
•  ill  see  that  they  have  no  means  of  penetrating  the 
:id  stomach.     When-  bots  are  voided  in  the  excre- 
ment or   ,  ^,   found  clinging   to  the   anus,  give  the  following 
prescript!    i :  ^wdered  fern,  two  ounci  • ;  powdered  poplar  bark, 
*  'ir  oun  es;    mustard   seed,    two    o'    ces;    common    salt,    six 


HORSES    AND    MULES.  829 

ounces;  sulpluir,  three  ounces;  aloes,  one  ounce.  ^^l^c  and 
divide  into  eighteen  powders;  give  one,  night  and  morning, 
in  the  feed.  This  will  bring  away  any  not  firmly  attached,  and 
will  promote  digestion.  The  awful  doses  sometimes  given  for 
bots,  we  condemn.  SouR  Stomach  is  liable  to  trouble  the 
lior.se  at  almost  any  time ;  it  is  caused  by  fermentation  of  the 
food;  grass  after  eating  hay;  too.  much  food  after  fasting,  and 
other  like  causes.  Fermentation  produces  gas,  the  gas  dis 
tends  the  intestines,  and  the  horse  has  CoLic,  inflammation 
of  the  bowels,  Enteritis,  (fret,  gripes,)  or  Spasmodic  Colic 
which  though  called  by  the  above  dift'ering  names,  is  sub- 
stantially the  same,  and  has  three  stages.  The  symptoms 
are,  first  stage,  uneasiness,  eating  stopped,  });iuiiig  with  fore  foot, 
hind  foot  raised  to  the  belly,  the  nose  points  to  the  flank. 
Second  stage,  spasms,  they  grow  more  frequent  and  more  violent : 
the  sufferer  sweats  and  trembles ;  he  assumes  various  positions 
to  obtain  relief.  Third  siagc,  he  suddenly  lies  down,  rolls, 
kicks,  and  as  suddenly  comes  to  his  feet  again.  He  is  now  in 
terrible  pain,  and  in  danger  every  moment  of  a  rupiurc  of  the 
bowels,  and  instant  death.  The  treatment  for  the  colic  is  so 
simple  that  a  child  can  understand  it,  and  yet  many  persist  in 
turning  all  kinds  of  nostrums  into  the  already  terribly  inflamed 
stomach.  During  the  first  stage,  give  a  tablcspoonful  of  chloro- 
form in  a  gill  of  whisk}',  and  a  jiint  of  wai-ni  wator.  In  case 
the  chloroform  is  not  ri  It  at  hand,  dissolve  in  a  jtint  of  hot 
water  all  the  salt  it  will;  ssolve,  and  give  as  hot  as  the  horse 
will  take  it.  Now  inject  pint  of  warm  soapsuds.  If  you  have 
no  syringe,  put  it  in  a  loi.g  necked  bottle  and  turn  t  into  th«' 
rectum,  or  turn  it  through  a  tunnel.  Secure  a  disci  .'ge  from 
the  bowels  and  the  horse  is  saved.  If  the  disease  ^  reached 
the  second,  and  especial','  the  third  stage,  the  h')r.-«  mu.st  be 
bled  before  anv  other  tr<    tment. 


830  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

Flatulent  Colic  is  much  like  the  former,  but  occurs  in 
ibe  largo  intestines,  and  is  caused  by  a  stricture  or  stoppage  of 
the  rectum.  Hard  masses  of  excrement  are  held  fast  in  the 
passages,  and  the  gases  cannot  escape.  A  rumbling  is  heard  in 
the  abdomen,  which  distinguishes  this  from  the  ordinary  colic. 
The  bowels  must  be  moved,  but  not  by  physic.  Give  the  in- 
jectiou of  A^irin  soapsuds  two  or  three  times,  at  short  intervals; 
and  if  these  fail,  strip  your  arm,  grease  it  to  the  elbow,  force  it 
up  the  rectum  until  the  obstruction  is  reached,  and  crush  it 
with  the  fingers — or,  if  that  cannot  be  done,  roll  it  backward 
until  it  can  be  removed.  After  the  bowels  are  freed,  in  any 
colic,  give  a  dose  of  sulphur  and  resin,  daily,  for  three  or  four 
day.s,  with  soft  food,  and  a  little  daily  exercise.  "While  waiting 
for  a  movement  of  the  bowels,  the  work  can  be  hastened  by 
bathing  the  flanks  in  hot  tobacco  water.  Inflammation  and 
soreness  of  the  rectum,  sometimes  accompanied  by  bleeding, 
often  follow  these  severe  attacks  of  colic.  Bathe  the  rectum 
with  salt  and  water,  cold.  Grease  the  anus  with  lard  and  salt 
whenever  it  appears  to  itch  or  be  sore. 

Dlseases  of  the  Liver,  Urinary  Organs,  etc.  Jaun- 
dice, or  Yellows,  is  distinguished  by  yellowness  of  the  eyes, 
mouth,  and  skin.  The  dung  hardens,  the  urine  is  highly  co- 
lored, and  the  appetite  fails.  Give  four  doses  of  "jimson  seed," 
two  days  apart ;  omit  for  a  week ;  and  if  the  symptoms  do  not 
begin  to  yield,  repeat  the  doses.  If  jimson  seed  is  not  to  be 
had.  give  daily  a  half  dose  of  sulphur  and  resin.  The  bark  of 
yellow  poplar  is  beneficial  in  all  these  diseases. 

Nephritis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys,  is  a  very 
troublesome  complaint,  caused  by  any  one  of  the  thousand 
abuses  to  which  the  horse  is  subjected.  Bad  fodder  is  one,  and 
strong  diuretics,  such  as  copperas,  saltpetre  and  mineral  poisons, 
are  the  frequent  agents.     In  this,  and  all  other  diseases  of  the 


HORSES   AND    MULES.  331 

urinary  organs,  the  horse  stands  with  his  hind  legs  wide  apart; 
he  frequently  tries  to  urinate,  but  the  amount  is  small,  and 
grows  more  scanty;  it  is  high  colored,  and  sometimes  bloody; 
he  refuses  to  turn  the  body,  and  shrinks  when  the  loins  are 
pressed.  In  the  first  stages,  apply  a  cold  water  bandage  to  the 
loins.  Into  one  pint  of  boiling  water  stir  enough  powdered 
slippery  elm  to  make  it  creamy,  and  add  one  half  pint  of  lin 
seed  oil,  for  a  dose.  In  severe  cases,  bleed  once;  apply  the 
corrosive  liniment  to  the  loins;  increase  the  linseed  oil  to  one 
pint.  Give  for  drink,  oat  meal  water,  made  by  stirring  a  quart 
of  oat  meal  into  a  gallon  of  boiling  water. 

Diabetes,  or  Profuse  Stalling,  may  become  nephritis, 
and  should  be  taken  in  time.  Dr.  Stewart  recommends  whor- 
tleberry leaves,  two  ounces  to  one  quart  of  boiling  water,  for 
two  doses,  on  alternate  days.  Bloody  discharges  with  the  urine 
he  treats  in  the  same  manner.  Sometimes  the  urine  is  thick 
and  reddish,  and  again  white  and  milky.  These  states  precede 
Gravel,  or  Stone  in  the  Bladder,  which  is  indicated  by 
partial  suppression  of  the  urine  and  great  suffering.  The 
symptoms  are  otherwise  very  much  of  the  nature  of  spasmodic 
colic.  The  cure  of  gravel  is  doubtful,  but  Dr.  Stewart  says  he 
has  cured  five  cases  out  of  siy  in  his  extensive  practice  by  the 
followiuL^  means:  A  table  spoonful  of  "jimson  seed"  every 
other  day,  in  the  feed,  until  six  dosos  have  been  given.  Also 
four  doses,  or  a  dose  morning  and  night,  for  two  days,  of  tho 
spirits  of  nitre  four  ounces,  oil  of  juniper  half  an  ounce,  oil  of 
sassafras  one  ounce,  made  into  four  doses.  Suppression  of  urine 
may  be  present  without  any  of  the  diseases  we  have  named, 
caused  by  any  injury  to  the  urethra.  Give  the  dose  last  named 
in  a  pint  of  warm  water,  three  times  a  day,  on  alternate  days. 

Foul  Siieath  is  not  a  disease,  but  leads  to  it.     The  sheath 

should  be  bathed  and  washed  quite  frequently.     When  this  is 
21 


332  now  TO  .make  the  farm  pay. 

not  done,  dirt  will  collect  inside  it,  forming  into  lumps,  which 
irritate  it,  and  cause  inflammation.  Foul,  putrid,  offensive  mat- 
ter runs  from  the  sheath,  a  disgusting  advertisement  of  either 
iho  ignorance  or  carelessness  of  his  keeper.  The  penis  is  not 
protruded  at  all  to  urinate,  but  the  water  is  allowed  to  run  out 
of  the  sheath.  The  first. thing  to  be  done  is  to  remove  the 
lumps,  wagh  the  sheath  with  soap  and  water,  and  grease  it  with 
lard  and  salt.  This  washing  and  greasing  should  be  repeated 
two  or  three  times  a  week,  until  the  sheath  is  perfectly  well  and 
ihe  foul  odor  gone. 

Diseases  of  the  Heart  and  Blood  are  not  common,  unless 
we  name  all  fever  a  disease  of  the  blood,  which  it  really  is. 
Disease  of  the  heart  cannot  be  ascertained  except  by  the  most 
experienced  eye  and  ear,  and  when  discovered  we  know  of  no 
remedy.  Fevers  accompany  nearly  all  diseases  of  the  horse, 
and  require  no  separate  treatment.  Bleeding  is  treated  of  under 
the  head  of  Eemedies.  Poisons  of  snakes  and  insects,  should 
be  treated  at  once  with  a  half  pint  of  whisky  and  a  teaspoonful 
of  hartshorn,  internally,  and  a  wash  of  the  same  externally 
For  the  sting  of  insects,  mosquitos,  gadflies,  etc.,  we  would 
recommend,  as  a  preventive,  the  use  of  the  cresylic  soap,  sold 
by  Orange,  Judd  &  Co.,  publishers  of  the  A7nerican  Agricul- 
turist^ New  York.  An  animal  washed  with  this  is  insect  proof, 
and  the  endless  torment  and  irritation  are  at  an  end.  A  box  of 
ten  pounds  costs  four  dollars,  and  will  prove  well  worth  the 
money.  We  would  once  more  caution  farmers  against  the  use 
of  poisons  in  treating  their  stock.  Nux  vomica,  cantharides  or 
Sjxmish  flies,  copperas,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  and  corrosive  sublimate, 
are  all  poisons.  Sumach  will  sometimes  poison  the  nose,  caus- 
ing sores.     These  should  be  greased  with  glycerine  or  lard. 

Fractures  of  the  skull,  of  the  nasal  bones,  and  of  the  ribs, 
ire  sometimes  caused  by  blows  or  kicks.     No  person  should 


HORSES   AND    MULES.  333 

ever  strike  a  horse  with  any  hard  or  heavy  instrument,  and  to 
kick  a  lior.se  in  the  abdomen  is  brutal. 

Fractures  of  the  Limbs  are  simple  when  broken  only  in 
one  place,  and  compound,  when  broken  in  two  or  more  places ; 
in  which  case  they  will  protrude.  A  simple  fracture  if  taken  at 
once  can  be  made  to  heal.  Pads  of  cotton  should  be  laid  upon 
the  leg  and  bound  tightly  to  it  with  strips  of  cloth.  These 
should  be  soaked  with  arnica  tincture  and  water,  half  and  half; 
keep  them  wet  for  several  hours  at  a  time  every  day. 

The  next  thing  is  to  sling  the  horse  to  prevent  his  lying  down. 
Get  six  or  more  yards  of  bagging,  according  to  the  width  of  the 
stall.  Fasten  one  end  to  one  side  of  the  stall,  run  it  under  the 
horse's  belly,  and  draw  it  up  on  the  other  side  till  it  takes  him 
nearly  off  his  feet.  Any  contrivance  that  will  answer  this  pur- 
pose is  all  that  is  required.  He  must  be  fastened  in  front,  so 
that  he  cannot  pull  himself  out  of  the  sling.  When  the  frac- 
ture is  a  compound  one,  and  the  bones  are  displaced,  the  setting 
should  take  place  before  he  is  raised  to  his  feet.  The  leg  should 
be  wet  for  sometime  previous  in  hot  soapy  water.  Cloths  may 
be  wrapped  around,  and  hot  water  poured  on  for  twenty  min- 
utes. A  rope  must  be  fastened  to  his  foot  and  carried  around  a 
post  or  some  fast  body  and  the  leg  gradually  pulled  until  the 
bones  come  in  place  again.  This  can  be  told  by  a  gentle  press- 
ure of  the  hand.  The  wet  cloths  should  now  be  removed,  and 
if  the  bones  are  all  right  the  leg  may  be  rubbed  with  the  hand 
until  it  is  dry.  This  may  be  done  by  one  while  others  prepare 
the  bandages,  three  inches  wide,  and  dipped  in  a  warm  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  pitch,  beeswax,  and  tallow.  Begin  to  wind 
below  the  fracture,  place  cotton  padding  over  the  fracture,  and 
wind  the  bandage  tightly  over  this.  Wind  as  far  above  the 
fracture  as  below  it.  Two  pieces  of  green  wood  may  be  hol- 
lowed  out  so  as  not  to  press  upon  the  wound,  and  the  ends 


•■••I  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FAKM    PAY. 

sUuved  down  thin,  and  then  bound  on  with  more  of  the  adlie 
give  strips.  All  this  should  be  done  as  quickly  as  possible,  and 
the  leg  relieved  from  the  ropes."  A  horse  in  good  condition 
will  usually  bv  this  treatment  recover  the  use  of  the  limb. 
The  leg  should  be  bathed  for  a  few  days  with  arnica,  to  pre- 
vent inflammation.  We  have  known  a  simple  fracture  heal  in 
one  month,  and  have  heard  of  a  compound  fracture  taking  seven 
months.  A  fracture  below  the  knee  will  heal  sooner  than  one 
above.  Let  the  horse  decide  when  it  is  healed  b}'-  giving  him  a 
chance  to  use  it  after  one  or  two  months.  Feed  him  well,  and 
keep  up  his  strength. 

Shoeing  requires  little  to  be  said,  as  the  smiths  take  that  in 
their  own  hands.  No  horse  should  be  shod  before  he  is  three 
years  old. 

The  shoes  on  young  horses  should  be  cleaned  as  often  as  once 
in  two  months.  The  farmer  should  stand  by  and  watch  the 
operation,  and  see  that  the  heel  is  not  pared  down  too  much. 
One-third  less  should  be  pared  off  at  the  heel  than  the  toe. 

An  account  of  the  remedies  for  diseases  of  the  horse. 

Dr.  Stewart's  Corrosive  Liniment.  Turpentine,  one  pint ; 
corrosive  sublimate,  one  ounce  ;  gum  camphor,  one  ounce ;  shake 
well,  and  let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours.  It  should  be  kept  con- 
stantly on  hand  by  every  owner  of  a  horse.  The  corrosive 
sublimate  should  be  powdered  as  fine  as  it  is  possible  for  any 
druggist  to  do  it.  Tell  the  druggist  so  when  you  go  for  it. 
Never  turn  this  liniment  on  to  your  flesh  or  clothing,  or  on  to 
any  tin  or  metal.  Always  turn  it  into  some  glass  or  earthen 
vessel.  Shake  the  bottle  well  before  opening.  .  Apply  with  a 
little  mop,  and  for  bone  diseases  dry  it  in  with  a  hot  iron,  held 
near  the  flesh. 

Glycerine  Ointment.  Animal  glycerine,  half  a  pint ;  chloride 
of  zinc,  half  an  ounce. 


HORSES  AND  MULES.  335 

Chloride  of  Zinc  Lotion.  One  grain  chloride  of  zinc  to 
one  ounce  of  water. 

Splint  Lotion.  Acetic  acid,  two  ounces ;  water,  eight  oun- 
ces; chloric  ether,  one  ounce;  apply  to  a  pad  of  two  or  three 
thickness  of  cotton  cloth  bound  on. 

Gunpowder  Mixture.  One  tablespoonful  each  of  gunpow- 
der, lard,  soft  soap,  gum  myrrh,  and  two  of  tar.  Divide  into 
six  doses. 

Sulphur  and  Resin.  A  dose  of  sulphur  is  two  ounces. 
A  dose  of  resin  two  tablespoonfuls.  Two  ounces  of  sulphur 
and  one  ounce  resin  form  a  dose  for  every  other  day. 

JiMSON  Seed.  This  well  known  plant  [Datura  Stramonium) 
possesses  great  virtues  as  a  horse  medicine.  It  grows  in  waste 
places  among  rubbish,  and  is  sometimes  called  thorn  apple. 
Gather  the  seeds  in  October.     A  dose  is  a  tablespoonful. 

The  remaining  five  prescriptions  we  copy  from  Dr.  Stewart's 
invaluable  book.  The  American  Farmer's  Horse  Book. 

May  Apple  Liniment.  Boil  May  apple  roots  until  you  ob- 
tain a  thick  syrup;  while  still  boiling  add  one-fourth  as  much 
lard  as  you  have  syrup.  Great  care  will  be  necessary  to  keep 
this  stirring  and  prevent  it  from  burning. 

Magic  Nerve  Liniment.  Spirits  of  hartshorn,  one  and  a 
half  ounces ;  sulphuric  ether,  one  and  a  half  ounces ;  spirits  tur- 
pentine, half  an  ounce  ;  sweet  oil,  three  fourths  of  an  ounce  ;  oil 
of  cloves,  half  an  ounce ;  chloroform,  one  ounce.  Keep  tightly 
closed,  and  excluded  from  the  light.  Do  the  bottle  u})  in  a 
cloth. 

Mercurial  Salve.  Quicksilver,  the  size  of  a  pea.  Iodine, 
the  size  of  a  pea.  Corrosive  sublimate,  one  ounce,  ^fix  wiib 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  lard.  Rub  it  in  with  a  rag,  on  the  end  of 
a  stick. 

Sulphur  Ointment.     Red  precipitate,  half  an  ounce;  sul- 


330  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FAEM   PAY. 

pbur  one  ounce;  lard,  four  ounces.     Mix  well  and  preserve  for 


use. 


ErE  Wash.  Take  three  hen's  eggs  and  break  them  into  a 
q u:\rt  of  clear  cold  rain-water.  Stir  until  thoroughly  mixed. 
Boil  over  a  slow  fire,  stirring  often.  Add  half  an  ounce  of  Eial- 
phate  of  zinc,  (white  vitriol,)  continue  the  boiling  a  few  min- 
utes, and  i.t  is  ready  to  set  off.  The  curd  that  settles  in  the  bot- 
tom, applied  to  the  eye  at  night,  will  draw  out  all  fever  and  sore- 
ness. The  liquid  on  top  is  the  best  eye  wash  ever  made  for 
man  or  beast. 

Bleeding  is  recommended  by  Youatt,  Percival,  Mayhew, 
and  Stewart,  the  leading  Veterinarians  of  this  country  and  Eu- 
rope. It  is  to  be  done  judiciously,  however,  as  wholesale  blood- 
letting for  every  disease  is  bad  practice.  Bleed  always  from 
the  large  neck  vein,  the  jugular  vein,  from  six  to  ten  inches 
down  the  neck,  from  the  back  of  the  jaw.  Draw  a  small 
bard  cord  tightly  about  the  neck,  about  six  inches  below  the 
place  where  you  intend  to  bleed. 

As  soon  as  the  neck  fills  out,  moisten  the  finger,  and  smooth 
he  hair  straight  with  the  vein.  Cover  the  eye  on  that  side. 
Lay  the  fleam  lengthwise  of  the  vein,  holding  it  in  the  left  hand 
and  strike  it  a  smart  blow  with,  a  stick,-taking  care  not  to  cut 
through  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  vein.  When  you  wish  to 
stop  khe  bleeding  cut  the  cord  from  the  neck. 

Bring  tWe^ges  of  the  cut  together,  and  pin  the  skin  with  a 
small  pin.     Tie  some  of  the  tail  hairs  tightly  under  the  pin. 

In  twenty-four  hours  the  pin  can  be  removed,  and  the  scar 
wet  occasionally  with  spittle  or,  better,  diluted  arnica.  To  find 
the  pulse  of  a  horse  press  the  finger  along  the  artery  on  the  un- 
derside of  the  lower  jaw  bone.  A  proper  pulse  is  thirty  to  forty 
per  minute.     Fifty  beats  to  the  minute  is  evidence  of  disease. 

Mules      The  usefulness  of  the  mule  as  a  farm  laborer  has 


HOKSES   AND    MULES.  337 

been  fully  appreciated,  in  some  of  the  middle  and  border  States, 
but  there  seems  to  be  an  unaccountable  prejudice  against  tbeni 
in  the  eastern  and  western  States.  We  regard  tnera  as  more 
desirable  than  horses  or  oxen  on  tbe  farm.  They  are  mucli 
quicker  in  their  movements  than  the  ox,  and  are  as  tractable 
when  rightly  trained. 

Mules,  on  an  average,  are  more  valuable  than  horses,  are 
easier  raised,  are  not  as  subject  to  disease  and  accident,  are  not 
likely  to  run,  and  are  longer  lived ;  but  to  make  them  thus 
valuable,  just  as  much  care  must  be  taken  in  breeding  them, 
for  "  any  kind  of  a  jack,"  "  or  any  kind  of  a  mare,"  is  not 
"  good  enough,"  to  breed  a  mule  from.  The  same  points  in 
breeding  must  be  observed  as  in  breeding  horses. 

The  following  comparison  instituted  by  a  writer  in  the  Agri- 
cultural Annual  is,  in  the  main,  true  : 

"  Cost  of  getting  horse  colt  or  mule  colt,  the  same.  Cost  of 
raising  the  iirst  two  years,  a  little  against  the  mule.  The  third 
year  the  mule  will  do  light  work  enough  about  the  farm  to  pay 
for  his  keep,  and  after  he  is  three  years  old  will  do  any 
ordinary  farm  work.  But  the  horse  colt  must  be  kept  until  he 
is  four  years  old  before  he  is  worked  at  all,  and  when  he  is 
four  must  be  a  first-rate  colt  to  bring  as  much  as  the  mule 
will  at  two  years  old. 

"But  assume  the  animals  are  both  required  for  the  farm 
work,  see  what  a  diflerence  there  is  in  favor  of  the  mule.  The 
working  life  of  the  mule  can  be  as  safely  estimated  at  thirty 
years,  as  that  for  a  horse  at  ten  years,  so  while  a  mule  is  working 
its  life  out,  three  horses  will  be  required  to  do  equal  service. 
But  these  are  not  the  only  items;  the  saving  of  feed  is  at 
least  one-fourth,  or  not  less  than  five  hundred  and  forty-seven 
bushels  of  corn,  and  twenty-seven  and  a  half  tons  of  hay. 
These  amounts  added  to  the  original  saving  in  purchase  of 


338  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

uniinuls  sliow  an  advantage  in  favor  of  the  use  of  the  mule,  over 
the  horse,  of  over  one  thousand  dollars,  during  the  ordinary  life 
of  the  animal.  There  are  still  other  advantages,  the  mulj 
seldom  runs  away,  breaking  wagons,  harnesses,  etc.,  and  when 
one  does  run  he  is  not  likely  to  run  again.  lie  is  healthier, 
and  less  dainty  about  food,  unground  grain  and  dry  feed  being 
just  the  thing  for  him." 

The  so-called  vices  of  the  mule,  are  jumping,  kicking,  and 
obstinacy;  "as  obstinate  as  a  mule"  has  become  a  proverb,  and 
like  many  other  proverbs  conveys  only  half  a  truth.  These 
faults  are  all  in  training.  The  mule  will  not  jump  if  when  a 
colt  he  is  kept  where  he  can  not  get  over  the  fences.  Most 
people  will  let  down  one  or  two  of  the  top  bars  and  let  the  mule 
colt  jump  over  the  lower  ones.  He  then  learns  to  jump.  It 
would  be  much  better  to  leave  the  top  bar  and  make  him  go 
under.  Kicking  comes  a  little  more  naturally  to  the  mule  than 
the  horse,  but  the  habit  can  be  broken  up  in  colthood,  and  they 
will  not  kick  thereafter.  We  have  the  word  of  Mr.  Riley, 
superintendent  of  government  mules,  who  has  had  over  five 
thousand  under  his  care  at  one  time,  that  by  kind  treatment 
to  the  colt  he  is  readily  broken  of  this  vice..  The  mule  colt 
should  be  handled  and  gentled,  just  as  directed  for  the  horse 
colt,  and  taught  not  to  fear, the  presence  and  handling  of 
man.  It  is  fear  that  makes  him  kick.  Most  trainers,  fully 
believing  in  the  natural  "  devilishness"  of  the  mule,  leave 
tbem  alone  just  as  long  as  they  can  and  then  go  at  them 
with  club  and  lash,  harsh  words  and  harsher  actions,  and 
soon  break  the  mule  into  an  inveterate  kicker.  As  to  obsti- 
nacy;  train  a  mule  colt  as  we  have  directed  for  training  colts, 
and  we  venture  that  there  will  be  no  more  obstinate  mules 
than  there  are  baulky  horses.  The  good  points  of  a  mule,  are 
short  stout  limbs,  rather  than  long  slim  ones;  a  compact  body, 


HORSES    AND    MULES.  839 

rather  than  a  large  frame.  The  best  color  seems  to  be  the 
black,  and  dark  colors.  As  we  have  said,  the  diseases  of  the 
mule  are  fewer  than  those  of  the  horse,  but  otherwise  are  the 
same,  and  the  treatment  is  the  same  also.  The  mule  was 
introduced  into  this  country  by  Washington,  and  is  a  univer- 
sal favorite  wherever  he  has  had  a  fair  trial. 


CHAPTER   X. 

CATTLE. 

'reeding.  It  should  be  the  object  of  every  breeder  to 
raise  as  good  cattle  as  his  circumstances  will  permit. 
I  ,Q  This  requires  great  care  in  breeding.  No  one  breed  has 
e^  all  the  good  qualities,  and  therefore  there  should  be  a 
careful  and  judicious  selection  of  those  individual  animals,  of 
different  breeds,  having  the  points  desired,  and  a  cross  made  to 
produce  an  animal  adapted  to  each  separate  purpose  of  the 
farm. 

This  theory,  with  all  its  limitations,  we  now  propose  to  set 
before  our  readers. 

OUR  DAIRY   STOCK.* 

The  characteristics  of  the  domestic  Cow  are  dependent  upon 
a  great  variety  of  circumstances.  They  are  partly  hereditary, 
and  partly  acquired,  or  implanted  in  the  system,  by  the  treat- 
ment and  management  adopted  in  raising  the  young  animal. 
"What  are  called  dairy  qualities,  are  not  strictly  inherent  in  any 
particular  race,  breed,  or  family  of  stock,  but  may  be  found 
more  or  less  developed  in  individual  animals,  not  only  among 
all  the  well  established  breeds,  but  also  among  those  not  recog- 
nized as  belonging  to  any  particular  breed,  as  the  common  or 
"  native"  stock  of  the  country. 


*  TJy  the  author  of  Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming. 
340  y  a 


M'his  :Tr 


311 


CATTLE.  ^  348 

If  a  farmer  wished  to  collect  a  dairy  stock  for  any  bpecial 
purpose,  as,  for  instance,  the  production  of  butter  or  of  cheese, 
or  the  manufacture  of  large  quantities  of  milk,  for  sale  as  such, 
he  could  find  animals  not  only  among  our  common  stock,  but 
also  among  all  the  well-known  breeds,  that  would  be  well 
adapted  to  his  objects.  Still,  there  would  be  a  decided  differ- 
ence in  these  animals.  With  those  selected  from  any  of  the 
well  established  breeds,  especially  cows  that  have  been  bred 
with  reference  to  the  dairy,  he  would  find  a  remarkable  degree 
of  uniformity.  He  would  soon  discover  that  they  transmitted 
their  good  qualities  to  their  offspring  with  certainty,  and  that 
he  could  rely  upon  them  to  produce  their  kind,  when  bred  to  a 
male  of  their  own  class  or  breed — -while  in  those  selected  from 
the  common  stock  of  the  country,  he  would  see  no  uniformity, 
either  in  size,  color,  or  milking  capabilities,  and  that  they  could 
not  be  relied  upon  to  produce  a  progeny  like  themselves.  And 
here  is  the  great  and  most  striking  defect  of  the  "  native"  stock, 
so  called.  While  much  of  it  possesses  high  qualities,  thare  is 
no  reliance  upon  the  quality  of  its  progeny,  as  there  is  among 
the  well  established  breeds,  and  hence  the  advantage  of  a  resort 
to  the  latter. 

Dairy  stock  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  :  Cows  that  are 
adapted  to  the  Butter  dairy,  or  where  the  making  of  butter  is 
the  leading  object;  cows  that  are  adapted  to  the  Cheese  or 
Milk  Dairy  ;  and  cows  more  especially  adapted  to  the  Family 
Dairy.  Animals  best  adapted  to  either  one  of  these  purposes 
might  be  unfit  for  the  others. 

The  Butter  Dairy.  For  the  butter  dairy,  we  want  a  cow 
that  gives  a  rich  quality  of  milk,  or  a  milk  in  which  the  oily 
or  butter  particles  readily  separate  from  the  water,  and  rise  in 
a  thick,  rich,  golden  coating  upon  the  surface.  Quality,  here, 
is  more  important  than  quantity.     The  milk  of  some  cows  is 


344  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay, 

more  lliau  double  the  value  of  that  of  others,  in  the  butter 
dairy,  simply  on  account  of  this  property  of  separating  readily 
into  its  component  parts.  It  may  be  no  richer,  intrinsically., 
and  no  more  nutritive,  than  milk  that  has  a  better  emulsion,  as 
the  chemists  say,  that  separates  more  slowly,  with  greater  diffi- 
culty, and  less  completely.  Milkmen  know  very  well  that  milk 
of  the  latter  quality  will  bear  transportation  and  hauling  far 
better  than  what  is  commonly  called  richer  milk,  and  that  it  is 
less  injured  by  such  transportation. 

The  milk  of  the  Jersey  cow,  for  example,  is  quite  celebrated 
for  its  butter-making  qualities.  It  sends  up  rapidly,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  a  large  proportion  of  rich,  thick,  yel 
low  cream,  that  makes  a  delicious  butter.  The  milk  of  the 
Ayrshire,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  so  quickly  or  so  com 
pletely  part  with  its  cream.  Set  a  pan  of  Jersey  milk  along- 
side a  pan  of  Ayrshire  milk,  under  equally  favorable  con- 
ditions, and  let  them  remain  for  twelve  or  eighteen  hours,  and 
then  skim  the  two,  and  the  difference  will  be  immediately  per- 
ceptible. The  skimmed  milk  of  the  Jersey  is  blue  and  watery, 
poor  in  quality,  while  that  of  the  Ayrshire  is  still  white  and 
rich.  The  Ayrshire  milk  is  more  nutritious,  probably,  than  the 
Jersey ;  it  has  parted  with  less  of  its  cream  ;  it  is  rich  in  casein, 
or  cheesy  properties,  in  which  the  nutritive  qualities  of  the 
milk  are  found. 

Now,  for  the  purposes  of  the  butter  dairy,  it  is  easy  to  see 
which  of  the  two  is  most  desirable,  which  is  worth  the  most. 
The  one  will  make  a  larger  proportion  of  rich  butter  than  the 
other,  quart  for  quart,  but  the  latter  is  undoubtedly  the  more 
nutritive  of  the  two,  to  say  nothing  of  the  larger  quantity.  It 
is  also  easy  to  see  which  is  the  most  valuable  animal  for  the 
production  of  milk,  to  be  sold  and  consumed  as  milk.  And 
this  illustrates  the  difference  between  the  products  of  the  two 


CATTLE.  -  345 

breeds,  and  also  tlie  importance  of  studying  the  specific  object 
of  the  dairj',  or  of  breeding  and  feeding  animals  that  are  espe- 
cially adapted  to  secure  that  object. 

The  Jersey  cow  was  introduced  into  this  country  about  thirty 
years  ago.  She  came  from  the  Channel  Islands,  off  the  coast 
of  France,  but  belonging  to  Great  Britain.  The  Island  of  Jer- 
sey has  been  noted,  for  many  years,  for  the  great  care  with 
which  it  has  bred  its  cows  with  special  reference  to  the  produc- 
tion of  butter.  Taken  first  to  Enoland  from  the  little  island 
of  Alderney,  to  which  the  animal  was  transplanted  from  Jersey 
just  a  century  ago,  it  acquired,  as  a  hreed^  the  name  of  Alder- 
ney-—a,  name  to  which  it  is  now  little  entitled,  since  that  island 
is  but  a  speck  in  proportion  to  Jersey,  and  it  is  now  nearly  cov- 
ered with  residences,  and  not  devoted  to  the  raising  of  stock  of 
any  kind.  When  first  imptrted,  the  Jerse}^  cow  was  ill-shaped, 
lean,  and  described  as  resembling  "  two  boards  nailed  together,  as 
thin  as  a  lath."  But  within  the  last  twenty  years  she  has  been 
quite  transformed  into  a  comely -shaped  creature,  with  a  fine 
deer-like  head  and  neck,  delicate  limbs,  soft  skin,  and  all  the 
points  of  a  good  dairy  cow — with  good  hind  quarters,  less  thin 
and  angular  than  formerly,  the  whole  form  giving  promise  of 
the  highest  dairy  qualities. 

The  Jersey  is  by  no  means  remarkable  for  the  quantity  of 
milk  she  gives,  but  she  holds  out  better  than  most  otlier  classes 
of  dairy  cows,  so  that  if  she  does  not  fill  the  pail  in  the  height 
of  the  season,  she  makes  up  for  it  by  yielding  a  good  supply  of 
milk  the  year  round,  it  being  often  no  easy  matter  to  dry  her 
off  previous  to  parturition. 

"  Lady  Miltori^^''  {Fig.  72,)  is  a  capital  model,  not  only  of  a  good 
Jersey,  but  of  a  good  dairy  cow;  she  gave  her  owner,  Mr. 
James  C.  Converse,  of  Arlington,  Massachusetts,  a  yield  of 
butter  which  is  worthy  of  special  record.     In  the  first  Aveek  of 


346  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

June  13(>T,  she  gave  one  hundred  and  twenty  quarts  of  milk, 
which  made  fifteen  pounds  of  butter.  In  the  first  week  of  July, 
the  yield  of  milk  was  one  hundred  and  fourteen  quarts,  and  of 
butter,  eighteen  pounds.  In  the  first  week  of  August,  she  gave 
of  milk,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  quarts,  and  of  butter,  sixteen 
pounds.  In  the  first  week  of  September  her  yield  of  milk  was 
one  hundrejl  and  seven  quarts,  and  of  butter,  fifteen  pounds. 
In  July  her  aggregate  yield  of  butter  was  seventy-nine  pounds, 
and  from  the  1st  of  June  to  the  7th  of  October,  on  green  food 
without  grain,  her  butter  amounted  to  two  hundred  and  ninety- 
three  and  a  half  pounds,  or  an  average  of  fifteen  pounds  and 
ninety-two  one-hundredths  a  week,  for  eighteen  weeks  and  three 
days.  And  this  was  no  exception  to  her  ordinary  yield,  nor 
was  there  any  special  effort  made  to  feed  her  up  to  her  utmost 
capacity.  Pasture  grass  constituted  her  food  in  June  and  July, 
with  pasture  and  a  little  green  fodder  corn  at  night  in  August 
and  September. 

This  cow  is,  pisrhaps,  better  than  the  average  of  animals  of 
her  breed ;  but  the  same  general  characteristics  are  to  be  found 
in  them  all ;  a  rich  and  high  quality  of  butter,  and  an  abun- 
dance of  it.  She  was  drawn  from  life,  and  the  engraving  gives  a 
very  good  idea  of  the  form  of  the  Jersey  cow,  and  of  her  color, 
which  is  usually  fawn  and  white,  sometimes  shading  into  a  bluish 
gray,  or  mouse  color,  and  darker. 

"Abraham"  {Fig.  73.)  of  which  we  also  give  an  engraving^ 
shows  the  color  and  the  form  of  a  good  Jersey  bull.  He  is  owned 
by  the  city  of  Boston,  and  kept  at  the  public  institutions  at  Deer 
Island,  in  Boston  harbor.  He  is  represented  as  in  rather  high 
flesh,  but  otherwise  is  correctly  drawn  from  life  for  this  volume, 
and  a  capital  likeness  of  one  of  the  best  breeders  in  this  country. 

For  the  butter  dairy,  the  Jersey  cow  must  hold  the  first  place 
iimong  the  well  established  breeds  of  this  country.     But  she  is 


t-^ 


I 

o 


Q 
o 


> 


CATTLE.  SiJ* 

rather  a  large  eater,  and  slie  does  not  fatten  to  a  good  quality 
of  beef  when  she  is  ready  to  be  laid  aside.  That  the  breed  does 
not  make  the  best  of  working  oxen,  can  hardly  be  regarded  as 
any  objection,  when  it  is  considered  that  human  labor  must  be 
at  rather  a  low  ebb  wherever  it  can  be  profitably  associated 
with  so  slow  an  animal  as  the  ox. 

The  estimation  in  which  the  Jersey  is  hela  as  a  dairy  cow,  is 
sufficiently  shown  in  the  high  prices  which  she  commands,  and 
the  readiness  with  which  she  sells.  She  has  grown  in  popularity 
every  year  wherever  her  merits  have  become  known,  and  this 
not  merely  among  amateur  farmers,  or  on  the  grounds  of 
the  suburban  gentleman  who  wants  a  pet  familv  cow  to  orna 
ment  his  lawn  and  supply  the  small  family  witn  milk,  out  m 
the  hands  of  the  dairy  farmer  who  seeks  profit  rather  than  the 
gratification  of  taste  or  fancy.  One  or  two  pure  bred  Jerseys 
in  a  herd  of  ten  "  native"  cows,  will  improve  the  butter  qualities 
of  the  milk  to  an  extraordinary  extent.  The  same  object  may 
be  attained  at  less  cost,  by  an  infusion  of  Jersey  blood,  secured 
by  a  cross  of  a  pure  Jersey  bull  and  the  common  cow. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  butter  of  the  pure  bred  Jersey  is 
rather  too  rich  to  keep  well,  and  that  to  have  it  in  perfection  it 
should  be  consumed  fresh.  This  is  a  fact  too  often  overlooked, 
but  which  is  perfectly  well  established  and  admitted  by  many 
who  have  had  the  largest  experience  with  the  pure  bred  Jersey. 
It  may  Avell  be  doubted  whether  any  herd  of  "native"  cows 
could  be  selected  which  would  give  such  uniformly  rich  milk, 
and  so  highly  colored  and  delicious  butter. 

The  Brittany  cow  has  characteristics  very  similar  to  the  Jer- 
sey. She  is  not  remarkable  for  the  quantity  of  milk  she  yields 
so  much  as  for  the  quality  of  the  butter  made  from  it.  In  this 
respect  she  stands  first  in  reputation  among  the  breeds  of  France, 
Brittany  butter  being  eagerly  sought  not  merely  for  its  superior 


350  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  FAY. 

richness  and  beautifol  color,  but  for  a  peculiarly  sweet  and 
"nutty"  flavor  wliicli  it  possesses  to  a  greater  extent  than  any 
other  butter.  This  peculiarity  is  preserved  in  animals  crossed 
with  the  Brittany,  even  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation,  an 
evidence  of  the  antiquity  and  established  qualities  of  the  race. 
The  a"-ent  who  visited  the  district  of  Morbiharn  to  select  two 
lierds  recently  imported,  saw  cows  of  this  race  at  Yannes,  whose 
milk  yielded  four  pounds  of  butter  a  day  for  some  days  in  suc- 
cession. 

The  Breton  cow  is  small  in  stature,  the  average  height  being 
only  about  thirty-six  to  forty  inches.  She  is  a  perfect  dairy  cow 
in  miniature,  with  a  remarkable  symmetry  of  form,  a  short,  fine, 
clean  head,  with  sharp  outline,  a  small  muzzle,  a  bright  eye, 
small  ear,  and  slender  horn.  Her  neck  is  thin,  long  and  slender, 
with  a  free  crest  and  little  dewlap.  She  has  a-  straight  back 
and  prominent  and  well  developed  hind  quarters.  The  ribs 
are  well  arched,  the  chest  wide  and  deep,  showing  abundant 
room  for  the  internal  organs.  The  limbs  are  remarkably  beau- 
tiful, the  legs  short,  the  joints  small  and  well  defined,  the  hoof 
small,  dry  and  generally  black.  The  skin  is  fine,  soft,  and  yel- 
low, the  hair  fine  and  curly,  the  color  black  and  white.  A  few 
are  all  Ijlack,  and  now  and  then  a  red  and  white  one  appears. 

This  is  the  poor  man's  cow,  the  pet  of  small  farms  and  scant 
pastures,  hardy,  docile,  living  and  yielding  a  good  product  longer 
than  most  other  races  of  domestic  cattle,  satisfied  with  little  and 
with  that  little  coarse,  willing  to  shirk  for  itself  around  the 
house,  or  wherever  she  can  find  a  morsel  of  food.  She  con- 
tinues often  till  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  age  to  yield  well,  los- 
ing only  about  a  quarter  of  her  greatest  flow  of  milk  at  the 
age  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  years.  The  Brittany  cow  is  worthy 
of  a  high  place  in  the  butter  dairy,  either  as  a  pure  breed,  espe- 
cially in  regions  of  short  pasture  and  limited  fertility,  or  as  a 


CATTLE.  353 

gj'ade  with  our  common  stock,  or  with  any  of  the  well  marked 
breeds.  The  butter  will  command  the  highest  price  in  the 
market,  while,  from  the  small  size  and  gentle  dispositicm,  the 
animal  will  be  sought  as  a  family  pet. 

The  Milk  Dairy.  In  the  milk  dairj^,  or  where  cows  are 
kept  for  the  production  of  milk  to  be  sold  in  its  natural  condi- 
tion, the  object  is  usually  to  obtain  the  largest  quantity  with 
less  reference  to  the  quality.  And  here  not  only  the  class  of 
stock,  but  the  whole  system  of  feeding  and  management  should 
be  quite  different  from  that  adopted  in  the  butter  dair}-.  We 
want  an  animal  that  yields  largely  in  proportion  to  the  food 
consumed,  and  that  holds  out  ^\ell.  In  regions  of  great  fertility 
where  the  pastures  are  naturally  luxuriant,  a  few  families  of  the 
Shorthorns  and  Shorthorn  grades  or  crosses  of  the  improved 
Shorthorn  male,  with  well  selected  common  cows  of  the  coun- 
try, meet  this  essential  featuie  to  a  very  high  degree. 

The  improved  Shorthorns,  as  a  breed,  originated  towards  the 

close  of  the  last  century,  the  basis  of  it  being  a  class  of  cows  at 

that  time  to  be  found  in  the  counties  in  the  North  of  Eng-land, 

especially   in    Darham,    Yorkshire,    and    Lincolnshire.      They 

were  noted  as  milkers,  and  remarkable  for  large   size,  which 

was  due  to  the  striking  fertility  of  the  region.     So  susceptible 

were  these  animals,  in  the  hands  of  ".he  skilful  breeder,  that 

they  rapidly  gained  a  high   reputation,  and  to  this  day  they 

have  maintained  their  position,  though,  as  a  breed,  they  nave 

lost,  to  some  extent,  the  strongly  developed  milking  qualities 

of  the  old  stock.     This  was,  perhaps,  the  fault  of  the  oreeder 

rather   than  of  the  breed.     The  abundance  of  nutritious  food 

furnished  to  the  young  animal  induced  an  early  maturity,  which 

led  to  the  general  practice  of  breeding  for  beef,  rather  tnan  for 

milk,  and  to  the  consequent  neglect  of  the  dairy  qualities. 

Some   fimilies  of  improved   Shorthorns   have    retained    the 
22 


35-i  HOW  TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

milking  qualities,  however,  to  a  macli  greater  extent  than 
others,  and  a  few  breeders  have  taken  special  pains  to  keep  tlie 
dairv  qualities  in  view.  The  "  Sixtli  Duke  of  Thorndale" 
{Fir/.  74,)  one  of  the  most  perfect  animals  of  this  breed  in  the 
country,  owned  by  George  T.  Plunkett,  Esq.,  of  Hinsdale, 
Massachusetts,  traces  his  pedigree  through  a  long  line  of  rich 
milkers.  The  milking  strain  is  concentrated  in  him  to  a  re- 
markable degree.  And  so  it  is  in  "  Aurora  Second,''''  a  superior 
cow  belonging  to  IL  G.  White,  Esq.,  of  South  Farminghain, 
Massach'usetts,  the  head  of  which  forms  the  frontispiece  to  this 
chapter.  For  dairies  wliere  the  production  of  milk  for  sale  or 
for  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  constitutes  the  leading  object, 
some  strains  of  the  Shorthorn  or  Shorthorn  grades  are  very  use- 
ful in  regions  of  abundant  pasturage,  or  where  the  soiling  sys- 
tem is  adopted  and  practised. 

It  is  for  the  town  dairy,  or  where  cows  are  kept  for  the  supply 
of  milk  to  the  cities,  that  the  grade  Shorthorn  is  chiefly  sought 
In  such  cases  the  space  the  animals  occupy  becomes  a  matter 
of  some  importance,  and  the  object  is  to  make  the  most  of  it. 
And  hence,  in  the  London  dairies,  we  find  the  old  Yorkshire 
cow,  essentially  a  Shorthorn,  and  the  modern  improved  Short 
horn  crosses  are  kept  as  the  most  profitable,  though,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  food  consumed,  they  may  not  yield  any 
more  than  animals  of  some  other  breed. 

The  Ayrshire  is  another  fixed  and  well  established  breed 
which  has  been  frequently  iraport-d  into  this  country,  and  has 
exerted  a  marked  influence  upon  the  stock  on  our  dairy  farms. 
Ayrshire,  to  which  the  breed  owes  its  name,  lies  on  the  coast 
of  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Scotland 
The  climate  is  milder  and  softer  than  that  of  most  other  p^irt.j 
of  the  country,  and  well  calculated  for  a  dairy  district.  Here, 
about   a   century  ago,  originated  a  series  of  improvements  \u 


36S 


CATTLE.  357 

dairy  stock,  which,  though  not  remarkably  promising  at  first, 
have  made  the  name  of  Ayr  as  widely  famous  for  its  dairy 
cattle  as  for  the  sweet  songs  of  its  poet.  Burns. 

It  was  not  alone  by  the  careful  selection  from  the  old  native 
stock  that  these  improvements  were  effected,  but  it  is  probable 
that  more  or  less  crosses  were  taken  with  breeds  already  esta- 
blished. A  native  race  may  be  improved  by  careful,  choice, 
and  systematic  breeding  and  selection,  but  the  process  is  slow 
and  uncertain,  and  offers  less  advantage  to  the  enterprising- 
breeder,  than  the  more  promising  one  of  using  stock  already 
improved  to  obtain  first  crosses.  Just  what  the  crosses  were 
that  led  to  the  early  modifications  of  the  old  Ayrshire  cattle,  it 
matters  little.  They  were,  no  doubt,  desultory  efforts  made 
without  any  clear  idea  of  building  up  a  famous  breed  on  the 
basis  of  the  old  stock,  which  was  small,  ill-fed  and  ill-treated, 
supposed  to  have  been  derived  originally  from  the  western 
coast  of  France,  the  country  of  the  Bretons.  A  better  course  of 
treatment,  which  prevailed  after  these  early  attempts,  did  much, 
no  doubt,  to  change  the  general  character  of  the  stock  of  Ayr- 
shire, as  it  will  any  other. 

The  Ayrshire  cattle,  now  a  well-established  and  well-defined 
breed,  have  long  been  distinguished  for  their  remarkable  dairy 
r[ualities,  and  for  the  quantity  of  milk  they  give  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  animal  and  the  amount  of  food  consumed.  The 
form  and  structure  of  the  cow,  from  the  muzzle  to  tlie  tail, 
indicates  that  she  possesses  qualities  which  adapt  her,  in  an 
eminent  degree,  to  the  purposes  of  the  dairy.  Iler  head  is 
small,  with  a  long  and  narrow  muzzle ;  her  eyes,  sparkling  and 
lively ;  her  horns  usually  small,  clear,  and  crooked,  and  set 
well  apart  at  the  roots.  Her  neck  is  long  and  slender,  small 
towards  the  head  and  free,  from  the  dewlap.  Her  shoulders  are 
thin,  her  fore  quarters  light,  and  her  hind  quarters  large  and 


358  now  TO  :\iake  the  farm  pay. 

well  developed,  giving  lier  often  a  sort  of  wedge-shaped  ajv 
pearauce,  which,  though  it  may  not  add  materially  to  her  beauty 
of  form,  is  universally  regarded,  among  dairymen,  as  a  sign  of 
a  great  milker. 

The  engraving  of  "  Flora,^^  {Fig.  75,)  a  prize  Ayrshire  cow, 
belonging  to  William  Birnie,  Esq.,  of  Springfield,  Massachu- 
setts, gives  a  very  correct  idea  of  this  wedge  shape,  and  the  full 
development  of  the  hind  quarters,  by  which  it  is  produced.  It 
is  the  form  of  a  cow  of  great  capacity  at  the  pail.  The  back  is 
straight  and  broad  behind,  the  dorsal  joints  loose  and  open,  the 
carcass  deep,  the  pelvis  full  and  wide  over  the  hips.  The  tail 
is  usually  long,  small,  and  slender,  and  the  legs  sho^'t  with  firm 
joints.  The  udder  is  large,  square,  broad,  extending  well  for- 
ward, not  over  fleshy,  too  low  hung,  nor  too  loose.  The  milk 
veins  are  large  and  prominent,  the  teats  sometimes  too  small, 
pointing  outwards,  and  set  well  apart.  The  Ayrshire  is  gene- 
'ally  a  good  handler,  her  skin  thin,  her  hair  soft,  her  whole 
figure  compact  ana  well  proportioned,  having  no  objectionable 
amount  of  ofial. 

''Honest  John,''  {Fig.  76,)  drawn  by  the  same  artist,  and  belong- 
ing  to 'the  same  owner,  shows  the  form  and  figure  of  an  Ayr- 
shire bull.  He  is  represented  in  too  high  flesh,  a  weakness  of 
the  artist,  but  otherwise  the  likeness  is  correct.  He  is  dark  red 
and  white;  the  color  of  the  breed,  generally,  is  variegated, 
either  dark  or  light  red  and  white,  often  beautifully  contrasted. 
Occasionally  the  color  is  all  red. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  nervousness  in  some  of  the  Ayrshires, 
particularly  in  young  heifers,  but  it  seldom  extends  to  vicious- 
ness.  With  mild  and  gentle  treatment,  frequent  handling,  and 
freedom  from  excitement,  it  is  easily  overcome.  The  cow  is 
docile  and  managed  without  difficulty. 

It  is  now  nearly  forty  years  since  the  importation  of  Ayr 


CATTLE.  861 

sliires  into  this  countrj  began.  During  that  time  the  breed 
has  considerabl}^  changed  and  greatly  improved  in  appearance. 
The  black  muzzle,  always  objected  to  by  the  Ayrshire  breeder, 
was  then  quite  conmion.  The  color  was  darker,  usually  deep 
red  or  brown,  flecked  with  white.  More  recently  there  has 
been  a  tendency  to  lighter  colors,  the  red  becoming  of  a  lighter 
f?hade  and  less  in  extent,  and  the  white  forming  the  prevailing 
color  in  many  good  specimens.  The  form,  too,  is  more  sj^m- 
metrical,  and  more  attractive  to  the  eye.  These  changes  haVe 
not  interfered  with  the  tendency  to  milk,  and  the  animal  is 
hardy,  active,  full  of  life  and  spirit,  and  remarkably  well 
adapted  to  our  cliip.ate  and  short  pastures.  She  is  a  good  milker, 
and  seldom  fails  to  yield  a  large  quantity  and  a  good  quality 
of  milk. 

It  should  be  boi-ne  in  mind  that  no  dairy  cow  could  be  ex- 
pected to  do  as  well  here  as  in  the  moist  and  mild  climate  of 
Scotland.  Our  climate  is  dry.  A  drizzling  rain  or  mist  in 
Ayrshire,  keeps  the  grass  green,  succulent,  milk  producing.  A 
dr}"-,  hot,  sultiy  summer  is  seldom  known  there.  Here  it  is 
the  rule.  No  cow,  in  such  a  climiate,  and  on  such  food  as  we 
can  offer  her,  in  most  part  of  the  older  States,  will  do  as  well 
at  the  po.il  as  in  such  a  climate  as  that  of  Scotland,  and  we 
have  no  right  to  expect  it. 

But  a  cow  belonging  to  Mr.  Birnie,  the  owner  of  "/"/orcv' 
with  the  milk  carefully  and  accurately  weighed,  gave  in  April, 
after  calving  on  the  25th  of  March,  one  thousand  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  pounds  of  milk ;  in  May,  nine  hundi'cd  and 
thirty-four  pounds;  in  June,  one  thousand  and  twent^'-iive 
pounds;  in  July,  nine  hundred  and  seventy-two  pounds;  in 
August,  nine  hundred  and  twelve  pounds;  a  total  in  five 
.months  of  four  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty-three  pounds, 
on  pasture  feed  or  green  hay  and  cornstalks.     This  was  her  own 


362  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay.   « 

iceiqld  of  milk  every  month  for  the  five  moiitlis  of  the  trial, 
and  four  hundred  pounds  over.  Larger  yields  than  this  are 
recorded. 

One  of  the  four  Ayrshires  originally  imported  into  this 
country  by  the  late  John  P.  Gushing,  Esquire,  of  Massachu- 
setts, gave  in  one  year  three  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty- 
four  quarts,  beer  measure,  or  about  nine  hundred  and  sixty-six 
gallons,  at  ten  pounds  to  the  gallon,  be'ng  an  average  of  over 
ten  and  a  half  beer  quarts  per  day  for  the  whole  year.  And 
the  first  Ayrshire  cow  imported  by  the  Massachusetts  Society 
for  Promoting  Agriculture,  in  1837,  yielded  milk  from  which 
was  made  sixteen  pounds  of  butter  a  week  for  several  weeks  in 
succession,  on  grass  feed  alone. 

'J'lie  cow  "t/rtm  Armour,''^  imported  in  1838  by  Mr.  II.  H. 
Peters,  of  Massachusetts,  gave  in  June,  having  calved  on  the 
20th  of.  May,  one  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty-four  nnd  a 
half  pounds  of  milk,  an  average  of  fifty  and  five-sixths  pounds 
per  day.  In  July  she  gave  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  six 
pounds,  or  an  average  of  fifty-one  and  five-sixths  pounds  a  day. 
In  August,  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty-one  pounds, 
an  average  of  forty-six  and  a  half  pounds  per  day.  In  Sep- 
tember, one  thousand  and  forty-one  pounds,  or  forty-seven  and 
one-third  pounds  per  day.  The  total  product  from  June  Isi  to 
September  23d,  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  fourteen  days,  Avas 
five  thousand  six  hundred  and  tAvelve  and  one-half  pounds,  or 
an  average  of  forty-nine  and  three-sixteenths  pounds  a  day. 
During  the  second  ten  days  of  June  she  gave  five  hundred  and 
twenty-one  and  one-half  pounds  of  milk,  or  fifty -two  pounds  a 
day.  During  the  second  ten  days  of  September  she  gave  four 
hundred  and  sixty-two  pounds,  or  forty-six  pounds  per  day. 
Her  milk  was  set  for  three  days  in  July,  and  six  pounds  and 
three  ounces  of  butter  made  from  it.      Iler  weight,  in  good 


CATTLE,  865 

order,  was  nine  hundred  and  seventj-six  pounds.  Slie  was  in 
good  pasture  all  the  season  and  after,  June  12th  had  tliree 
pints  of  corn  and  cob  meal  and  three  pints  of  bran,  and,  late 
in  the  season,  in  September,  green  cornstalks  once  a  day. 

These  yields  of  Ayrshire  cows,  wdiich  might  be  multiplied, 
show  the  general  characteristics  of  the  breed.  In  her  native 
country  the  Ayrshire  is  generally  bred  for  the  dairy  and  for  no 
other  object,  and  hence  the  cow  has  attained  a  just  and  world- 
wide reputation  for  this  quality.  Still  she  fats  readily  when 
her  usefulness  is  over.  She  is  hardy  and  does  well  on  short 
and  thin  pastures,  and  so  has  proved  herself  very  useful  on  a 
great  proportion  of  the  farms  in  the  Eastern  States,  where  a 
larger  cow  would  not  thrive. 

The  Ayrshire  makes  a  good  cross  with  the  common  stock  of 
the  country  and  with  the  Shorthorn.  The  cross  with  the  Jersey. 
is  not  to  be  recommended.  With  the  Shorthorn  her  form  be- 
comes a  little  more  symmetrical,  while  there  is  no  risk  of  lessen- 
ing the  milking  qualities  of  the  offspring,  if  sufficient  regard 
is  paid  to  the  selection  of  individual  animals  to  breed  from. 
As  a  breed,  it  probably  unites,  to  a  greater  extent  than  any 
other  except  the  Brittany,  the  supposed  incompatible  qualiiies 
of  yit'lding  a  great  deal  of  milk  and  beef  in  proportion  to  the 
food  consumed,  or  cost  of  keeping. 

The  Dutcli  cow  was  early  imported  into  the  colonies  iirsL 
established  at  New  York  and  in  New  Jersey.  It  is  probable 
that,  even  at  that  early  day,  the  milking  qualities  of  the  raw 
were  fully  developed.  The  climate  of  Uolland,  and  the  low, 
rich,  and  luxuriant  pasturage,  so  moist,  succulent,  and  milk- 
Droducing,  naturally  induced  the  milk -yielding  capacities  of 
the  stock  and  a  large  growth  of  the  animal  frame.  Trans- 
planted to  our  dry  and  warm  summer  climate,  and  to  the  expo- 
sure of  our  long  and  severe  winters,  the  animal  could  haa'dJy 


366  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

be  expected  to  maintain  her  extraordinary  power  of  secreting 
milk  in  so  large  quantities,  and  hence,  though  the  Dutch  race 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  stock  of  the  Middle  States,  its  supe 
riority  as  a  milker  docs  not  seem  to  have  been  fully  sustained. 

Nature  has  done  more  for  the  race  of  cattle  along  the  marsh 
districts  of  Northern  Europe,  extending  from  the  confines  of 
Holstein  around  to  the  borders  of  France,  a  distance  of  some 
hundreds  of  miles,  than  art  or  the  skill  of  man.  The  soil  .s  all  of 
a  low  and  sWalj  character,  formed  by  the  accumulated  deposits 
of  successive  ages.  The  whole  country  is  intersected  by  slug- 
gish streams  and  still  more  sluggish  canals,  the  banks  raised  so 
as  to  prevent  the  rush  of  the  tide  over  the  green  and  smiling 
farms.  The  land,  of  course,  is  extremely  rich  and  fertile,  a 
magnificent  stretch  of  lowlands,  much  of  it  diked  in  with 
incredible  labor  from  the  treacherous  sea,  and  covered  here  and 
there  with  low"*and  comfortable  farm-houses  and  a  thrifty, 
honest,  and  hard-working  class  of  farmers.  The  soil  and  the 
moisture  of  the  climate  are  exceedingly  well  calculated  to  lead 
to  an  extraordinary  development  of  the  cultivated  grasses  and 
other  forage  plants  so  important  in  nourishing  a  large  race  of 
cattle.  On  such  a  soil  and  in  such  a  climate  we  should  expect 
to  find  the  grass-feeding  animals  of  all  kinds  attaining  a  size 
not  generally  found  in  other  circumstances. 

There  are  some  general  characteristics  to  be  found  in  all  the 
cattle  of  this  long  and  fertile  stretch  of  m.arsh  region,  though 
they  are  divided  into  many  distinct  races,  all  due  to  local  influ- 
ences, rather  than  to  any  systematic  effort  at  improvement. 
The  Dutch  may  be  regarded  as  a  type  of  them  all.  It  belongs 
among  the  larger  races  of  cattle,  though  its  bony  structure  is 
said  to  be  only  a  little  above  the  average  in  weight.  The  head 
is  usually  small  and  fine,  the  horns  of  medium  length,  stout  and 
inclined  forwards,  the  neck  long  and  sunken  or  curved,  with 


CATTLE.  369 

rather  a  large  dewlap,  the  shoulders  strong  and  thin,  ihc  rump 
large  and  broad,  and  the  hind  quarters  generally  "well  deve- 
loped. The  legs  are  long  and  the  general  form  of  the  animal 
is  rather  thin  than  fleshy,  sharp,  and  angular,  and  not  generally 
well  rounded.  The  color  is  almost  invariably  black  and  white, 
though  red  and  white  Dutch  cows  are  often  seen. 

The  most  striking  economic  character  of  this  race  is  its  milk- 
ing capacity,  the  product  being  more  remarkable  for  quantity 
than  richness,  the  milk  being  thin  and  watery,  the  characteristio 
of  all  the  marsh  races  as  compared  with  the  highland  or  moun- 
tain races  of  continental  Europe.  The  cows  bring  heavy  calves, 
and  the  young  stock  on  abundant  food  grows  rapidly  to  great 
weights ;  but  it  requires  very  rich  food  to  effect  it,  and  without 
this,  the  race  does  not  justify  its  otherwise  distinguishing 
qualities. 

For  a  milk  dairy,  in  regions  of  rich  and  succulent  food,  the 
Dutch  may  be  a  profitable  animal  for  the  mere  production  of 
milk  or  cheese,  but  she  is  a  large  eater  and  a  slow  feeder,  that 
is,  she  requires  great  expense  to  fatten  in  proportion  to  many 
other  races  and  breeds.  It  is  not  an  improved  breed  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  term  is  applied  to  the  Shorthorn,  the  Ayr- 
shire, or  any  other  class  of  animal?  built  up  by  selection  and 
great  care.  It  is  the  common  stock  of  a  country  and  a  climate 
where  a  small  milker  must  be  the  exception,  the  whole  course 
of  feeding  from  the  birth  of  the  calf  being  naturally  such  as  to 
induce  an  abundant  secretion  of  milk.  The  term  "  Holstein," 
often  used  in  connection  with  "  Dutch,"  as  applied  to  this  race 
is  wholly  inappropriate,  the  Holstein  races,  of  which  there  are 
several,  being  entirely  different  in  many  essential  particulars. 
Dutch  cattle  have  recently  been  imported,  and  efforts  are  being 
made  to  establish  them  as  a  dairy  stock  upon  our  soil. 

Other  well  established  breeds  or  races  of  cattle  might  be 


S70  now   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

mentioned  as  having  claims  to  the  attention  of  the  dairymau, 
and  among  them  tlic  Kerry,  a  small,  hardy  race  of  cattle  from 
the  mountainous  districts  of  Ireland.  It  has  been  imported 
recently  to  a  limited  extent.  Some  families  of  the  Devons  have 
been  bred  in  this  country  with  special  reference  to  the  dairy, 
but,  as  a  breed,  it  is  not  to  be  thought  of  for  the  purposes  of  the 
milk  dairy.  The  milk,  however,  is  of  excellent  quality.  In  its 
own  country  it  has  been  bred  more  for  beef  than  for  milk- 
There  are  many  well  known  races  on  the  continent,  in  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Germany,  whose  dairy  qualities  have  been 
celebrated  for  many  years,  but  none  of  them  have  been  im- 
ported to  a  sufficient  extent  to  have  influenced,  in  any  perceptible 
degree,  the  general  character  of  our  stock. 

The  common  stock  of  the  country  owes  its  origin  to  a  great 
variety  of  sources,  which  date  back  to  the  early  importations 
for  the  colonies,  before  any  systematic  efforts  had  been  made, 
even  in  the  respective  countries  from  which  they  came,  to  im- 
prove the  breeds  of  domestic  animals.  From  the  West  Indies, 
from  Wales,  from  the  southern  coast  of  England,  from  Holland, 
and  Denmark,  and  Spain,  from  every  country  which  furnished 
its  quota  to  establish  a  new  colony  in  the  new  country,  came 
the  cattle  for  the  early  supply  of  the  settlers,  and  an  infinite 
mixture  of  races  and  breeds  followed,  just  as  chance  or  con- 
venience dictated.  Hard  and  scanty  fare,  exposure  to  cold  and 
danger,  and  starvation,  left  little  to  be  expected  in  the  way  of 
improvement,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  our  "  native" 
cattle  came  down  to  us  as  good  as  they  were  at  the  time  when 
our  importations  of  improved  stock  began,  and  more  system 
prevailed  in  selection  and  management. 

As  it  is,  many  individual  animals  might  be  selected  from 
our  common  stock,  which  would  possess  more  than  ordinary 
qualities   as   dairy  cows;    but  they  are  the  result  of  chance 


CATTLE,  371 

rather  than  breeding.  They  do  not  constitute  a  race,  breed, 
or  family,  the  qualities  of  which  are  inherent,  uniform, 
well  established,  and  capable  of  being  transmitted  to  their 
progeny. 

Many  peculiarities,  when  once  established  in  the  animal  sys- 
tem, become  hereditary  or  readily  transmissible  from  the  parent 
to  the  offspring,  and  hence  the  natural  foundation  of  races  and 
breeds,  or  families.  The  term  race,  in  domesticated  and  other 
animals,  applies  only  to  those  of  the  same  species,  possessing, 
besides  the  general  characteristics  of  that  species  other  pecu- 
liarities, which  they  owe  to  local  circumstances  to  which  they 
have  long  been  subjected,  and  which  they  transmit  with  cer- 
tainty to  their  progeny;  and  it  is  essential  to  the  idea  of  a  race 
that  it  shall  liave  possessed  these  characteristics  from  a  time 
"  whereof  the  memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary," 
that  is,  beyond  the  limits  of  authentic  records. 

The  term  ^mJ,  on  the  other  hand,  applies  to  a  family  of  animals 
built  up  by  a  long  course  of  careful  selection  till  certain  desired 
qualities  became  fixed,  capable,  and  sure  of  being  transmitted. 
The  peculiarities  of  races  are  more  inherent,  fixed,  and  strongly 
marked  than  those  of  families  built  up  or  made  artificially,  or, 
in  the  language  of  the  farm,  the  "  bluuLf '  is  stronger  in  the  one 
than  in  the  other. 

Our  common  stock  may  form  a  good  basis  of  improvement, 
but  good  as  it  is,  in  many  respects,  it  has  defects  which  it  is 
desirable  to  remedy.  Two  modes  of  improvement  naturally 
suggest  themselves  to  the  mind  of  the  enterprising  farmer, 
either  of  which  seems  to  promise  good  results.  The  first  is  that 
of  selection  from  among  our  "  native,"  or  common  cattle,  of  the 
best  and  most  perfect  specimens  not  known  or  suspected  to  be 
related  to  any  of  the  well  established  breeds,  and  to  use  them 
as  breeders,  and  so  to  build  up  a  new  and  artificial  breed  aftei 


372  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

the  manner  adopted  by  the  early  founders  of  the  improved 
breeds  in  England. 

This  mode  of  improvement  is  simple  enough  when  applied 
to  anv  of  the  long  established  breeds.  Indeed  it  is  the  only 
mode  which  preserves  the  parity  of  blood  in  such  cases ;  but  to 
do  it  successfully  with  our  common  cattle  would  require  great 
experience,  a  quick  eye  for  stock,  a  mind  free  from  prejudice, 
and  a  patience,  and  perseverance  quite  indefatigable.  It  would 
be  necessary  to  pay  great  attention  to  the  calves  thus  produced, 
to  furnish  them  at  all  times,  during  their  early  growth,  with  an 
abundant  supply  of  nutritious  food,  and  to  regulate  it  carefully 
according  to  their  growth.  And  when  it  is  considered  that  this 
mode  would  require  a  long  series  of  3^ears  to  arrive  at  any  fixed 
and  satisfactory  results,  owing  to  the  fact  that  our  "  native" 
cattle,  made  up  as  they  are  of  so  infinite  a  variety  of  incongru- 
ous elements,  do  not  produce  their  like,  that  the  defects  of  an 
ill-bred  ancestry  will  be  continually  "  cropping  out"  for  several 
generations,  constantly  thwarting  the  expectations  of  the  ex- 
perimenter,  it  is  not  surprising  that  so  few  efforts  of  the  kind 
have  been  made,  or  that  those  that  have  been  made  have 
attracted  so  little  public  attention.  To  be  sure  the  objecti(m 
of  time,  and  expense,  and  repeated  disappointment  should  have 
little  weight,  if  there  were  no  more  sure  and  speedy  method  of 
accomplishing  the  object. 

The  second  method  is  more  feasible,  and  it  is  the  one  that 
has  generally  been  adopted,  and  constitutes  the  basis  of  en- 
lightened and  systematic  efforts  to  improve  our  stock  at  the 
present  day.  It  is  to  select  animals  from  races  or  breeds 
already  improved  and  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection, 
and  to  use  them  in  obtaining  crosses  or  grades  with  our 
•native"  cattle.  A  good  selection  of  pure  bred  males,  from 
breeds  distinguished  for  their  dairy  qualities,  and  the  use  of 


CATTLE.  378 

COWS  remarkable  for  these  qualities,  will  secure  the  desired 
results  more  surely  than  any  other  course.  But  a  stop  should 
genera,lly  be  made  at  the  first  cross,  that  is  we  should  go  back 
CO  the  pure  bred  sire  of  the  same  breed,  to  be  used  with  the  pro- 
geny of  the  first  cross,  and  so  on.  Any  other  course  will  lead 
to  confusion  and  degeneration,  and  is  never  advisable  if  it  can 
be  avoided. 

Dairy  qualities  do  not,  it  is  true,  belong  to  any  one  breed  in 
particular,  but  as  they  are  dependent  largely  upon  structure 
and  temperament,  which  are  hereditary,  they  are  themselves 
transmissible  through  the  male  parent.  Endless  disappoint- 
ment has  followed  the  raising  of  the  offspring  of  .cows  remark- 
able as  milkers,  simply  because  the  qualities  in  them  were 
accidental,  the  males  not  coming  from  cows  of  similar  long 
established,  high  dairy  qualities.  Three  or  four  years  of  labor 
and  expense  have  been  incurred,  only  to  find  that  the  offspring 
of  such  animals  will  not  justify  the  outlay,  unless  equal  care 
is  taken  in  selecting  the  male,  to  which  they  are  bred,  with 
special  reference  to  the  same  qualities,  or  qualities  which  we 
seek  to  obtain  and  perpetuate. 

The  offspring  of  crosses,  taken  in  this  way,  with  a  pure  bred 
male  and  the  common  cow,  will  be  grades,  but  grade  cows  are 
often  better  for  the  practical  purposes  of  the  dairy  farmer  than 
pure  bred  ones.  Both  parents  undoubtedly  have  a  great  influ- 
ence in  transmitting  the  milking  qualities  of  the  stock,  and  the 
skill  of  the  breeder  is  displayed  in  the  selection  of  individual 
animals  from  which  to  obtain  crosses. 

This  latter  mode  of  improvement  requires  less  skill,  however, 
and  less  exact  and  critical  knowledge  of  stock  than  the  first.  It 
IS  easier  to  appreciate  the  good  points  of  an  minimal  already 
greatly  improved  than  to  discover  them  lying  latent  in  the  ani- 
mal which  we  propose  to  use  as  the  basis  of  improvement.  This 
23 


37-i  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

method  also  has  an  immense  advantage  in  the  fact  that  results 
are  more  rapidly  obtained,  and  the  various  steps  of  improve- 
ment more  directly  perceptible,  from  year  to  year. 

By  the  first  method,  that  of  building  up  a  breed  or  family 
from  judicious  selection  of  both  sire  and  dam  from  our  common 
stock,  the  final  attainment  of  success  could  hardly  be  expected 
in  the  ordinary  life  of  man.  By  the  second,  every  successive 
step  may  be  one  of  progress  and  improvement,  provided  the 
selection  of  the  male  is  judicious.  And  this  selection  should  be 
made  wholly  with  reference  to  the  specific  object  we  desire  to 
attain.  If  it  is  a  class  of  cows  for  the  butter  dairy,  take  the 
male  from  the  breed  distinguished  for  its  rich  milk,  and  its 
butter  making  properties,  and  adhere  to  such  a  breed  through 
each  successive  stage  of  the  effort.  If  it  is  cows  for  the  milk  or 
the  cheese  dairy,  select  the  male  from  a  breed  remarkable  for  its 
large  yield,  and  adhere  to  males  of  this  character.  This  course, 
when  the  selection  has  been  made  with  proper  care,  has  seldom 
failed,  and  it  offers  advantages  at  the  present  time  superior  to 
any  other. 

The  special  reason  for  a  resort  to  the  pure  bred  male,  in 
crossing,  is  not  so  much  that  the  particular  individual  animal 
selected  has  the  desired  properties  united  and  developed  in 
himself,  as  that  they  are  hereditary  in  the  breed  to  which  he 
belongs.  The  moment  the  line  is  crossed,  and  the  pedigrees  or 
ancestry  of  the  sire  lost,  uncertainty  commences.  The  form  of 
a  grade  or  cross-bred  bull  may  be  even  better,  in  individual 
cases,  than  that  of  the  pure-bred  one,  but  there  is  less  hope  of 
bis  transmitting  the  qualities  for  which  the  breed  to  which  he 
is  allied  is  most  noted.  As  already  stated,  we  have  the  basis 
in  our  common  cattle  of  the  most  excellent  dairy  stock  in  the 
world.  Their  defects  are  want  of  uniformity  and  uncertainty 
in  breeding,  to  a  uniform  high  standard  of  quality.     They  are 


CATTLE.  375 

hardy,  tlioroughly  acclimated,  capable  of  great  endurance,  and 
by  the  methods  already  indicated  may  become  the  most  useful, 
the  most  profitable,  and  the  most  satisfactory  cows  on  the  dairy 
farm. 

The  Family  Dairy.  For  the  family  cow,  where  usually 
only  a  single  one  is  kept  for  the  limited  supply  which  she 
affords,  we  need  not  resort  to  any  established  breed,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  others.  "  Utile  au  riche,  providence  au  pauvre," — 
useful  to  the  rich,  a  blessing  to  the  poor, — is  the  characteristic 
description  of  the  Brittany  cow,  and  it  includes  the  essential 
requisites  in  a  cow  for  family  use.  The  man  of  wealth  wants 
an  animal  to  ornament  his  lawn,  and  he  will  select  her  for 
beauty,  or  because  she  is  rare,  and  unlike  tlie  common  cattic  of 
the  neighborhood.  He  wants  a  docile,  gentle  creature,  that 
will  become  the  pet  of  the  family.  A  limited  quantity  of  milk, 
of  a  rich  and  creamy  quality,  will  meet  his  requirements,  so  far 
as  product  is  concerned,  and  in  these,  or  other  respects,  the 
Brittany  or  Jersey  cow,  or  a  high  grade  of  either  breed,  will  be 
unsurpassed.  The  man  of  more  limited  means  wants  a  cow  that 
will  yield  a  quantity  of  good  milk,  large  in  proportion  to  the 
food  consumed,  docile,  thrifty  and  hardy.  A  well  selected 
grade  Ayrshire  or  a  "  native,"  of  medium  size,  will  be  as  useful 
as  any  cow  to  be  had.  As  no  calves  are  to  be  raised  in  such 
circumstances,  as  a  general  rule,  little  regard  will  be  paid  to 
the  selection  of  breed,  but  even  here  it  is  not  to  be  overlooked, 
that  the  better  the  breed,  the  better  price  will  the  calf  bring, 
when  it  comes  to  be  sold,  either  to  the  butcher,  or  to  be  raised. 

The  Raising  of  Calves.  The  mode  of  raising  the  calf  has 
an  important  influence  upon  its  qualities,  and  its  usefulness,  as 
a  dairy  cow.  Here  the  object  is  not  to  force  the  animal,  as  in 
raising  for  beef,  to  early  maturity.     The  quality  of  food,  as 


376  HOW   TO    .MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

well  as  the  quantity  and  mode  of  feeding,  are  to  be  considered 
with  reference  to  their  elEfect,  upon  the  animal  structure. 

In  most  sections,  where  animals  are  bred  for  the  dairy  at  all, 
the  value  of  the  milk,  whether  to  be  manufactured  into  butter 
or  cheese,  or  to  be  sold  in  its  natural  state,  is  such  as  to  make 
it  necessary  to  adopt  some  system  of  economy.  It  is  a  com- 
paratively easy  matter  to  feed  the.  calf,  designed  for  breeding 
purposes,  or  for  beef,  by  letting  it  run  with  the  dam,  taking  all 
the  milk 'it  requires,  and  this  method,  with  high  priced  stock, 
or  in  raising  for  beef,  is  the  best  economy,  no  doubt,  but  it  is 
found  to  be  too  expensive  where  the  dairy  is  an  object  of 
attention.  Various  modes  have  been  adopted  to  lessen  the  ex- 
pense of  raising  stock  for  the  dairy,  and  the  effect  which  differ- 
ent kinds  of  food  will  produce  on  the  animal  economy,  has 
been  carefully  studied.  Strict  care  is  necessary,  not  to  feed  the 
young  so  as  to  develop  a  tendency  to  great  size,  either  of  bone 
or  of  adipose  tissue,  or  fat  cells,  and  so  we  must  avoid  feeding 
too  highly  upon  articles  of  a  very  stimulating  nature. 

Most  dairymen,  therefore,  have  adopted  the  plan  of  taking 
the  calf  froni  the  cow  at  an  early  period,  and  feeding  it  from  the 
dish  by  hand,  up  to  the  time  of  bringing  it,  to  solid  food.  By 
this  method  the  food  can  be  easily  modified,  and  the  growth  is 
not  liable  to  be  checked,  as  it  often  is  when  the  calf  is  allowed 
to  run  with  the  cow  to  a  certain  age  and  finally  taken  away. 
As  soon  as  the  calf  is  dropped,  the  cow  is  alloAved  to  lick  it 
dr}^  and  the  young  creature  to  suck  once  or  twice,  which  it  will 
Ho  as  soon  as  it  is  able  to  stand— when  the  cow  is  milked  clean, 
given  some  warm  bran  mash  or  gruel,  and  left  for  a  day  or  two 
with  the  calf.  After  that,  if  the  udder  is  all  right,  not  inflamed 
or  caked,  the  calf  is  taken  away,  and  taught  to  feed  by  putting 
the  fingers  into  its  mouth  and  gently  bringing  its  muz/Ae  down 
to  the  milk  in  a  dish.     In  the  dairy  districts  of  Holland,  the 


CAITLE.  377 

calf  is  generMllj  removed  at  once  to  a  shed  by  itself,  and  rubbed 
dry,  without  allowing  the  cow  even  to  see  it;  and  if  the  ud'ler 
is  right,  this  is,  perhaps,  the  better  way.  As  soon  as  it  is  able 
to  stand,  it  is  supplied  with  the  warm  milk  drawn  directly  from 
the  cow.  This  it  should  have,  in  all  cases,  as  its  first  food,  since 
it  contains  certain  medicinal  properties  admirably  calculated  to 
free  the  bowels  and  intestines  from  mucus  and  excrementitious 
matter.  It  should  have  the  milk  of  the  cow,  m  this  way,  three 
or  four  times  a  day,  for  a  week  or  ten  days  at  the  least,  what- 
ever course  it  is  designed  to  adopt  after  that.  The  milk  during 
this  period  of  time  possesses,  as  we  have  said,  certain  qualities 
which  are  necessary  to  the  calf,  and  which  cannot  be  efi'ectually 
supplied  by  any  other  food. 

In  the  third  or  fourth  week,  the  milk  for  the  calf  may  be 
skimmed,  but  warmed  to  the  degree  of  fresh-drawn  milk ; 
though,  after  that,  less  care  is  required  to  warm  it  and  to  give 
it  the  milk  of  its  own  mother,  that  of  other  cows  now  answer- 
ing equally  well. 

If  in  spring,  the  calf  at  the  age  of  six  to  eight  weeks  may  ue 
tethered  out  upon  the  green  grass,  or  put  into  a  small  enclosure 
near  the  house,  and  still  fed  twice  or,  better,  three  times  a  day, 
upon  skimmed  milk,  with  a  mixture  of  half  hay  tea  or  gruel. 
If  in  winter,  a  wisp  of  clover,  or  other  sweet  hay,  should  be 
hung  up  over  its  pen  within  easy  reach.  This  will  soon  lead 
the  young  aninjal  to  begin  to  eat  solid  food.  The  careful  Dutch 
dairymen  prefer  not  to  turn  their  calves  into  grass  till  the  age 
of  ten  or  twelve  weeks,  and  then  even  continue  the  skim  milk 
or  buttermilk  several  times  a  day.  If  the  weather  is  chilly, 
they  take  care  to  warm  the  milk. 

The  most  important  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind,  in  the  raising 
of  calves,  is  neither  to  starve  nor  to  overfeed.  A  calf  should 
never  be  surfeited,  nor  fed  so  highly  that  it  cannot  be  fed  more 


S7S  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

highly  as  it  advances.  It  should  be  kept  growing  thriftily, 
without  n-etting  too  fat.  Both  extremes  are  to  be  avoided.  At 
the  same  time  the  utmost  gentleness  should  be  observed  at  all 
times.  Persevering  kindness  will  overcome  the  most  obstinate 
natures.  The  disposition  of  the  cow  is  greatly  modified,  if  not 
indeed  wholly  formed,  by  her  treatment  while  young.  Calves, 
therefore,  should  be  handled  frequently,  led  by  a  halter,  ca- 
ressed, and  made  into  pets.  They  will  almost  invariably  beGi>me 
docile,  and  suffer  themselves  to  be  approached  and  handled  in 
the  pasture  and  the  barn ;  and  it  is  the  quiet  temperament  and 
confidence  acquired  by  this  course  of  treatment  that  constitutes 
one  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of  the  good  dairy  cow. 
With  respect  to  hay  tea,  often  used  in  this  country  as  a  par- 
tial substitute  for  milk  after  the  calf  is  several  days  old,  it  is 
prepared  by  making  an  infusion  from  the  best  and  sweetest 
hay,  cut  by  a  chaff  or  straw  cutter  into  pieces  about  two  inches 
long  and  put  into  a  kettle  and  boiling  water  poured  over  it, 
when  ii  is  allowed  to  stand  two  hours,  carefully  covered.  After 
the  first  week  of  the  creature's  life,  the  proportions  of  the  pure 
milk  of  its  dam  and  hay  tea  may  be  equal.  After  the  third  or 
fourth  week,  two  thirds  of  hay  tea  and  one  third  of  milk ;.  and 
a  few  days  after,  three  quarters  hay  tea  and  one  quarter  milk. 
It  should  be  given  at  least  three  or  four  times  a  day,  at  the  rate 
of  about  three  quarts  at  each  meal,  to  be  gradually  increased  to 
fjur  quarts  as  the  calf  grows  older.  This  diet  should  be  con- 
tinued till  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve  weeks,  when  each  meal  may 
l)e  reduced  to  less  than  a^quarfof  milk  with  hay  water — or 
skimmed  milk  or  buttermilk  may  be  substituted.  At  this  age 
the  animal  will  soon  be  able  to  take  care  of  itself.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  hay  tea  should  be  made  fresh  at  least  every  two 
days,  as  it  will  lose  its  nutritious  quality  if  kept  too  long.  This 
•jourse  is  adopted  not  as  being  better  than  milk,  but  simply  as  a 


CATTLE.  379 

matter  of  economy  in  providing  the  most  suitable  and   cheap 
substitutes. 

In  Ayrshire,  calves  that  are  to  be  raised  as  dairy  cows  arf 
usually  fed  on  whole  milk  for  the  first  four,  five,  or  six  ■weeks, 
when  they  are  allowed  from  three  to  five  quarts  at  each  meal, 
twice  a  day.  Some  never  give  any  other  food,  while  so  young, 
except  milk,  and  lessen  the  quantity  as  they  begin  to  eat  grass 
or  other  food,  which  they  do  at  five  or  six  weeks  old;  and  at  the 
age  of  seven  or  eight  the  milk  is  wholly  withdrawn.  If  in 
winter,  the  milk  has  to  be  continued  longer.  A  calf  will  not 
learn  so  soon  to  eat  hay  as  grass,  nor  will  it  thrive  upon  it  so 
well  when  it  does  eat  it.  Ilay  tea  is  also  used  then,  and  linseed 
boiled  to  a  jelly  and  mixed  in  the  milk.  Treacle,  and  other 
substitutes,  are  sometimes  used,  but  milk,  when  it  can  be 
spared,  is  regarded  as  the  best  and  most  natural  food. 

A  method  by  which  the  expense  of  raising  calves  could  be 
reduced  in  the  proportion  of  two-thirds,  as  compared  with  feed- 
ing it  all  milk,  was  suggested  by  the  Duke  of  Northumberland, 
in  the  following  manner:  Half  an  ounce  of  common  treacle,  or 
molasses,  is  well  mixed  with  a  pint  of  skimmed  milk,  when  an 
ounce  of  finely-powdered  linseed  oil  cake  is  gradually  added, 
stirring  it  until  thoroughly  mixed,  when  it  is  to  be  added  to 
the  remainder  of  a  gallon  of  milk ;  the  whole  to  be  brought  to 
the  temperature  of  new  milk,  and  fed  to  the  animal.  After  a 
short  time  the  proportion  of  pulverized  oil  cake  may  be  con- 
siderably increased. 

Hay  tea,  oil  cake,  and  oat  meal  will  form  the  basis  of  substi- 
tutes for  pure  milk  ;  but  the  first  few  days  the  milk  fresh  from 
the  cow  must  be  given,  and  the  gruel  added  gradually  after- 
wards, till  water  is  substituted  for  milk.  Mixing  oil  cake  with 
gruel  is  the  secret  of  the  success  of  this  method,  and  the  oil 
cake  must  be  the  best  to  be  had.   It  may  be  prepared  by  taking 


380  now    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

a  largo  six-gallon  bucket  and  putting  into  it  two  gallons  of 
scalding  water;  tlien  add  seven  pounds  of  the  fine  oil  meal 
Stir  the  oil  cake  and  water  together,  and  add  two  gallons  of  hay 
tea  into  which  middlings,  barley,  or  oat  meal  have  been  mixed. 
It  requires  but  little  calculation  to  estimate  the  comparative 
economy  of  these  different  methods.  If  we  suppose  the  calf  to 
run  with  the  cow  for  six  months,  and  to  take  eight  quarts  a 
day,  which  an  ordinary  cow  ought  to  give  for  the  first  six 
months  aftfer  calving,  we  have  the  cost  as  follows: 

8  quarts,  at  2  cents  a  quart,  for  six  months,  .     .     .  $26.88 
8       "       "3     "  "  "  "...     40.32 

8       "       "4     "  "  "  "...     53.76 

There  are  few  locations  Avhere  milk  will  not  command  one 
of  these  prices,  either  to  sell  or  to  convert  into  butter  or  cheese. 
If  we  take  the  first  estimate,  and  add  to  it  the  cost  of  keeping 
during  the  first  winter,  we  have  the  following  as  the  cost  at  one 
year  old  : 

Amount  of  milk  consumed .     .  $26  88 

Hay  the  first  winter 6  00 

Boots,  at  the  rate  of  half  peck  per  day  for  4  months,       3.05 

Cost  at  one  year  old  .     .     .  $34.93 

Take  now  the  method  of  bringing  up  by  hand  as  indicati-d, 
and  say, 

50  quarts  of  milk  at  2  cents  per  quart $1.00 

700  quarts  of  milk  at  1  cent  per  quart 7.00 

Pasture  for  fiv^e  months 2  00 

Hay  during  first  winter 5.00 

Roots  for  four  months  of  first  winter,  half  peck  pel 

day,  at  20  cents  a  bushel 3.05 

Cost  of  one  year  old  raised  by  hand  .     .        $18.05 


CATTLE.  381 

Calling  the  second  season's  pasturing  $5,  and  the  second 
season's  wintering  $10,  we  have  the  cost,  at  two  years,  when 
the  heifer  ought  to  come  in  as  a  dairy  cow,  $33.00. 

This  is,  of  course,  only  a  general  estimate.  The  price  )f 
food,  labor,  and  other  incidental  expenses  vary  so  much  in  dif- 
ferent localities,  that  practical  results  in  one  section  would  not 
apply  to  others ;  but  it  must  be  evident,  that  the  feeding  of  the 
first  year  is  not  only  the  most  expensive,  but  requires  greater 
care  and  judgment. 

So  far  as  it  can  be  controlled,  the  period  of  dropping  the  first 
calf  should  be  arranged  to  take  place  in  the  month  of  May  or 
June,  just  before  the  greatest  luxuriance  of  pasture  feed.  This 
will  induce  the  largest  possible  flow  of  milk  when  the  milk 
glands  are  in  a  condition  of  growth  to  be  readily  influenced  by 
food.  A  greater  development  of  the  mammary  or  glandular 
system  takes  place  now  than  if  the  animal  came  in  on  dry  food, 
and  it  creates  the  capacity  for  large  secretions  of  milk  through 
the  life  of  the  cow.  The  capacity  of  the  udder  for  holding 
milk  will  depend  largely  upon  the  character  and  abundance  of 
the  food  during  the  first  year;  and  a  cow  coming  in  for  the  first 
time  in  May,  or  early  in  June,  will  be  worth  more,  as  a  milker, 
than  she  Avould  be  to  come  in  at  any  other  season.  Feed,  there- 
fore, so  as  to  induce  the  largest  possible  flow  of  milk  the  first 
year. 

Feeding-  and  Management  of  Daiey  Stock.  No  branch 
of  the  dairy  can  exceed  in  importance  the  feeding  and  manage- 
ment of  stock.  It  will  be  found  in  practice  that  nothing  comes 
out  of  the  bag  that  is  not  first  put  into  the  mouth.  The  breed 
of  animals  may  be  the  best  in  the  world,  and  yet  success  in  the 
dairy  will  depend  very  largely  upon  feeding,  regularity,  and 
general  treatment. 

The  feeding,  or  nutritive  value  of  all  the  various  articles  of 


382        now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

food,  lias  been  fully  investigated,  so  that  we  know  what  constit- 
uents produL'c  fat,  what  are  heat,  and  what  are  flesli  producing, 
what  <^oes  to  build  up  the  bony  structure,  and  what  enters  into 
th.e  muscular  tissues;  but  while  there  is  much  of  practical 
interest  in  these  investigations,  we  are  not  to  overlook  the  fact 
that,  in  actual  practice,  we  have  to  deal  with  living  organiza- 
tions, and  that  the  most  conflicting  variety  of  circumstances 
often  comes  in  to  modify  the  results  which  theory  would  lead  us 
to  expect.  Instead  of  the  test-tubes  and  retorts  of  the  labora- 
tory, in  which  a  certain  number  of  materials,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, will  invariably  combine  and  form  a  certain  substance, 
we  now  have  the  living  animal,  with  its  fine  adjustment  of  ner- 
vous and  muscular  organizations,  and  we  find  that  our  results 
depend  upon  physiological  peculiarities,  upon  likes  and  dislikes, 
upon  circumstances  over  which  we  have  not  always  a  full  control. 
Food  relished  one  day  will  be  rejected  another.  That  which 
gives  satisfactory  results  at  one  time  will  utterly  fail  at  another. 
Under  precisely  the  same  conditions  of  shelter,  food,  and  man- 
agement, so  far  as  we  can  tell,  the  yield  of  milk  will  vary  in 
the  same  cow  ;  and  while  one  cow  thrives  on  one  kind  of  food, 
another  will  not.  Let  the  system  of  management  remain  the 
same,  and  the  quality  of  milk  of  the  same  cow  will  often  vary, 
be  rich  and  buttery  at  one  time,  and  watery  or  cheesy  at 
another. 

Many  of  those  changes  and  variations,  which  introduce  an 
element  of  uncertainty  into  our  calculations  are  due  to  hidden 
causes,  but  there  are  others  which  we  know  more  about,  and 
which  have  an  important  influence  over  the  nutritive  value  of 
food.  Bad  air,  or  want  of  ventilation  in  the  stall,  will  reduce 
not  only  the  quantity,  but  the  value  of  milk.  Fright  or  worry- 
ing by  dogs,  or  fast  driving,  the  irritation  caused  by  flies  in  the 
pasture,  any  thing  in  fact,  which  disturbs  the  quiet  of  the  ani- 


CATTLE.  388 

mal,  win  have  its  injurious  effect.  And  so  f-he  coi.dition  iu 
which  food  is  given  will  exert  nearly  as  perceptible  an  influence 
as  the  kind  of  food  itself. 

The  most  natural  and  the  most  commonly  adopted  method 
of  feeding  dairy  cows,  in  the  latter  part  of  spring,  through  the 
summer,  and  the  early  autumn,  is  to  let  them  run  at  pasture. 
This  period  will  extend  from  four  to  six  months,  according  to 
the  locality  and  the  season.  Here  the  cows  rely  almost  wholly 
upon  grass.  But  it  often  happens,  owing  to  droughts  or  over- 
stocked pastures,  that  an  additional  amount  of  food  has  to  be 
provided  to  supplement  the  supply  obtained  in  the  pasture. 
This  will  consist,  generally,  of  green  food,  cut  from  day  to  day, 
in  the  shape  of  green  corn-fodder,  or  other  culti7ated  crops,  as 
root  tops,  rye,  green  oats,  or  other  forage  crops.  On  many  dairy 
farms,  carried  on  for  the  supply  of  milk,  the  cows  are  supplied 
daily  with  a  small  amount  of  cotton-seed  oil  meal,  wh"ch  yields 
a  large  quantity  of  milk.  When  it  is  judiciously  fed,  not 
exceeding  two  to  four  pounds  a  day  for  each  animal,  it  is 
attended  with  good  results. 

The  greatest  judgment  will  be  required  in  the  winter  or  stall 
feeding  of  stock,  and  with  respect  to  the  diflferent  modes  pur- 
sued, the  greatest  diversity  of  opinion  and  practice  prevails. 
While  some  feed  exclusively  upon  hay,  and  often  an  inferior 
quality  and  quantity  of  hay,  others  feed  roots,  brewers'  grains, 
and  some  variety''  of  meal,  and  take  the  trouble  to  steam  and 
cook  the  food,. so  as  to  increase  its  nutritive  qualities  and  render 
it  rnore  palatable.  Good  hay  will  undoubtedly  form  the  basis 
of  feeding  on  a  vast  majority  of  dairy  farms,  and,  if  furnished  in 
suf&cient  quantity,  it  is  generally  adequate  to  the  supply  of 
dry  cows,  or  cows  not  giving  milk  at  the  time. 

For  cows  in  milk,  during  the  winter  months,  the  root  crop  in 
some  form,  as  that  of  turnips,  Swedes,  mangolds,  or  carrots,  is  a 


384  HOW  TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

most  importaut  addition,  as  they  keep  the  system  open  and 
healthy,  and  promote  the  secretion  of  milk.  And  if  the  cows 
are  not  in  milk,  but  are  to  calve  in  spring,  the  difference  should 
be  rather  in  the  quantity  than  the  quality  of  the  feed. 

In  feeding  roots,  the  common  English  turnips,  a  sort  of  make- 
shift crop,  to  be  sown  after  some  early  crop  has  left  the  land,  is 
to  be  used  first,  and  it  helps  to  break  the  otherwise  sudden 
change  from  green  food  to  dry  hay  in  November  and  December. 
The  Swede  will  naturally  follow,  at  the  rate  of  half  a  bushel  to 
a  bushel  a  day,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  The  man- 
gold, which  keeps  admirably  till  late  in  the  spring,  and' improves 
in  quality,  should  follow  the  Swedes,  and  will  cai'ry  the  stock 
along  to  grass  in  good  condition. 

All  coarse  fodder,  cornstalks,  swale  hay  and  straw,  should  be 
cut  in  the  straw  cutter  and  mixed  together.  The  roots,  after 
being  cut  into  slices,  may  also  be  mixed  into  this  mass  of  cut 
food,  when  the  whole  may  advantageously  be  put  into  a  large 
close  box,  and  a  few  quarts  of  shorts,  middlings,  or  bran  scat- 
tered over  it.  If  now  hot  water  is  poured  upon  this  mass,  it 
will,  after  standing  covered  up  a  few  hours,  constitute  a  highly 
relished  and  nutritious  feeding.  This  is  a  simple  and  cheap 
method  of  securing  some  of  the  advantages  of  steamino:. 

*-'  DO 

Eegularity  in  the  hours  of  feeding,  and  dll  the  operations  in 
the  cow-house,  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  second  only  to 
a  full  and  liberal  supply  of  food.  Indeed,  regularity,  cleanli- 
ness, and  gentle  treatment  may  be  considered  as  the  cardinal 
points  of  successful  dairy  management.  These,  in  conjunction 
with  judicious  feeding,  will  insure  the  highest  rewards  to  be 
derived  from  dairy  stock. —  G.  L.  Flint. 

Oxen.  We  know  they  are  somewhat  out  of  fashion,  but  we  are 
convinced  that  where  a  farmer  keeps  more  than  one  team,  one 
of  them  had  best  be  an  ox  team.     You  want  horses  to  take  you 


CATTLE.  385 

to  mill  and  to  market,  but  for  plowing  and  hauling  on  the  farm 
a  properly  broken  ox  team  is  to  be  preferred.  If  the  young 
oxen  are  trained  to  a  quick  step,  in  a  light  cart  they  will  do 
their  work  as  quickly  as  a  horse  team. 

They  will  stand  more  continuous  hard  work  with  less  liability 
to  disease,  or  accident.  It  is  not  hard  Avork  that  worries  the 
ox,  but  the  continual  whipping  and  bawling  to  which  many 
"hands  "  treat  them.  An  ox  can  be  trained  to  go  by  the  word 
just  as  well,  and  better  than  by  the  whip.  Let  us  compare  the 
advantages  of  the  two  teams.  In  the  first  place,  the  horses  cost 
twice  as  much  as  the  oxen ;  their  harness  costs  more ;  they  are 
more  liable  to  disease  and  accident,  to  run  away  and  smash 
wagon,  harness,  and  their  own  necks.  And  when  the  horse  is 
lamed  and  his  service  at  an  end,  he  is  good  for  nothing  but  his 
hide,  while  the  oxen,  after  two  or  three  years'  service,  can  be  put 
in  the  stall  for  a  few  weeks,  and  men  sold  for  enough  to  buy  a 
young  and  vigorous  pair  to  replace  them. 

Some  writers  also  claim  that  the  ox  costs  less  to  keep,  but 
we  think  he  ought  to  cost  just  as  much,  and  have  juai  as  much 
and  as  good  feed  as  the  horse.  Give  him  grain  and  he  will  give 
you  work,  manure,  and  finally  beef. 

In  this  way  oxen  can  be  made  to  pay  a  profit,  while  the 
horses  are  wearing  out.  From  six  to  ten  years  of  age  the  oxen 
steadily  increase  in  value,  and  -vvhen  too  old  for  service  will 
bring  a  profit  for  beef.  Lest  we  be  misunderstood  here,  we  repeat 
that  where  time  is  an  object,  as  in  going  distances,  the  horses  are 
to  be  preferred,  and  if  a  farmer  keeps  but  one  team  it  must  be 
horses. 

The  Devon's  make,  all  things  considered,  the  best  cattle  for 
the  farmer.  They  are  not  large  enough  for  the  heaviest  work, 
but  no  ox  of  his  size  equals  him  in  strength,  activity,  perseve- 
rance, or  willingness.     A  cross  between  the  Devons  and  some 


386  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

of  tlic  larger  breeds,  which  retains  all  the  excellencies  of  the 
Devons,  \vith  an  increase  of  size,  weight,  and  power,  is  what  we 
think  should  be  aimed  at  by  breeders. 

The  Devon  is  naturally  medium  as  a  dairy  cow,  giving  a  fair 
quantity  of  very  rich  milk,  but  when  they  are  bred  with  a  view 
to  increase  their  size,  strength,  and  beef  qualities,  as  they  should 
be,  the  milking  qualities  decrease. 

As  a  beef  animal  the  Devon  is  in  the  first  class.  He  fats 
readily,  has-  compact  bones,  and  therefore  a  small  amount  of 
waste,  and  the  flesh  is  of  the  finest  quality,  and  well  laid  on. 
We  recommend  the  Devons  for  workers,  and  for  beef,  but  not 
for  the  dairy. 

The'IIerefoeds  are  the  perfection  of  strength  for  a  working 
ox,  but  of  no  account  as  a  dairy  breed.  They  have,  therefore, 
never  been  very  popular  in  this  country,  and  are  perhaps  larger 
than  is  absolutely  required  for  ordinary  farm  labor ;  but  this  is 
not  to  their  disadvantage,  for  they  take  on  flesh  readily,  mature 
earl}^,  and  turn  out  splendidly  on  the  butcher's  block.  As  a  cross 
with  the  Devons,  or  selected  native  cows,  to  produce  working 
oxen,  we  think  the  Herefords  will  yet  prove  their  superior  quali- 
ties. The  Ayrshires  have  been  already  spoken  of  as  a  dairy 
breed.  They  have  not  the  characteristics  of  working  cattle  and 
do  not  put  on  flesh  as  fast  as  the  Herefords,  or  the  Durhams, 
neither  do  they  consume  as  much  feed. 

The  Holsteins  have  not  been  fairly  tried  as  working  oxen,  or 
as  beef  cattle,  but  we  think  grades  with  lighter  and  more  active 
breeds  will  give  good  results.  That  they  will  take  a  leading 
place  as  dairy  stock,  we  have  no  doubt.  The  Shorthorns, 
whose  value  as  milkers  has  been  discussed,  are  also  superior 
as  beef  animals,  putting  on  flesh  with  astonishing  rapidity, 
and  maturing  at  four  years  old.  At  that  age  they  give  one 
quarter  less  waste  than  any  ordinary  cattle  of  the  same  weight. 


•^ 


CATTLE.  389 

Crossed  witli  good  native  cows  or  Devons,  thej  make  excellent 
working  oxen.  Improved  Stock  is  the  aim  of  every  enterpris- 
ing farmer.  It  costs  no  more  to  raise  and  keep  a  pure  "  Sbort- 
liorn"  or  "Jersey"'  than  a  common  scrub,  but  for  any  conceiva 
ble  purpose  they  are  superior.  They  will  give  more  milk, 
more  valuable  calves,  and  when  past  service  more  beef,  on  the 
same  amount  of  feed.  It  is  not,  however,  within  the  means  of 
many  farmers  to  buy  a  herd  of  pure  breeds  at  three  hundred 
or  four  hundred  dollars  each,  nor  is  it  necessary.  Get  one 
bull  and  one  cow  of  the  breed  best  adapted  to  your  wants, 
or  else  arrange  with  a  neighbor  to  purchase  the  one  and  you  the 
other.  Breed  your  best  grade  cows  to  the  bull  and  you  will 
soon  find  a  great  improvement  in  your  stock.  i^Tow  dispose  of 
those  animals  that  do  not  come  up  to  your  standard  of  excel- 
lence; cows  that  do  not  conceive  readily,  oi  tlmt  are  liable  to 
abortion,  no  matter  how  good  milkers  they  may  be ;  breed  from 
none  of  the  grade  bulls,  but  keep  the  bulls  from  the  two  pure 
animals  first  purchased  for  breeding  purposes.  It  is  perfectl}' 
safe  to  breed  in  and  in,  unless  you  discover  some  defect  in  the 
stock,  when  a  cross  can  be  made  with  some  other  pure  bred 
stock.  None  but  pure  bred  animals  are  certain  of  reproducing 
their  characteristics  in  their  progeny.  A  grade  bull  will  some- 
times do  it,  but  it  is  mere  chance  work,  and  cannot  be  relied 
upon.  It  will  not  do  however,  in  these  crosses,  to  breed  the 
small  cow  to  the  large  bull,  but  the  small  Devon  or  Alderney 
bull  to  the  Shorthorn  cow,  or  the  large  native  or  gi'ade  cow 
usually  produces  good  results.  Breeding  Cows,  that  is  those 
kept  for  breeding  choice  stock,  when  they  are  discovered  to  be 
in  heat  should  be  immediately  put  by  themselves  until  they  can 
be  introduced  to  the  bull.  This  should  be  done  in  some  quiet 
place  with  no  other  animals  about,  and  above  all,  no  crowd  of 
men  and  boys,  as  is  often  the  case.     There  should  be  no  attempt 


390  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

to  force  an  acquaintance,  no  bustle  or  worrying  them.  After  a 
once  repeated  service  confine  the  cow  in  the  stall  until  her  heat 
fully  passes  off". 

Nine  and  one-half  months  is  the  average  time  of  the  cow,  and 
after  about  seven  months'  pregnancy,  milking  should  cease,  and 
she  should  have  good  care,  shelter,  and  warm  beds,  good  food 
and  a  plenty  of  it.  She  now  has  two  lives  to  support,  and  the 
quality  of  tlie  calf  will  be  greatl}^  aftected  by  the  care  now 
given.  The  cow  should  not  be  allowed  to  lay  on  fot,  but  kept 
up  to  a  good  condition.  Mr.  L.  F.  Allen  in  his  recent  publica- 
tion says:  "A  breeding  and  milk  cow,  in  all  her  bodily  condi- 
tion, should  be  gently  and  kindly  treated. 

"She  should  never  be  driven  at  a  pace  beyond  a  walk. 

"She  should  never  be  jumped  over  fences  or  bars. 

"  She  should  never  be  shouted  at  or  worried  in  driving. 

"If  they  meet  with  objects  occasioning  fright  or  fear,  let  them 
leisurely  survey  the  obstacles  until  fear  is  removed. 

"  Never  suffer  the  cow  or  the  herd  to  be  worried  by  dogs.     . 

"  Be  gentle  with  them  always." 

Bulls  intended  for  stock  raising  should  be  well  fed  from 
their  birth  ;  never  fattened,  but  kept  constantly  and  steadily 
growing.  Oat  meal,  barley  meal,  and  peas  are  better  than  corn 
meal,  (in  fact  we  recommend  that  no  bull  ever  be  fed  on  corn 
at  all ;)  these,  with  milk  and  grass  until  he  is  eight  months,  will 
insure  great  seminal  and  muscular  vigor.  Teach  him  to  lead  as 
early  as  possible,  and  when  he  is  nine  months  old  put  a  copper 
ring  in  his  nose.  Handle  him  often  and  gently,  and  in  ninety- 
nine  cases  out  of  one  hundred  he  will  be  gentle  in  return. 
Most  of  the  viciousness  of  bulls  is  the  result  of  either  improper 
handling,  or  no  handling  at  all.  When  once  they  become 
vicious  there  is  little  dependence  to  be  placed  on  them,  and  their 
keeper  must  be  on  his   guard.     Never  use  a   yearling   bull 


CATTLE.  39  i 

unless  it  be  on  a  single  cow  as  an  experiment.  At  two  years  old 
he  may  be  used  sparingly  on  twenty  to  thirty  cows,  and  when 
three  years  old  he  will  be  vigorous,  and  ought  to  be  good  for  al 
least  five  years'  service  of  one  hundred  cows  a  season.  When  in 
service  his  feed  must  be  the  best,  and  he  should  be  groomed  and 
washed  often.  This  is  necessary  to  his  best  health,  as  is  also 
daily  exercise. 

The  following  from  the  "  G'nmtry  Gentleman^''  is  so  admirable, 
that  we  copy  it  and  indorse  it  entire.  VVorkhstg-  Bulls.  "  1 
have  one  of  Emery's  endless  chain  powers  to  drive  my  hay- 
cutter.  My  bull  is  an  Alderney  two  year  old,  weighing  a  little 
over  nine  hundred  pounds.  I  put  on  the  brake  and  had  him 
led  into  the  power,  where  he  had  a  small  feed  of  oats  given 
him.  While  he  ate  these  he  was  groomed  and  caressed.  This 
was  repeated  two  or  three  days  in  succession.  Then,  while  he 
was  eating,  the  brake  was  slacked  a  little,  and  as  the  floor 
moved  down  (slowly,  so  as  not  to  alarm  him)  he  stepped 
up  to  keep  his  muzzle  at  the  oats.  At  the  fourth  lesson 
he  worked  an  hour,  and  cut  hay  enough  to  last  my  stock — 
some  eighteen  head  in  all — two  or  three  days. 

"  We  have  not  had  the  slightest  trouble,  and  so  much  does  he 
appear  to  like  the  exercise  and  the  pleasant  remembrances  of 
the  reward  of  good  behavior,  that  1  shall  not  be  surprised  if, 
when  he  happens  to  find  the  door  open,  he  should  go  in  and  run 
the  machine'  on  his  own  account.  I  intend  to  put  up  a  circular 
saw  and  let  him  cut  my  fire-wood. 

"  jSTow  for  the  advantages.     The  pampering  and  confinement 

which  makes  a  horse  run  away  will,   in  time,  make  a  bull 

devilish.     The  work  I  give  him   requires  no  harnessing ;  it  is 

only  an  hour's  walk  up  a  hill  of  thirteen  degrees  elevation.     It 

gives  him  an  outlet  for  his  superfluous  spirits.     It  keeps  him 

'  in  hand'  and  gentle ;  it  wears  away  the  growth  of  his  hoofs, 
24 


392  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

develops  his  muscle,  and  improves  his  health.     Have  I  not  a 
right  to  expect  my  herd  to  be  benefited  by  such  management  ?" 

Bearing  Calves  has  been  spoken  of  in  connection  with 
dairy  stock,  but  we  have  a  few  words  further  to  say.  They 
should  always  have  enough  food  to  satisfy  their  hunger,  enough 
pure  water  always  at  hand  to  satisfy  their  thirst,  a  comfortable, 
warm,  dry,  and  well  bedded  shelter,  to  which  they  can  help 
themselves  whenever  the  weather  is  bad.  For  whatever  pur- 
pose the  calf  is  to  be  raised,  for  beef,  for  work,  or  for  the  dairy, 
these  things  will  pay.  If  for  veal,  calves  should  have  their 
mothers'  milk  for  four  weeks,  with  meal  added  if  they  will  take 
it.  We  do  not  mean  by  this,  that  the  calves  should  be  allowed 
to  run  with  the  cows  and  look  out  for  themselves.  The  teats 
are  not  evenly  milked  by  the  calf,  and  one  or  more  of  them  are 
likely  to  become  worthless.  The  constant  sucking  also  lessens 
the  future  flow  of  milk.  Males,  not  intended  for  breeding, 
should  be  castrated  young.  Heifers  intended  for  beef  should  be 
spayed.  Steers  should  be  early  accustomed  to  be  fastened 
together.  Any  time  after  six  months  a  little  gentle  training 
may  be  commenced.  It  is  less  labor  to  train  them  now,  and 
they  will  be  more  tractable  and  docile  than  if  left  to  be  two  or 
three  years  old. 

When  they  are  first  put  into  the  cart,  they  should  be  driven 
around  the  inside  of  some  lot,  next  to  the  fence,  which  prevents 
them  from  turning  out  in  that  direction,  while  you  stand  on  the . 
inside  to  keep  them  to  their  track.  Never  put  steers  to  a 
great  heavy  cart,  unless  your  object  is  to  make  them  slow. 
Put  them  to  a  light  cart  and  teach  them  to  step  quick,  to  walk 
fast. 

Feeding  Stock  is  the  most  important  operation,  in  improved 
farming;  for  the  farmer  feeding  all  his  crops  to  his  stock 
depends  upon  them  to  turn  it  into  manure  and  beef.     He  calcu- 


CATTLE.  393 

lates  to  see  his  returns  come  in  from  the  sale  ol  his  beef, 
mutton,  and  pork,  and  desires  to  know  how  his  haj  and  grain 
must  be  fed  to  make  the  most  meat.  Of  course,  we  take  it  for 
granted  that  he  has  breeds  that  will  fat,  for  some  breeds  wil] 
not,  no  matter  what  you  feed  them,  and  others  will  only  fat 
on  such  enormous  quantities  as  tend  to  ruin  the  producer.  We 
have  seen  a  great,  big  headed,  paunchy  ox,  fed  for  -  three 
months  beside  a  grade  Devon,  eating  full  one-third  more,  and 
gaining  less  than  one-half  as  mi^ch  in  the  three  months. 

Get  a  breed  that  will  fat,  and  then  keep  them  growing^  summer 
and  winter.  It  is  wretched  policy,  east,  west,  north  or  south,  to 
let  any  animal  lose  a  pound  of  flesh.  That  pound  of  flesh  has 
cost  you  money,  and  it  will  cost  you  money  to  replace  it. 

A  man  who  for  any  reason  is  obliged  to  pay  twice  for  a  piece 
of  property,  is  reckoned  unfortunate,  but  many  a  farmer  volun- 
tarily pays  six  or  eight  times  over  for  the  same  fifty  pounds  of 
flesh,  and  wonders  why  farming  does  not  pay  any  better.  My 
friend,  when  you  get  a  pound  of  flesh,  keep  it.  It  won't  cost 
one-half  as  much  as  it  will  to  replace  it. 

If  pasture  get  scant  in  the  fall,  so  that  animals  have  to  trave 
all  day  to  satisfy  their  hunger,  they  will  soon  fall  off  in  flesh. 
The  farmer  should  piece  out  the  pasture  by  feeding  cornstalks, 
root  tops,  pumpkins,  etc.  Winter  feeding,  and  care,  is  where 
many  farmers  fail.  Feeding  stock  of  any  kind  from  stacks  is 
miserable  policy.  Hay  thus  fed  will  not  go  more  than  one 
half  as  far  as  when  fed  under  shelter.  The  cold  and  wet  cause 
the  cattle  to  eat  more,  and  yet  they  do  not  thrive  on  it.  Much 
is  trampled  under  foot  and  wasted.  Says  Mr.  Allen:  "  The  con- 
sequence of  all  this  is,  that,  through  irregularity  of  feeding 
and  carelessness  of  distributing  their  food,  and  want  of  shelter, 
the  cattle  lose  flesh  every  day,  and  be  their  condition  what  it 
may,    on   coming   into  winter   quarters   they   go   out   'spring 


394  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

poor.'  Better  keep  ten  head  only,  and  keep  them  well  shel- 
tered and  well  fed,  than  one  hundred  in  this  shiftless,  cruel  way. 
It  will  be  profitable,  while  on  every  ill-kept  animal  you  will 
lose  money,  and  the  manure  of  the  animals  thus  fed  will  be 
worth  bui  little  more  than  so  much  clay." 

Stall  Feeding.  For  milk  cows  and  fattening  stock,  stall 
feeding  the  year  around  is  certainly  advisable.  The  experience 
of  every  stock  raiser  who  has  ever  given  it  a  trial  testifies  that 
the  pi'ofit  is  at  least  double.  There  is  no  doubt  of  it.  If  we 
could  persuade  every  stock  owner  to  adopt  this  soiling  system, 
we  should  feel  that  we  had  done  as  much  for  our  country  as 
Fulton,  Eli  Whitney,  or  Blias  Howe.  It  would  increase  the 
agricultural  wealth  of  the  country  in  a  tenfold  ratio.  It  would 
in  five  years  pay  the  whole  national  debt.  It  is  the  only  true 
economy  in  stock  raising.  In  our  soiling  system  we  include 
stall  feeding,  cutting  and  steaming  food,  and  the  husbanding  of 
manures.  Its  advantages  are  first,  A  saving  IN  fences.  All 
the  fences  required  (and  all  there  ever  ought  to  be  on  any  farm) 
will  be  a  good-sized  yard  to  exercise  them  in.  Now  a  man 
having  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  pasture  often  divides  it 
into  six  lots.  To  fence  these  lots  costs  not  less  than  one  thou- 
sand dollars;  the  interest  and  repairs  on  which  every  year  will 
be  sufficient  to  pay  a  man  for  doing  all  the  extra  work  of  soil- 
ing fifty  head  of  cattle.  Can't  you  invest  your  one  thousand 
to  better  advantage.  Again,  each  of  these  fences  takes  up  land. 
Your  one  thousand  dollars  worth  of  fence  takes  up  from  three 
to  four  acres  of  land,  A  second  consideration  is  the  saving  of 
land.  Four  acres  each,  or  twelve  head  to  fifty  acres  of  land,  are 
required  by  the  pasturing  system,  and  often  six  acres  each,  or 
only  eight  head  to  fifty  acres.  Put  this  fifty  acres  under  culti- 
vation, and  it  will  keep  twenty-four  head  as  well,  yes,  better 
than  it  now  keeps  eight  or  twelve.     We  have  already  seen  that 


CATTLE.  395 

the  saving  in  fences  will  pay  all  the  extra  expenses  of  soiling, 
leaving  one  thousand  dollars  to  be  invested  in  the  additional  stock 
1    that  can  be  fed  under  the  new  system.     "We  venture  to  say  that 
,    one  and  a  quarter  acres  in  hay  and  grain  for  winter  soiling,  and 
three  quarters  of  an  acre  in  green  crops  for  summer  soiling,  will 
be  sufficient  for  any  stock.     We  have  statements  from  a  large 
,    number  of  reliable  men  who  practice  soiling  and  no  one  of  them 
^    allows  over  two  acres  per  head.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
'    same  number  of  acres  can  be  made  to  feed  twice  or  three  times 
as  many  head  of  cattle  by  the  soiling  system.    Third,  is  the  sav- 
ing in  manure,  and  this  is  the  most  important  consideration  of 
all.     Manure  is  valuable  even  on  the  virgin  soil  of  the  prairies. 
No  amount  of  manure  is  wasted  when  applied  even  to  these.   As 
we  have  already  seen,  the  soiling  system  enables  the  farmer  to 
keep  double  the  number  of  animals  on  the  same  amount  of  land  ; 
it  will  also  double  the  value  of  the  manure  of  each  animal,  thus 
making  four  times  the  amount  of  manure  to  return  to  the  fields. 
No  land  will  ever  become  ''  exhausted"  under  such  a  system, 
but  will  constantly  increase  in  fertility.    A  fourth  consideration 
is  that  there  will  be  a  lari>e  extra  product  of  milk,  butter,  or 
beef;  enough  to  pay  for  the  labor  of  soiling. 

Directions  for  Soilixg.  For  summer  feeding  an  open 
shed  may  be  used,  connected  with  a  yard  or  lane.  The  sheds 
should  be  divided  into  stalls,  and  ev'ery  creature  should  have 
its  own  place,  and  never  be  allowed  to  feed  anywhere  else. 
They  will  soon  learn  to  take  their  own  places  without  crowding 
or  hunching  each  other.  Their  feeding  hours  should  be  regular 
and  often,  at  least  four  times  a  day. 

The  sheds  should,  of  course,  be  provided  with  mangers,  and 
the  stalls  with  stanchions,  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  animals 
stand  in  them  all  but  two  or  three  hours  in  the  day,  when  they 
are  out  for  exercise. 


b96  now    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

The  crops  for  summer  soiling  are  winter  rye,  wliicli  comes 
first,  and  can  be  cut  in  May,  and  is  excellent  to  let  them  down 
from  dry  to  green  food;  next  clover  and  otlier  grasses  in 
succession  ;  then  rye  again,  for  rye  will  furnish  several  cuttings 
during  the  season;  then  early  sowed  corn,  oats,  sorghum,  and 
other  crops.  Corn  should  be  sown  every  fifteen  days,  until  the 
first  of  August,  or  even  later.  For  fifty  head  of  cattle,  we 
would  advise  the  following  summer  crops :  Five  acres  winter 
rye,  twenty  acres  of  corn,  sowed  at  five  different  sowings 
fifteen  days  apart ;  seven  acres  of  red  clover,  and  five  acres  of 
Timothy,  or  oats.  Each  animal  should  have  enough,  but  no 
more  than  they  will  eat  up  clean  at  each  meal.  As  each  animal 
always  eats  at  the  same  place,  the  feeder  can  easily  manage 
this. 

Plenty  of  pure  water  is  indispensable  to  the  best  results, 
especially  with  milk  cows.  Free  access  to  pure  water  will 
increase  the  flow  of  milk.  The  best  arrangement  we  have  ever 
seen  for  this  purpose  was  a  double  manger,  or  rather  a  pretty 
wide  manger,  (lower  down  than  is  customary,)  and  a  partition 
through  the  middle,  from  end  to  end.  Either  half  of  this 
manger  could  be  filled  with  water,  at  any  time,  from  a  pump 
outside  the  building.  This  having  water  always  at  hand  is  a 
most  important  matter,  and  adds  to  the  profits  of  the  dairy.  If 
open  sheds  are  used  for  summer  soiling,  they  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  team  can  be  driven  along  in  front  of  them, 
and  the  fodder  passed  from  it  to  the  stalls.  If  feeding  is  done 
in  the  stable,  which  is  best  for  milk  cows,  at  least,  the  team  can 
be  driven  in  on  the  floor.  In  winter  all  feeding  should  be  done 
in  the  stables,  and  here  much  will  depend  on  cleanliness,  air, 
pure  water,  and  constant  care. 

Eemember  that  you  are  saving  enough  to  pay  for  a  great  deal 
of  labor  and  attention.     Summer  is  the  best  time  to  fatten  beef, 


CATTLE.  397 

but  you  must  keep  up  jour  stock  in  the  winter  also.  In  coming 
down  from  green  food  to  dry,  care  must  be  exercised  that  the 
change  is  not  too  sudden,  especially  with  milk  cows.  As  the 
green  food  grows  insufficient,  cut  some  early  cured  hay,  and 
mix  a  little  meal  with  it.  Keep  up  not  only  the  amount,  but 
the  quality  of  the  milk. 

Cutting  and  Cooking  Food  foe  Stock  now  engages  our 
attention.  There  are  six  cogent  reasons  why  this  should  be 
done.  It  saves  the  labor  of  mastication,  which  s  severe  work 
for  cattle,  as  their  teeth  are  only  calculated  for  eating  grass. 
The"  finer  fodder  is  cut  the  better.  However  fine  you  may  cut 
it,  it  will  still  require  more  mastication  than  green  grass. 
While  cutting  renders  it  fine,  wetting  it  renders  it  more  suc- 
culent, and  cooking  it  softens  the  fibre ;  it  therefore  is  all 
available  as  food,  and  the  same  amount  cut  and  steamed  will 
go  twice  as  far  as  in  the  natural  state.  Theie  are  thousands 
of  reliable  statements  to  prove  this,  and  yet,  either  from  indif- 
ference, indolence,  or  unbelief,  the  multitude  of  farmers  still 
go  on  feeding  uncut  hay  and  stalks,  unground  grain  and  whole 
roots  to  their  stock.  A  third  great  advantage  of  cutting  and 
steaming  is,  that  every  thing  can  be  made  palatable  and  used. 
The  profit  in  this  direction  is  equal  to  the  cost.  Half  hay  and 
half  straw  are  by  this  means  made  fully  as  good  as  clear  hay 
uncut.  Coarse  hay,  badly  cured  hay,  straw  and  cornstalks  are 
eagerly  devoured  by  the  most  dainty  stock  when  cut  and 
steamed.  This  shows  that  even  poor  fodder  cut  and  steamed 
is  more  palatable  to  the  stock  than  the  best  uncooked :  this  is 
the  cow's  argument  in  its  favor.  Twenty  pounds  of  good  hay 
cut  and  steamed  will  keep  a  cow  in  better  condition  than  thirtj' 
pounds  uncut  and  uncooked. 

Says  Mr.  Allen,  on  this  point :  "  If  the  food  goes  into  the 
animal  at  blood  heat,  so  much  of  the  animal  heat  as  has  to  be 


398  now  TO  make  the  fakm  pay. 

expeudod  in  warming  that  otherwise  cold  food  after  entering 
the  stomach,  would  be  saved  to  go  into  flesh;  for  the  animal 
heat  has  to  be  created  by  this  food,  and  is  therefore  expended 
in  producing  it,  and  cannot  to  that  extent,  of  course,  make  fat 
or  flesh.  So  also  would  be  saved  the  amount  of  food  expended 
in  producing  the  muscular  strength  and  work  of  the  jaws  in 
grinding;  for  this  power  has  to  be  furnished  from  some  source, 
and  we  hold  that  the  power  so  produced  in  the  internal  system 
of  the  animal  itself  is  the  dearest  possible  way  of  making  it. 
Cooking  or  warming  the  food  is,  therefore,  a  great  economy, 
much  more,  we  consider,  than  its  additional  expense."  The 
trouble  with  Mr.  Allen,  and  a  dozen  other  writers  on  this 
subject  whom  we  might  name,  is  that  they  follow  with  long 
and  elaborate  descriptions  of  cooking  apparatus,  boilers,  pipes, 
etc.,  which  frighten  away  those  who  would  like  to  trj^  the 
experiment.  After  a  man  has  once  tried  it  and  found  what  an 
immense  improvement  it  is,  he  does  not  hesitate  to  invest  any 
reasonable  amount  of  time,  labor,  and  money  in  perfecting  it. 
A  CHEAP  PEOCESS  is  what  is  wanted  at  first.  The  following  is 
simple:  Line  your  feed-box  with  tin  or  sheet  iron,  cut  your 
feed,  turn  on  a  gallon  of  boiling  hot  water  for  every  two 
bushels  of  feed :  shut  on  the  cover  tight,  and  leave  it  from  two 
to  five  hours;  it  will  keep  warm  over  mght.  Where  more 
than  five  animals  are  to  be  fed  it  will  pay  to  have  a  power 
cutter.  A  horse  power  is  a  convenient  thing  to  have  for  a 
great  many  purposes  on  the  form.  By  it  hay,  straw,  stalks, 
and  roots  can  be  cut  with  very  little  trouble.  A  set-kettle  just 
outside  the  door  will  heat  the  water.  This  can  be  covered 
tightly,  and  a  pipe  run  from  it  to  the  feed-box ;  this  will  keep 
the  feed  cooking  as  long  as  the  water  is  hot.  When  roots  are 
to  be  fed,  they  should  be  cut  up  and  put  into  the  box  with  the 
feed.     It  is  good  practice  to  mix  a  little  bran,  meal,  or  raid- 


CATTLE.  .  399 

dlings  \\ith  the  feed;  it  seasons  the  whole  and  saves  hay. 
George  A.  Moore,  of  Buffalo,  New  York,  says:  "I  think 
i  cutting  and  steaming  combined  insure  a  gain  to  the  feeder 
of  at  least  thirty-three  per  cent.  The  manure  resulting  from 
feeding  steamed  food  is  worth  double  that  from  feeding  in 
the  ordinary  way."  This  man  feeds  eighty  head  and  cooks 
their  feed.  Hundreds  of  dairymen  and  stock-raisers  are  trying 
it,  and  pronounce  it  at  least  one-third  more  profitable  than  the 
ordinary  method.  We  now  proceed  to  the  Diseases  of 
Cattle,  and  their  treatment. 

Inflammatory  Diseases.  Inflammation  of  the  stomach 
causes  numerous  symptoms  of  restlessness  and  evident  pain. 
The  animal  lies  down,  points  its  head  towards  the  belly,  and 
often  strikes  the  belly  with  the  foot.  Give  a  slippery  elm  drink 
every  two  hours ;  inject  warm  soapsuds.  Keep  up  these  reme- 
dies for  several  days.  Feed  on  gruel  and  other  light  feeds. 
Inflammation  of  the  bowels  is  not  readily  distinguished  from 
inflammation  of  the  stomach,  except  by  a  greater  rigidity,  and 
evidences  of  more  severe  pain.  Wring  out  a  horse  blanket  in 
hot  water  and  apply  to  the  bowels,  and  inject  clysters  of  soap 
and  water,  as  in  inflammation  of  the  stomach. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs  is  indicated  by  cough,  dul- 
ness,  and  cold  extremities.  The  mouth  is  hofc,  and  the  animal 
is  reluctant  to  move.  Apply  flannels  saturated  in  hot  vinegar 
to  the  legs  and  feet.  Give  half  a  pint  of  thoroughwort  lea 
every  hour.  Inject  warm  soap  and  water.  Inflammation  of 
the  bladder,  kidneys,  womb,  or  urinating  organs  is  indicated 
by  a  frequent  desire  to  urinate,  and  also  to  void  the  excrement ; 
but  small  quantities  are  dropped,  and  the  animal  is  in  increased 
pain  ;  the  loins  shrink  from  the  touch.  The  slippery  elm  drink 
and  soapsuds  injection  should  be  used,  and  a  wet  blanket  kept 


400  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

on  the  abdomen.     It  should  be  kept  warm  by  frequent  wring 
ing  in  hot  water. 

Inflammation  of  the  Brain.  The  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment are  the  same  as  described  for  the  horse. 

Inflammation  of  the  Byes.  Use  the  eye  wash  directed  for 
the  horse.  Dysentery,  Diarrhcea,  Gripes,  and  Colic,  are  in- 
flammator}^  in  their  character  and  results.  They  are  caused  by 
sudden  changes  either  in  temperature  or  in  food.  In  calves,  flour 
milk  gruel,  with  a  little  chalk,  is  usually  all  that  is  required. 
A  gill  of  castor  oil  should  be  given  if  the  former  does  not  give 
relief;  and  if  still  obstinate,  inject  the  warm  soap  and  water. 
Give  grown  animals  a  pint  of  castor  oil,  or,  if  not  to  be  had, 
substitute  sweet  oil  or  melted  lard.  Gruel  and  slippery  elm 
drink,  in  all  these  complaints,  is  a  most  excellent  laxative. 
Diarrhoea  may  often  be  checked  by  the  following  dose :  one  gill 
of  finely  pulverized  charcoal,  one  ditto  fine  salt,  diluted  with 
melted  lard.     If  this  does  not  check  it,  double  the  dose. 

Bloody  Murrain  is  caused  by  leeches,  which  the  animal 
sucks  up  from  muddy  water.  Cattle  should  always  have  pure 
and,  if  convenient,  running  spring  water. 

Mange  is  a  contagious  disease  of  the  skin,  caused  by  filthi- 
ness,  in  connection  with  improper  feeding.  We  never  knew  it 
to  generate  on  a  cleanly,  well-kept  beast,  but  if  once  generated 
m  a  herd  it  will  soon  spread.  The  diseased  cattle  should  at 
once  be  put  by  themselves.  The  symptoms  are  a  dry  scurf 
about  the  roots  of  the  hair  near  the  tail,  and  spreading  from 
that  part  all  over  the  body,  causing  severe  itching  and  violent 
rubbing.  Give  sulphur  one  ounce,  slippery  elm  two  ounces,  char- 
coal one  gill,  lard  sufficient  to  mix.  Make  into  six  doses,  and 
give  two  a  day  in  the  feed.  Prepare  an  ointment  of  spirits  of 
turpentine  one  pint ;  sulphur  three  quarters  of  a  pound ;  and  oil 
sufficient  to  reduce  it  to  an  ointment.     Rub  in  gently.     This 


CATTLE.  401 

ointment  will  keep  for  moutlis,  if  new  butter,  without  salt,  is 
used  instead  of  oil ;  and  for  all  diseases  of  the  skin  in  cattle, 
sheep,  or  hogs  it  is  the  best  thing  we  know  of. 

Pleura  Pneumonia,  Einderpest,  Contagious  Typhus, 
and  other  modifications  of  the  same  contagious  diseases  have 
from  time  to  time  swept  off  thousands  of  cattle  and  are  likely 
to  do  so  again.  The  symptoms  are  fetid  breath,  hot  mouth, 
unnatural  heat  and  redness  in  the  vagina  and  rectum.  Soon  the 
lower  lip,  on  the  inside,  will  be  covered  with  pin-head  blisters, 
and  a  thick  fluid  will  begin  to  run  from  the  mouth.  The  ani- 
mal will  hold  its  head  to  one  side  and  have  a  pitiful  look. 
When  discovered,  kill  every  infected  animal  without  a  mo- 
ment's delay,  bury  all  their  excrement,  and  every  thing  that  has 
been  in  their  stalls.  Isolate  the  rest  of  the  herd,  and  kill  them 
as  fast  as  a  sign  of  the  disease  appears.  Pui  a  box  of  chloride 
of  lime  where  every  animal  will  have  to  step  in  it  some  time 
in  the  day,  and  see  that  every  one  that  comes  into  the  yard 
steps  in  a  box  of  the  same  when  they  go  out. 

Hooven  is  caused  by  eating  too  greedily  of  green  food, 
which,  clogging  in  the  stomach,  ferments  and  generates  gas, 
which  distends  the  stomach  and  often  causes  death.  Give  two 
ounces  of  ammonia  (hartshorn)  in  a  quart  of  soft  water  every 
fifteen  minutes.  A  flexible  tube  passed  down  the  gullet  will 
often  allow  some  portion  of  the  gas  to  escape.  Cloths  wrung 
out  in  hot  water  and  applied  to  the  body,  and  vigorous  rubbing 
with  the  hand,  often  assist  the  work.  An  injection  ot  warm 
soap  and  water,  at  short  intervals,  is  also  to  be  recommended. 
Prompt,  vigorous,  and  persevering  measures  are  to  be  kept  up 
I  until  the  animal  is  relieved  or  dies.  But  do  not  add  to  the 
load  already  in  the  stomach  any  physic  or  nauseating  doses. 

Lice  or  Fly  Bites  should  be  treated  by  rubbing  grease  and 
Scotch  suufl*  into  the  skin. 


402  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM   PAY. 

Choking  often  occurs  wliere  farmers  do  not  cut  up  their 
roots,  or  where  cattle  get  to  the  apples  or  potatoes  unbidden. 
The  best  practice  we  know  of,  is  to  strap  up  one  fore  foot  and 
make  the  animal  hop.  The  obstruction  will  soon  be  thrown 
up.  Another  plan  is,  to  have  a  rod  about  three  feet  long,  with 
a  greased  swab  on  one  end,  and,  one  man  pulling  out  the 
tongue,  another  forces  the  swab  quickly  down  to  the  obstruc- 
tion. 

The  Diseases  of  Dairy  Stock  are  few,  where  properly 
cared  for ;  but  garget,  milk-fever,  and  slinking,  are  by  far  too 
common.  Garget  is  an  inflammation  of  the  udder.  One  or 
more  teats  become  swollen  and  tender ;  the  milk  cakes  in  the 
bag,  and  in  time  the  flow  will  cease.  When  first  discovered, 
put  the  calf  to  the  mother  several  times  a  day.  The  udder 
should  also  be  washed  frequently.  Give  a  physic  of  Epsom 
salts  and  molasses.  Dissolve  one-half  to  a  pound  of  salts  in  a 
quart  of  boiling  water,  add  a  teacup  of  molasses,  and  give  before 
it  gets  cold. 

Slinking  the  Calf  [abortion)  is  quite  common  among  high 
fed  cows,  but  the  causes  are  not  yet  known.  It  usually  occurs 
from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  month  of  pregnancy.  If  the  cow 
is  uneasy  and  feverish,  excited  and  timid,  remove  her  from  the 
rest,  give  her  a  dose  of  salts  and  molasses  in  gruel  or  a  mash. 
A  cow  that  has  once  slunk  her  calf  is  not  reliable  to  breed  from 
again,  but  with  a  valuable  cow  we  should  always  make  a  second 
trial,  but  never  more;  dispose  of  such  cows  and  get  others. 
We  think  something  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  prevention. 
In  the  first  place,  when  near  calving  time,  and  for  some  weeks 
after  calving,  the  cow  should  not  be  exposed  to  cold  rains  or 
drink  very  cold  water.  Ice  cold  water  given  to  a  cow,  just 
before  or  just  after  calving,  has  often  caused  the  loss  of  the  ani- 
mal as  0  breeder.    Again,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  hard  water 


CATTLE.  403 

has  something  to  do  with  it,  although  it  is  by  no  means  suffi- 
cient alone  to  cause  it.  Keeping  the  bull  with  the  cows  is,  we 
are  satisfied,  a  frequent  cause  of  abortion ;  it  should  never  be 
allowed.  Eating  frosted  grass  must  be  very  bad  for  the  cows, 
whether  it  aids  in  procuring  abortion  or  not.  When  there  is 
frost  on  the  grass,  keep  the  cows  in  the  yard  until  ihe  sun 
dissolves  it. 

If  one  cow  suffers  abortion,  the  whole  herd  often  follow  from 
sympathy.  The  smell  and  symptoms  are  known  to  them  by 
instinct,  and  hae  an  injurious  effect  upon  them.  They  will 
smell  of  the  sick  cow  and  her  droppings,  and  then  run  bellow- 
ing about,  and  soon  follow  her.  Therefore,  on  the  first  symp- 
toms, the  diseased  cow  should  be  removed  from  sight,  smell,  or 
sound  of  all  others,  and  kept  until  all  is  over.  And  if  the  cow 
drops  her  calf  in  the  field,  the  foetus  should  be  removed  far 
away  and  buried,  and  the  cow  removed  from  the  herd.  Any 
putrid  or  offensive  matter,  fright,  or  sudden  change  of  feed  will 
in  some  cows  produce  abortion. 

Puerperal  or  Milk  Fever.  All  cows  are  subject  to  more 
or  less  fever  at  calving,  which  in  a  day  or  two,  or  perhaps  in 
three  or  four  days,  increases ;  the  cow  loses  her  appetite, 
becomes  dull,  rolls  the  eyes,  and  looks  wildly  at  her  flanks ;  she 
loses  the  use  of  her  hind  legs,  and  if  down  cannot  rise.  If  the 
cows  are  watched,  as  they  should  be,  the  first  symptoms  will  be 
discovered.  If  so,  give  the  dose  of  Epsom  salts  and  molasses. 
If  the  fever  is  high,  and  the  hind  legs  are  already  stiff,  add  half 
an  ounce  of  red  pepper,  or  ginger,  or  caraway,  or  quartei  of  an 
ounce  of  each  to  the  salts  and  molasses.  If  the  disease  has  gone 
so  far  that  this  dose  does  not  give  relief,  give  another,  doubling 
the  quantity  of  ginger,  pepper,  etc.  At  the  same  time  that  the 
first  symptoms  are  discovered,  the  soapsuds  injections,  wet 
cloths,  etc.,  must  be  also  attended  to.     These  are  of  as  much 


404  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

importance,  and  often  more,  than  tlie  internal  remedies.  After 
recovery  has  commenced,  good  gruel,  mashes,  etc.,  should  be 
furnished,  always  warm.  Cows  and  cattle  are  subject  to  fevers 
of  greater  or  less  intensity,  but  all  requiring  prompt  treatment. 

Symptoms  of  Simple  Fever.  Nose  dry  and  hot ;  rumina- 
tion dull ;  breathing  quickened  ;  horns  hot ;  feet  and  limbs  often 
cold ;  bowels  usually  constipated.  Salts  and  molasses,  with  a 
continued  use  of  wet  blankets,  will  usually  relieve  fever  at  this 
stage;  but  if  symptomatic  fever  ensues,  and  the  above  symp- 
toms become  aggravated,  the  eyes  red  and  staring,  the  animal 
uneasy,  and  in  such  distress  as  to  moan  frequenth',  one  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  sulphur  and  half  an  ounce  of  ginger  must  be 
added  to  the  above  dose.  In  both  cases  soapsuds  injections 
will  assist  in  relieving  the  bowels.  Typhoid  fever  is  usually 
accompanied  with  some  diarrhoea.  No  salts  or  other  physic 
should  be  given  in  this  case,  but  the  water  treatment  must  be 
used  rigorously,  and  red  pepper  or  ginger  given  in  gruel ;  one 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  each,  or  half  an  ounce  of  one  in  oatmeal 
gruel  is  the  proper  method  of  administering  it. 

These  fevers  cause  heat  in  the  horns,  called  by  some  "  horn- 
ail,"  "  horn  distemper,"  etc.,  and  such  resort  to  boring  the  horns. 
Now  this  is  all  folly.  There  can  be  no  disease  of  the  horns ;  it 
is  only  the  result  of  fever  and  inflammation  elsewhere.  When 
the  cause  is  removed,  the  "  horn-ail"  will  also  disappear,  and  not 
till  then. 

Loss  of  the  cud  is  a  symptom  of  indigestion.  Give  a  slight 
dose  of  salts  and  molasses  with  a  little  ginger  and  sulphur. 

Operations.  Castrating.  We  quote  from  "Allen  on 
Cattle."  "  First  grasp  the  scrotum  in  the  left  hand,  and  bring 
the  testicles  down  to  the  foot  of  the  bag ;  then  with  the  other 
hand  and  a  sharp  small  knife  cut  a  perpendicular  slit  in  the  rear 
of  each    testicle,  close  to  the  bottom,  a^d  long  enough  for  the 


CATTLE.  405 

released  testicle  to  pass  througti ;  then  cut  through  the  skin 
and  the  inner  case  enclosing  it;  push  out  the  testicle,  and  gently 
draw  the  cord  attached  to  it  out  one  or  two  inches,  and  3ut  or 
scrape  it  ojBf,  and  the  work  is  done.  Then  put  in  a  little  salted 
soft  grease,  and  push  it  upwards  towards  the  belly."  In  hot 
weather  apply  a  little  turpentine  to  the  cut  edges  to  keep  off  the 
flies.  In  cold  or  stormy  weather  house  the  calf.  If  the  scrotum 
becomes  inflamed,  open  again  and  press  the  matter  out.  From 
three  to  six  months  old  is  the  proper  time  for  the  operation. 

Spayixg  is  the  same  process  performed  on  the  heifer,  and 
where  the  stock  is  to  be  fatted  it  is  a  profitable  operation,  as 
they  make  better  beef  and  fatten  more  readily.  Another  object 
of  spaying  is  to  secure  a  uniform  flow  of  milk  the  year  round. 
For  this  purpose  ii  is  done  from  four  to  six  weeks  after  the 
calving,  when  the  milk  is  at  its  fullest  flow.  Where  a  regular 
quantity  of  milk  is  desired  all  the  year,  and  the  raising  of  stock 
is  no  object,  spaying  becomes  desirable.  A  veterinary  surgeon 
will  spay  a  herd  of  cows  in  a  very  short  time,  at  a  small  expense, 
and  Avith  little  danger.  Only  about  one  per  cent,  are  lost  in  the 
operation. 

Diseases  of  the  Feet  and  Limbs  should  be  treated  as 
described  for  the  same  diseases  in  the  horse. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

SHEEP,   SWINE,   AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

r^      '  .    " 

^lltlllE  have  searclied  a  number  of  volumes  for  all  possible 
information  upon  sheep  husbandry,  and  have  found 
most  of  that  contained  in  this  chapter  included  in  two 
large  volumes  by  the  Hon.  Henry  S.  Eandall,  LKD., 
to  whom  we  here  acknowledge  our  indebtedness.  We  advise  all 
Dock  masters,  and  especially  ..any  who  are  just  entering  the 
business,  to  purchase  Mr.  Randall's  volumes. 

We  have  before  alluded  to  thesprofitsof  keeping  sheep  on 
grain  farms^  and  we  are  fully  of  the  opinion  that  many  more 
might  be  kept  to  advantage  in  the  Middle,  Northern,  and 
Eastern  States.  A  farmer  can  turn  his  money  quicker  in  sheep 
than  in  cattle.  They  pasture  better,  and  there  are  thousands  of 
acres  of  worthless,  briery,  bushy  pastures,  that  can  be  made 
fertile  by  turning  in  a  flock  of  sheep.  The  common  breeds  of 
poor  blood,  long  legs,  large  heads,  and  slab  sides  will  not  pay ; 
they  consume  more  food  than  the  improved  breeds,  do  not  get 
fat,  and  neither  the  carcases  nor  the  wool  will  bring  as  good  price, 
often  not  more  than  one-fourth  as  much. 

The  market  for  mutton  is  increasing,  and  near  large  cities,  or 
convenient  to  the  railroads  connecting  with  cities,  the  mutton 
may  be  made  the  main  point.  But  in  the  interior,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  West  and  South,  wool  must  be  the  chief  object 

When  wool  is  the  main  object  the  Merinoes  have  no  competitor. 
406 


Flrj.  79.     Mekixos. 


Fig.  80.     Mektno  Eaves. 

407 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.        409 

Common  breeds,  put  to  a  pure  bred  Merino  ram,  produce  u 
grade  averaging  at  the  lowest  calculation  one  pound  heavier 
fleeces.  And  if  these  and  their  progeny  are  continually  bred 
to  a  pure  blood  Merino,  the  same  increase  will  continue.  In 
fact  no  ewe  should  ever  be  bred  to  any  but  a  pure  blooded  ram, 
when  the  services  of  such  a  one  can  be  obtained. 

The  Cotswold  is  a  large,  fine  mutton  sheep,  and  will  shear 
from  ten  to  sixteen  pounds  of  wool.  The  carcass  often  weighs 
over  two  hundred  pounds  at  two  years  old,  and  will  be  worth 
several  cents  more  per  pound  than  the  common  breeds.  When 
near  a  good  market  the  Cotswolds  are  as  profitable  as  any 
breed  we  know.  The  South  Down,  for  both  mutton  and  fleece, 
are  fully  equal  to  any  other  breed.  They  do  not  shear  quite  as 
heavy  a  fleece,  nor  market  so  heavy  a  carcass  as  the  Cotswolds, 
but  both  fleece  and  carcass  are  worth  more  per  pound  than  the 
Cotswolds.  This  breed  is  ready  for  the  butcher  at  any  time 
from  three  months  to  five  years  old,  giving  as  much  weight  for 
their  feed  as  any  other.  Th<  buck  can  be  profitably  introduced 
into  any  flock  where  it  is  not  especially  desirable  to  keep  up 
pure  blood  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  Leicesters  are  only  mutton  sheep,  but  near  large 
markets  they  can  be  raised  with  great  profit,  as  they  put  on 
flesh  very  fast.  They  shear  six  to  eight  pounds  of  fleece.  The 
introduction-  of  the  Cotswold  ram  to  this  breed  greatly  improves 
the  animal  for  breeding  purposes. 

We  will  briefly  state  the  points  of  a  good  fine  woolled  sheep. 
A  stout,  vigorous  body  of  medium  size  for  the  breed  ;  a  thin, 
loose,  elastic  skin  of  a  rosy  color ;  a  regular  skin,  except  folds 
about  the  neck,  (the  folds  once  so  much  in  fashion,  all  over  the 
body,  were  of  no  use,  and  interfered  with  the  shears) ;  fleece 
of  even  length  and  thickness  all  over  the  body ;  a  thick,  short- 
ish coat  on  the  hind  legs  and  over  the  top  of  the  head,  and 
25 


410  HOW   TO   MAKE    THE   FARM   PAY. 

also  covering  the  scrotum  of  the  ram.  Exceeding  fineness  of  wool 
is  not  desirable  in  the  American  market,  The  wool  should  be 
"  true,"  that  is  the  same  size  from  root  to  point.  The  cuts  of 
the  different  breeds  in  this  chapter  give  a  good  idea  of  their 
points. 

Breeding  should  always  be  accompanied  by  a  purpose  to 
improve  the  flock,  and  all  ewes  of  inferior  form  or  fleece, 
having  any  serious  defect  in  constitution  or  habit,  should  be 
"  culled"  and  sent  to  the  butcher.  The  owner  should  keep  a 
constant  watch  of  his  flock,  and  if  large,  select  the  ewes  with 
reference  to  the  rams  to  which  they  are  to  be  bred.  We  surmise 
that  no  breeder  will  allow  the  ram  to  run  indiscriminately  with 
the  flock  at  or  near  coupling  time.  If  there  is  a  difference  in 
the  size  of  the  rams,  select  the  ewes  with  reference  to  the  size, 
not  breeding  a  small  ewe  to  a  large  ram.  When  you  get  a 
good  ram,  a  sure  lamb-getter,  who  stamps  his  good  qualities  on 
his  stock,  keep  him  and  breed  in  and  in,  until  you  have  a  whole 
flock  with  his  good  qualities.  There  is  no  danger  from  breeding 
in  and  in,  if  the  ram  is  perfectly  sound,  but  if  any  defects  begin 
to  appear  in  his  get,  change  him  at  once,  and  stamp  out  the 
defect  by  disposing  of  all  that  have  it,  no  matter  how  good  they 
may  otherwise  be.  "  Keep  none  hut  the  hest^  That  motto  is  the 
sheet  anchor  of  sheep  husbandry.  It  costs  something  to  be 
served  by  a  full  blooded  ram,  but  the  profits  are  sure.  A  flock 
of  a  hundred  common  ewes  worth  four  hundred  dollars,  served 
by  a  common  ram  worth,  perhaps,  ten  dollars,  will  bring  an 
equal  flock,  but  worth  no  more  than  their  dams.  But  serve 
this  same  flock  with, a  full  blooded  ram  worth  one  hundred 
dollars,  and  every  lamb  at  six  months  old  will  be  worth  at 
least  one  dollar  more,  and  at  every  shearing  their  fleece 
will  be  worth  more;   every  lamb   they  drop   will  be  worth 


Fi(j.  81.     Meiuxo  Ram. 


Leicester  Ram.     Owned  by  Juriau  Winne,  of  Albany  Co.,  N.  Y. 

411 


SHEEP,    SWINE,  AND   OTHEK   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         413 

still  more  and  so  on,  the  profits  of  the  transaction  increasing 
every  year. 

Eams  at  eight  to  ten  months  old,  if  very  strong  and  healthy, 
may  serve  five  or  six  ewes ;  in  the  second  year  thirty  or  forty, 
in  the  third  year,  one  hundred.  After  this,  if  properly  managed, 
every  strong,  healthy,  well-cared  for  ram  may  serve  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  ewes  in  the  coupling  season  of 
six  weeks.  This  is  on  the  supposition  that  he  serves  each  ewe 
but  once.  When  the  foolish  practice  is  adopted  of  allowing  the 
ram  to  run  with  the  ewes,  forty  to  fifty  are  enough  for  a  ram, 
and  two  rams  should  never  be  put  into  a  flock  together.  Eams 
properly  used,  and  never  overtasked,  are  good  until  their 
seventh  or  eight  year.  When  in  service  the  ram  should  have 
oats  with  his  hay,  and  a  few  roots,  oil  cake,  and  extra  care. 

Spring  Management  of  Sheep.  When  changing  the 
flock  from  dry  feed  to  grass,  let  them  out  only  a  few  hours 
each  day  for  several  days,  keeping  up  in  part  their  dry  feed. 
Tagging,  is  cutting  off  the  wool  about  the  vent,  from  the  roots 
of  the  tail,  down  the  inside  of  the  thigh.  It  should  always  be 
done  before  the  flock  is  turned  out  in  the  spring.  Ewes  with 
lamb  should  be  held  on  their  side  by  a  helper,  and  always 
handled  very  carefully.  If  the  pastures  contain  burdock,  this- 
tles, beggar  ticks,  etc.,  they  should  be  cut,  gathered,  and  burned 
before  the  sheep  are  turned  out.  Lambing  time  varies  widely 
with  different  flock-masters.  The  aim  should  be  to  have  the 
lambing  season  from  about  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle 
of  May.  The  ewe  averages  about  five  months  in  pregnancy. 
The  flock-master  should  make  himself  very  familiar  with  the 
ewes  for  some  time  before  lambing,  so  that  he  can  handle  them 
without  diflS.culty.  Never  a  harsh  word  or  action  among  sheep. 
Lambing  requires  a  well  littered,  clean,  well  ventilated  room, 
whether  stable  or  shed.     If  the  days  are  warm  and  pleasant 


414  HOW   TO   .AIAKE    THE   FARM   PAY. 

the  sheep  should  run  in  the  yard,  but  at  night  should  be  shel 
tered.  More  harm  than  good  usually  results  from  going  around 
in  the  night.  If  their  accommodations  are  such  as  they  should 
be,  all  lam^^dropped  will  be  found  right  side  up  in  the  morn- 
ino-.  No  assis^nce  should  be  given  in  lambing,  until  the  ewe 
shows  signs  of  exhaustion  in  her  efforts  to  expel  the  foetus, 
when  a  little  gentle  assistance  may  be  rendered  by  taking  hold 
of  the  feet  of  the  lamb  and  giving  a  gentle  pull  when  the  ewe 
makes  an  effort  to  cast  it.  The  lamb  should  come  with  a  fore 
foot  each  side  of  the  nose.  If  it  comes  in  any  other  shape,  it 
should  be  pushed  back  into  the  womb  and  the  attempt  made  to 
get  it  in  position.  If  new  born  lambs  are  acknowledged  and 
licked  by  the  dam,  do  not  interfere.  If  the  lamb  appears  weak, 
or  for  any  reason  does  not  suck,  put  him  to  the  teat,  milk  a  little 
onto  his  nose,  and  rub  his  back  about  the  roots  of  the  tail.  Be 
very  gentle,  never  get  out  of  patience,  even  if  the  little  brat  is 
stupid ;  persevere,  and  you  will  succeed.  Do  not  feed  with  a 
bottle  or  spoon  until  you  are  sure  he  will  not  suck.  If  the 
difl&culty  is  with  the  teats  of  the  ewe,  put  the  lamb  to  anothei 
ewe  that  has  plenty  of  milk,  until  you  can  get  the  teats  right. 
In  cold  weather  the  lamb  will  sometimes  be  found  chilled ;  it 
can  neither  move  nor  swallow.  Wrap  it  up  in  a  blanket  and 
put  it  either  into  an  oven  or  into  water  as  hot  as  is  comfortable 
for  the  hand ;  rub  it  dry  at  once,  and,  if  still  too  weak  to  suck, 
as  soon  as  it  can  swallow,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  spirits  in  warm 
milk.  Strong  tea  will  sometimes  do,  if  you  have  not  the 
spirits  at  hand.  If  any  lambs  have  to  be  brought  up  on  cow'? 
milk,  let  it  be  new  milch  cows.  Such  lambs  are  apt  to  become 
costive;  the  evacuations  are  difficult  or  cease,  and  the  lamb 
becomes  dull  and  sleepy.  An  injection  of  milk  and  molasses 
at  blood  heat  should  be  given,  two  ounces  at  a  time,  until  the 
bowels  are  moved.     Give  six  teaspoonfuls  of  thoroughwort  or 


Firj.  S3.     South  Downs. 


FUj.  84. 
Sheep  Shearing  Machine. 


413 


SHEEP,    SWINE,   AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.         417 

boneset  tea.  We  shall  often  recommend  injections,  and  would 
say  that  no  flock-master  should  ever  be  without  a  syringe. 
The  lamb  is  to  be  held  up  perpendicularly  by  the  hind  legs, 
the  fore  feet  just  touching  the  floor,  for  a  moment  during  and 
after  the  injection.  If  a  healthy  looking  lamb  does  not  suck 
well,  examine  his  teeth,  and  cut  the  gums  where  any  are  press- 
ing through-  Watch  the  lamb  and  see  that  his  dung  does  not 
pin  down  his  tail  over  the  vent.  If  so,  remove  the  dung  and 
rub  the  vent  with  chalk,  or  dry  clay.  If  a  lamb  purges  too 
freely,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  chalk  in  milk.  When  the  lambs 
are  born  with  swelled  neck,  bind  a  woollen  cloth  around  the 
neck  and  soak  it  in  camphor.  If  the  lambs  are  otherwise  im- 
perfect, cull  them  and  get  them  out  of  the  flock. 

Ewes  after  Lambing-  should  be  allowed  rest,  quiet,  and  the 
best  of  feed.  If  any  of  the  ewes  do  not  seem  to  give  milk 
enough  for  their  lambs,  separate  them  from  the  rest  and  give 
them  oatmeal  gruel,  roots,  bran  slop,  etc. 

When  the  teats  have  been  cut  off  by  the  shearer,  open  them 
with  a  knitting  needle,  following  with  a  hot  needle ;  insert  only 
far  enough  to  secure  an  opening.  A  young  ewe  will  some- 
times refuse  to  let  the  lamb  suck ,  she  should  be  held  until  the 
lamb  has  once  drawn  his  rations.  If  the  udder  is  inflamed  or 
caked,  wash  in  hot  water  until  a  flow  is  secured ;  in  the  mean 
time  putting  the  lamb  to  a  ewe  that  has  lost  hers,  or  has  milk  to 
spare.  A  ewe  with  a  good  supply  of  milk,  who  loses  her  lamb, 
should  have  another,  if  there  are  twins  or  extra  lambs,  but 
if  she  is  to  be  dried  off,  she  should  be  fed  on  dry  feed,  and 
milked  once  a  day  for  a  week,  and  two  or  three  times  the  next 
week.  Every  flock  should  have  a  dozen  or  two  of  pens  for  a 
hundred  or  more  sheep.  These  should  be  three  or  four  feet 
square,  and  high  enough  so  that  a  sheep  cannot  jump  out. 
Whenever  a  ewe  disowns  a  lamb,  or  is  wanted  to  adopt  a  lamb. 


418  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

the  ewe  and  lamb  should  be  enclosed  in  one  of  those  pens.  If 
in  the  dark  and  away  from  the  others,  all  the  better.  If  a  lamb 
dies,  take  off  the  skin  from  the  body  and  wrap  it  around 
another  lamb  and  the  mother  will  adopt  it.  For  some  time 
after  birth  the  dam  recognizes  its  own  lamb  only  by  the  smell 

Docking  Lambs  is  best  done  when  two  weeks  old.  The 
lamb  is  held  on  a  block,  the  skin  of  the  tail  is  shoved  towards 
the  body,  and  the  tail  is  cut  with  a  chisel.  It  only  needs  to  be 
left  long  enough  to  cover  the  anus  and  vagina.  If  the  lamb 
bleeds  too  much,  tie  a  cord  tightly  around  the  tail  for  ten  or 
twelve  hours.  If  the  weather  is  warm  and  the  flies  are  about, 
rub  a  mixture  of  tar,  butter,  and  turpentine  on  the  parts. 
When  docking,  is  a  good  time  to  count  the  sexes  and  put  a 
little  mark  on  the  males.  Castratiois"  should  be  done  be- 
tween the  second  and  sixth  week.  The  operation  should  be 
done  carefully,  the  spermatic  cord  cut,  not  jerked  out,  and  tar, 
butter,  and  turpentine  applied  to  the  parts.  "Washing  Sheep 
is  under  many  circumstances  dangerous  and  inconvenient. 
Wherever  it  is  so,  we  advise  shearing  without  washing.  Wash- 
ing is  not  wholly  safe  before  the  middle  of  June,  in  the  latitude 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  as  it  is  often  desirable  to  shear  long 
before  that  time,  the  sheep  must  either  go  without  or  be 
washed  in  chilling  cold  water.  When  washed,  the  object 
usually  is  to  see  how  little  of  the  dirt  can  be  got  out  and  yet 
have  the  fleece  sell  for  washed.  The  unwashed  wool  of  a 
clean,  careful  breeder  is  worth  more,  often,  than  the  half 
washed  wool  of  careless  ones.  Any  man  who  buys  wool 
ought  to  be  able  to  judge  pretty  accurately  as  regards  shrink- 
age. In  washing  wool  the  wool  should  be  wet  and  left  to  soak 
for  a  little  while,  then  the  sheep  are  dipped  and  the  wool 
squeezed,  then  dipped  once  more,  or  put  under  a  fall  of  water 
When  the  sheep  are  brought  to  the  washing  the  hoofs  will  be 


SHEEP,    SWUSTE,    AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         419 

found  to  have  grown  out  of  shape,  curled  under,  etc.  Washing 
softens  the  hoof  and  frees  it  from  dirt.  Have  a  strong  sharp 
knife  and  pare  off  all  these  irregularities  and  also  a  part  of  the 
sole,  if  very  thick.  The  long  toes  are  usually  clipped  with 
nippers.  Shearing  may  be  done  from  one  to  two  weeks  after 
washing,  or  as  soon  as  the  fleece  is  so  far  filled  again  with  oil  oi 
yolk  as  to  be  silky  and  glossy ;  seven  ivarm  days  will  accom- 
plish this  better  than  fourteen  cold  ones,  and  three  hot  days 
better  than  either.  Says  Mr.  Eandall :  "  Shearing  should  always 
be  done  on  smooth,  clean  floors  or  platforms,  with  the  sheep 
penned  close  at  hand.  If  the  weather  is  fair,  it  is  best  to  drive 
only  enough  sheep  into  the  pen  at  once  to  employ  the  shearer 
three  hours,  the  rest  remaining  in  the  pasture  to  keep  them- 
selves filled  with  feed.  A  hungry,  empty  sheep  is  more  impa- 
tient, and  the  shears  run  around  its  collapsed  belly  and  sides 
with  more  difficulty.  The  bottom  of  the  pen  should  be  kept 
clean  with  straw,  stalks,  or  corncobs;  corncobs  are  the  best.  If 
there  are  any  sheep  in  the  pen  dirty  from  purging  they  should 
be  the  first  taken  out.  They  should  be  carried  a  little  aside 
from  the  shearing  floor  and  the  dungy  locks  cut  away.  "When 
the  catcher  catches  a  sheep  in  the  pen  he  should  lift  it  in  his 
arms  clear  of  the  floor,  instead  of  dragging  it  to  the  door,  and 
thus  filling  its  feet  with  straw,  manure,  etc.  At  the  door  of  the 
pen  he  should  hold  it  up  with  its  back  resting  against  his  own 
body  and  its  feet  projecting  toward  the  shearer,  who  should  be 
there  to  clear  its  feet  of  filth,  and  with  a  small  broom  to  free  its 
belly  from  all  dirt,  before  carrying  it  to  the  platform." 

Shearing  is  a  nice  operation  and  not  \yeli  done  by  a  novice. 
R.  M.  Smith,  of  Manchester,  has  invented  and  patented  a 
machine  for  shearing  sheep,  and  good  authority  pronounces  it 
successful  in  doing  the  work  rapidly  and  well.  Messrs.  R.  H. 
Allen  &  Co.,  the  great  implement  manufacturers  of  New  York 


420  now  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

city,  are  preparing  to  manufacture  them  on  a  large  scale, 
Selecting  and  Marking  can  be  done  at  shearing  time.  The 
breeder  should  have  a  box  of  type,  or  large  letters  cut  in  the 
ends  of  blocks  of  soft  wood.  The  following  brands  are  conve- 
nient. The  initial?  of  the  owner's  name,  and  in  addition  a  B 
for  those  that  are  to  go  to  the  butcher,  0  for  very  choice  ewes, 
and  the  initials  of  each  of  your  rams  for  marking  the  sheep 
after  they  are  topped.  At  shearing  time  the  owner  should 
stand  by  and  examine  each  sheep  and  decide  what  mark  should 
be  put  upon  it.  At  no  other  time  can  the  decision  be  made  so 
well ;  the  shape,  sizo,  and  weight  of  fleece  are  now  seen. 
Breeding  qualities  are  also  to  be  taken  into  account.  All  im- 
perfect sheep  should  be  drafted  out  of  the  flock,  if  perfection  is 
desired.  Where  all  are  to  be  sold,  only  the  initials  of  the 
owner  need  be  branded,  but  choice  sheep  may  well  be  marked, 
and  perhaps  an  extra  price  can  be  obtained.  The  branding  is 
done  with  a  mixture  of  lampblack,  turpentine,  and  oil.  Oil 
and  turpentine  boiled,  and  lampblack  stirred  in  while  boiling, 
is  another  mixture,  to  be  applied  warm.  Some  have  a  series  of 
figures  and  stamp  the  age  at  every  shearing.  Those  who  make 
breeding  their  business  have  an  elaborate  system  of  marking 
and  registering.  A  little  copper  plate,  fastened  to  a  ring  in 
the  ear,  is  a  neat  and  simple  contrivance.  The  plate  contains 
the  mitials  and  a  number ;  opposite  that  number  in  the  owner's 
book  a  description  of  the  sheep  is  placed.  After  shearing,  the 
sheep  should  have  shelter  at  hand  until  they  are  able  to  endure 
the  cold  rain  storms  which  often  occur  in  June.  TiCKS  can  be 
killed  by  dipping  the  sheep  in  tobacco  water.  Make  enough 
to  cover  a  good  sized  lamb  and  strong  enough  to  kill  any  ticks 
you  pull  off  and  throw  into  it.  One  man  holds  the  fore  legs  and 
nose  and  another  the  hind  legs,  and  then  dip  the  sheep  into  the 
tub  or  box.     Set  it  into  another  tub  or  box,  squeeze  out  the 


SHEEP,   SWINE,   AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         421 

"wool,  and  you  will  not  be  troubled  with  ticks.  After  sheep  are 
sheared  the  ticks  go  to  the  lambs,  and  there  is  no  excuse  for  not 
exterminating  them.  If  you  do  not,  they  will  exterminate 
your  sheep.  At  shearing  time  the  horns  will  often  be  found 
growing  towards  the  eye  or  cheek ;  they  should  be  cut  back 
with  a  small  fine  saw.  Maggots  penetrate  into  sores  on  sheep 
and  cause  death.  The  tar,  turpentine,  and  butter,  applied  to  all 
cuts  made  at  shearing  or  to  any  wounds  made  afterwards,  will 
prevent  this.  Dung  about  the  vent  generates  maggots  and 
should  be  removed,  and  the  above  application  made. 

Educating  Rams  should  be  begun  early.  They  should  be 
visited  and  handled  until  they  are  perfectly  docile.  Two  grown 
rams  should  never  be  allowed  to  run  together.  A  choice  ram 
can  be  mated  with  a  couple  of  wethers  in  a  good  inclosure, 
from  which  there  is  no  possibility  of  escape.  They  should  be 
taught  to  lead  before  they  are  six  months  old.  A  ring  put 
through  the  horn  is  by  far  the  best  method  of  securing  rams. 
Fences  around  sheep  pastures  should  be  sound  but  need  not  be 
high,  until  the  sheep  learn  to  jump,  when  no  ordinary  fence 
will  keep  them.  If  the  fence  is  sound  and  tight,  and  they  are 
always  taught  to  go  under  the  bars  instead  of  going  over  them, 
there  will  be  no  trouble.  But  only  teach  one  sheep  that  it  can 
jump  over  or  crawl  through,  and  you  soon  have  a  flock  of 
jumping  sheep. 

Salt,  Tar,  Sulphur,  Alum,  etc.,  are  often  given  sheep  iu 
their  summer  pastures,  but  none  of  these  except  salt  can  be 
necessary  for  a  healthy  sheep.  Salt  they  must  have ;  once  a 
week  is  often  enough  to  give  them  a  taste.  If  lumps  of  rock 
salt  are  kept  in  their  troughs  they  will  lick  them  whenever 
they  feel  the  need.  If  salt  is  thrown  upon  weeds,  thistles, 
clumps  of  coarse  .grass  and  bushes  the  sheep  will  eat  them  to 
get   the   salt.      "Water  and   shade   are  both  beneficial  in   the 


4.22  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

sheep  pasture.  Sheep  that  have  been  feeding  in  a  pasture 
where  there  is  water  should  not  be  turned  into  a  pasture  with- 
out water.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  temporary  sheds  even  in 
summer  pastures ;  if  an  unusually  inclement  storm  comes  on 
they  will  take  refuge  and  save  enough  in  strength,  heat,  and  fat 
to  pay  for  the  sheds. 

Weaning  and  Fall  Feeding.  Weaning  should  seldom 
be  delayed  after  the  lambs  are  four  months  old,  and  if  sweet, 
tender  pasturage  is  ready  for  them  a  month  earlier  it  is  advisable 
to  take  them  off  then.  The  great  point  to  be  aimed  at  is  to 
keep  thera  growing  rapidly  until  winter.  In  no  case  should 
they  be  allowed  to  go  backward,  or  even  remain  statiouary. 

"  Well  Summered  is  Half  Wintered  "  with  any  kind  of 
stock.  The  ewes  should  be  removed  to  a  dry  pasture ;  if  possi- 
ble, out  of  hearing  of  the  lambs,  who  should  be  in  care  of 
wethers  or  old  crones  that  have  no  lambs.  As  soon  as  pasture 
begins  to  fail  or  frost  nip  the  grass,  begin  to  feed  oats,  shorts, 
bran,  and  roots  in  small  quantities.  A  tablespoonful  of  oats  to 
begin  on  is  enough  for  each  lamb.  Before  winter  sets  in 
increase  to  a  gill,  or  its  equivalent  in  bran,  and  have  a  little  hay 
in  the  rack  under  their  sheds.  The  crones  they  are  with  will 
teach  them  to  eat  it.  Shelter  should  be  provided  for  all  sheep 
pastures.  Sheds  opening  to  the  south  and  west  answer  the  best 
purpose. 

Fall  Feed  and  Shelter  for  Ewes  intended  for  breeding 
is  one  of  the  most  important  items  of  sheep  husbandry.  For 
various  reasons  they  should  come  into  winter  in  good  condition. 
Unless  they  do,  it  is  dif&cult  to  keep  them  up  through  preg 
nancy,  if  they  take  the  ram  at  all,  and  when  lambing  time  comes 
their  poor  condition  is  shown  in  the  number  of  poor  and  dead 
lambs.     As  soon  as  the  pasture  grows  at  all  scant,  or  the  frost 


SHEEP,   SWINE,   AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  423 

injures  the  grass,  feed  them  pumpkins,  turnip  tops,  cornstalks, 
and  turnips. 

If  any  ewes  still  remain  thin,  separate  them,  and  feed  still 
better,  giving  a  little  grain.  Shelter  should  be  convenient  of 
access  in  all  storms,  and  there  should  be  hay  in  the  racks  fof 
them  to  nibble. 

But  does  all  this  pay,  says  farmer  "Behindhand."  Yes,  and 
it  is  the  only  way  to  make  large  profits  out  of  sheep.  A  poor 
flock  brings  a  small  percentage  of  profit,  but  a  first  rate  flock 
brings  a  large  percentage. 

A  flock  brought  to  the  winter  in  good  condition  will  take  the 
ram  readily,  few  will  miss,  and  it  will  take  but  about  one-half 
the  time  to  serve  them.  They  go  through  the  winter  much 
better,  especially  if  it  is  severe,  and  drop  their  lambs  within  a 
few  days  of  each  other,  being  in  uniform  condition,  and  the 
lambs  partake  of  the  good  condition  of  the  ewes.  Coupling 
The  ewes  selected  for  the  service  of  a  particular  ram  should  be 
kept  by  themselves,  and  the  ram  let  loose  among  them ;  when  a 
ewe  is  served  she  should  be  drawn  out  of  the  flock  and  the 
initials  of  the  ram  stamped  on  her.  As  soon  as  the  ram  has 
served  six  or  eight  he  should  be  returned,  and  the  ewes  sent  to 
the  field.  The  served  ewes  should  be  kept  apart  for  thirteen 
days,  when  they  can  be  turned  in  again  to  the  ram.  Tlie  old 
method  of  allowing  one  or  more  rams  to  run  with  the  flock  will 
never  be  revived  again  among  breeders  of  any  intelligence. 

Teasers  have  also  been  discarded.  The  ram  requires  extra 
care  and  feed  for  a  month  before  and  during  the  coupling  sea- 
son. No  corn  should  be  given,  but  oats,  peas,  beans,  a  little 
wheat,  and  the  choicest  of  hay.  No  excess  of  food  should  be 
given,  but  just  what  he  will  eat  up  clean  at  each  meal.  Earns, 
we  repeat,  should  at  all  times  be  kept  separate  from  each  other 
and  from  the  rest  of  the  flock.     Preparing  for  winter,  the  flock? 


424  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

should  be  divided  after  coupling,  into  lots,  not  to  exceed  one 
hundred  Merinos,  or  fifty  South  Downs,  or  twenty-five  of  the 
larger  mutton  breeds.  The  sheep  in  each  flock  should  be 
nearly  uniform  in  size  and  strength.  Feeble  sheep  and  lambs 
should  be  put  in  a  hospital  by  themselves,  or  disposed  of  at  any 
price  they  will  bring. 

Winter  Management  of  Sheep.  Sheep  should  have 
winter  shelter  in  whatever  portion  of  the  countrj;-  they  may  be 
kept.  It  saves  the  lives  of  some,  it  saves  loss  of  fat  from  expo- 
sure in  all.  There  is  also  a  saving  in  food ;  for  sheep  sheltered 
during  cold  storms  will  not  consume  as  much  food,  and  will 
consume  it  more  economically.  Wet  and  dried,  hay  loses  not 
only  much  of  its  palatableness  but  some  nutrition.  In  the 
South  these  shelters  need  only  be  of  poles  or  slabs  covered  with 
turf  or  straw.  Set  up  crotched  poles,  ten  feet  apart  and  four 
feet  high ;  lay  long  poles  in  these  crotcher,  and  set  up  slabs 
slanting  against  this  frame.  In  all  States  south  of  forty  degrees, 
open  sheds  are  sufficient,  and  the  sheep  will  flock  to  them  on 
the  approach  of  a  storm.  But  north  of  that  sheep  barns  with 
open  yards  are  much  to  be  desired.  The  plan  {Fig.  85)  will 
give  an  idea  of  an  economical  structure  for  a  good  sized  flock. 
It  consists  of  three  two-story  buildings,  the  one  across  the  end 
eighty  by  twenty,  the  other  two  one  hundred  and  twenty  by 
twenty  feet.  These  are  divided  on  the  first  story  into  eight 
stables,  a,  a,  a,  each  twenty  by  forty  feet,  which  will  accommo- 
date sixty  Merinos,  though  fifty  each  is  the  largest  number 
tliat  has  been  wintered  in  them.  The  stables  are  all  connecied 
by  doors,  e,  e,  e,  and  a  door,  d,  d,  d,  opens  from  each  into  a  com- 
mon yard,  C  ;  each  stable  has  also  its  separate  yard,  extending 
for  two  hundred  feet  on  each  side  of  the  buildings,  and  entered 
by  the  doors,  b,  b,  b.  The  lower  end  of  the  common  yard  is 
fenced  off  by  a  movable  fence,  indicated   by  the   dotted   line. 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  425 


Fi(j.  85.    Plan  of  Sueep-Baen  and  Yards. 


426  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

This  yard  is  a  hospital  yard,  shearing  yard,  coupling  yard; 
docking,  castrating,  tagging,  and  many  other  operations  are  per- 
formed here.  It  is  always  kept  clean,  and  deeply  lined  with 
good  litter.  The  second  story  of  the  end  building  lias  one  room 
used  for  storing  hay.  The  second  stories  of  the  two  long  build- 
ings are  divided  into  two  rooms  each,  one  each  for  grain,  hay, 
•uid  straw,  and  one  is  used  for  storing  any  fodder.  There  is  a 
good  root  cellar  underneath  one  half,  of  one  of  the  long  buildings 
At  g,  y,  ^,  are  half  hogsheads,  sunk  to  within  one  foot  of  the 
sill  bottoms,  and  supplied  with  water  by  troughs,  connecting 
with  the  pump,  F.  This  arrangement  is  not  quite  satisfactory, 
as  it  is  liable  to  freezing  in  extreme  cold  weather.  At  A  is  a 
ram  pen.  "We  consider  the  best  features  of  this  plan  to  be  the 
common  yard,  and  the  separate  yards  connecting  with  each 
stable.  These  buildings  can  be  made  of  light  stuff,  at  a  small 
expense  compared  with  the  value  of  the  stock  which  can  be 
stored  in  them  from  year  to  year.  These  barns  abundantly 
accommodate  a  flock  of  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred 
Merinos  and  their  winter  food.  A  farmer,  who  commences  with 
a  flock  of  fifty,  can  put  up  the  end  building  first,  and  add  the 
others  as  his  flock  increases,  but  we  think  that,  substantially, 
this  plan  should  be  kept  in  view.  Each  stable  has  one  small 
window  and  one  sliding  window,  (not  glass,)  so  that  they  can 
be  ventilated  at  any  time  without  opening  the  doors.  The 
sheep  barn,  whatever  its  construction,  should  be  on  dry  ground, 
and  have  yard  room  and  ventilation. 

Pure  air  is  beneficial  to  all  animals,  and  the  practice  of  leav- 
ing the  dung  in  the  stables  all  winter  is  a  bad  one,  though  very 
common.  Three  times,  at  least,  the  stables  should  be  well 
cleaned  out.  The  time  of  a  thaw  is,  on  several  accounts,  desi- 
rable for  this  purpose.  Gypsum  should  always  be  sown  on  the 
•.mnure  before  covering  it  with  fresh  litter,  both  to  disinfect  tha 


SHEEP,    SWIXE,    AXP    OTHER    DOMESTIC    AXIilALS.         427 

manure  and  preserve  its  good  qualities  for  the  soil.  A  few 
cords  of  seasoned  peat,  filled  in  each  autumn,  and  hauled  out 
in  the  spring,  collect  the  urine,  and  make  a  more  valuable 
manure,  cord  for  cord,  than  ordinary  barnyard  manure.  Sheep 
should  not  be  closely  confined  all  wmter.  A  run  on  the  snow  in 
the  middle  of  a  mild  day  is  exceedingly  beneficial.  And  if  the 
snow^  is  off  a  couple  of  hours'  nibble  at  the  grass  will  do  more 
to  keep  the  system  in  good  condition  that  any  nostrums,  such 
as  tar,  alum,  etc.  Especially  on  the  ewes  with  lambs  this  short 
hour  of  relaxation,  whenever  the  weather  will  admit,  is  of  incal- 
culable benefit.  Says  Randall,  "  I  urge  letting  out  breeding 
ewes  on  the  fields  for  this  limited  time  each  day,  (when  the 
weather  admits,)  because  no  animal  more  intensely  craves  a  por- 
tion of  green  food  in  winter,  and  I  consider  nature  or  instinct 
a  first-rate  judge  of  its  own  wants ;  because  the  small  portion  of 
green  food  obtained  from  the  fields  can  exert  no  injurious  effects 
in  any  direction  whatever,  while  it  prevents  the  costiveness 
peculiarly  incidental  to  pregnancy,  and,  by  keeping  the  bowels 
in  an  open  and  regular  state,  has  a  strong  tendency  to  avert  all 
unhealthy  action  or  agencies ;  because  the  travelling  about  and 
digging  for  green  feed  affords  a  most  necessary  and  healthful 
exercise ;  and,  finally,  because  a  neglect  '  of  these  ordinances 
which  nature  has  inculcated,'  for  the  guidance  of  the  pregnant 
ewe,  has  been  followed  by  wide-spread  disaster." 

For  those  who  feed  turnips,  as  every  sheep  owner  ought,  onco 
a  week  for  exercise  is  all  the  escape  required.  A  sled  load  of 
hay  can  be  drawn  off  a  half  a  mile  or  so,  and  the  sheep  allowed 
to  follow  it  out  and  back. 

Winter  Feed.     Sheep  require  about  three  per  cent,  per  day 

of  their  weight  in  hay  or  its  equivalent,  that  is,  two  pounds  for 

a   sheep   weighing   sixty-five   to   seventy-five   pounds ;    three 

pounds  for  one  in   the  vicinity  of  one  hundred  pounds,  etc. 
26 


JOS  HOW    TO    MAKE   TlIK    FARM    PAY. 

lAi.  IN  r.ii  clover,  cured  bright,  is  undoubtedly  the  best  feed  for 
shcop,  but  economy  requires  that  they  should  also  consume  the 
straw  ami  stalks  of  the  farm.  We  would  say  hero,  that  every 
ithoep  itwnor,  who  has  any  laud  adapted  to  turnips,  should  raise 
ihom  lor  hiiJ  sheep.  We  should  as  soon  think  of  going  without 
potatoes  iu  the  family,  as  raising  sheep  without  turnips,  or 
some  other  roots.  Turnips,  as  far  as  they  can  be  fed,  are 
far  cheaper  than  hay. 

The  following  amounts  are  equal  to  one  hundred  pounds  of 
meadow  hay,  composed  of  clover,  timothy,  June  grass,  etc. 


90  lbs 

early  cut  red  clover. 

40  1 

bs.  to  oO  lbs.  wJi 

mo  •' 

pea  vines. 

360 

'     rye  straw. 

300  " 

turnips. 

250 

'     oat  straw. 

40  " 

peas  or  beans. 

200  • 

'     barley  straw. 

60  " 

com,  buckwheat, 
or  oats. 

barl 

ey, 

300 

'     wheat  straw. 

0  «  ■ 

*  a  s 

a  i  3    ' 

a  g  ■§ 

o  —  "" 

o  o  a 

S  -  - 


It  is  not  economy  to  feed  any  one  of  the  above  alone,  not 
even  the  best  hay,  but  as  in  our  own  ibod  a  variety  is  both  more 
palatable  and  more  healthful.  Eegularity  in  the  hours  of  feeding 
and  in  the  amount  given  are  also  ver}'-  essential.  It  is  usually 
desirable  to  feed  a  large  proportion  of  straw  during  the  first  two 
or  three  months  of  winter.  Two  and  a  half  or  three  pounds  of 
straw  is  equivalent  to  one  pound  of  hay,  but  that  amount  of 
straw  could  not  be  digested  properly,  so  a  portion  of  the  food 
must  be  in  more  concentrated  form.  This  is  accomplished  by 
feeding  three  pounds  of  straw,  equal  to  one  pound  of  hay,  and 
one  pound  of  grain,  bran,  meal,  or  oil  cake,  equal  to  two  pounds 
of  hay.  One  pound  of  roots  added  to  the  above  makes  a  most 
excellent  feed.  John  Johnston  writes:  "I  generally  buy  my 
sheep  in  October.  Then  I  have  good  pasture  to  put  them  on, 
and  they  gain  a  good  deal  before  winter  sets  in.  For  the  last 
twenty-three  years,  I  have  fed  straw  for  the  first  two  or  two 


SHEEP,    SWIXE,    AXD    OTHER    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.         42 D 

and  a  half  months,  with  a  pound  of  oil  cake,  meal,  or  grain  to 
each  sheep.  When  I  commence  feeding  hay,  if  it  is  good  early 
cut  clover,  I  generally  reduce  the  quantit}'-  of  meal  or  grain  one 
half;  but  that  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  sheep.  If  they 
are  not  pretty  fat,  I  continue  the  full  feed  of  meal  or  grain  with 
their  clover,  and  on  both  they  fatten  wonderfully  fast.  I  have 
fed  buckwheat,  a  pound  to  each  per  day,  half  in  the  morning 
and  half  at  four  in  the  afternoon,  with  wheat  and  barley  straw." 

As  the  breeder  wishes  to  avoid  fat,  the  grain  can  be  wholly 
dropped,  when  the  clover  is  substituted  ;  but  if  the  sheep  begin 
to  fall  off,  it  should  be  resumed  iu  small  q^uantities.  The  oats 
and  waste  hay  left  in  the  racks  by  the  sheep,  if  put  into  a  sepa- 
rate rack  and  sprinkled  with  brine,  will  be  eaten  by  the  sheep 
for  the  sake  of  the  salt. 

Prairie  Management  of  sheep  is  essentially  different  from 
that  heretofore  described.  In  the  newer  States  land  can  be 
purchased  at  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  the  acre,  and  vast 
pastures  without  claimants  can  be  pastured,  rent  free.  The 
following  letter  will  show  how  the  thing  is  done. 

"  To  Hon.  H.  S.  Randall.  About  the  29th  of  last  July  1 
started  from  Calhoun  County,  Michigan,  with  two  droves  of 
sheep,  about  seventeen  hundred  in  each  drove.  M}''  sheep  stood 
driving  remarkably  well,  and  arrived  in  northern  Iowa  about 
the  10th  of  September.  I  found  good  feed,  and  about  the  time 
winter  set  in  my  sheep  were  in  fine  order.  I  sold  three  hun- 
dred, and  prepared  winter  quarters  for  the  remaining  three 
thousand.  I  erected  my  sheds  two  miles  apart,  where  water 
was  convenient.  I  succeeded  in  getting  a  grove  at  each  place, 
and  built  my  sheds  fronting  the  grove  and  parallel  with 
each  other,  about  five  hundred  feet  long.  I  built  them  of 
poles  and  posts  from  the  groves,  and  covered  them  with  straw. 
The  front  posts  wer^^  about  six  feet  above  ground,  and  the  back 


430  now    TO    MAKE   THE    FAllM    TAY. 

ones  about  four.  I  employed  Irishmen  who  were  in  the  habit 
of  using  the  spade,  and  covered  the  back  side  with  dirt,  and 
then  with  sod,  which  made  them  very  warm;  being  open  in 
front,  this  was  very  important.  The  sheds  were  thirteen  feet 
\v <•]■'.  and  I  cut  them  up  twenty-two  feet  apart,  with  board 
s  which  ran  out  in  fropt  of  the  sheds  about  fifty  feet, 
making  yards  and  shelter  for  fifty  sheep." 

Here  are  sheds  with  only  the  cost  of  putting  them  together, 
and  three  months  of  feeding  free.  The  writer  goes  on  to  state 
that  he  bought  the  best  hay  he  could  get,  bought  corn  in  the 
tiold,  cut  it  and  shocked  it  while  the  fodder  was  green,  and 
hauled  it  after  the  ground  froze.  He  also  got  some  oats  and 
some  .shorts.  He  fed  the  sheep  what  hay  and  corn  fodder  they 
would  eat,  and  fed  a  bushel  of  grain  (one  quarter  oats,  one 
quarter  corn,  and  one  half  shorts)  to  each  fifty  sheep  daily.  Thoro 
are  a  vast  number  of  acres  in  the  West  and  Southwest  where 
such  a  system  on  a  large  or  small  scale  can  be  carried  on.  And 
on  many  improved  farms  in  the  interior  of  any  of  the  Western 
•States,  where  it  takes  one  bushel  of  grain  to  haul  another  to 
market,  it  will  prove  much  more  profitable  to  feed  the  grain 
to  sheep  and  raise  wool,  which  costs  only  four  to  six  per  cent,  to 
take  to  market. 

Summer  Feeding  on  the  prairies  south  of  forty  degrees 
commences  in  April.  The  sheep  are  not  coupled  until  December, 
and  lambs  do  not  begin  coming  until  May,  when  pasture  is  good 
and  the  cold  storms  over.  Lambing  "on  the  range"  is  a 
laborious  operation,  for  all  the  lambs  dropped  during  the  day 
•ire  to  be  got  into  the  fold  before  night  without  separating  them 
from  their  dams.  Mr.  Randall  recommends  strong  pens  to  hold 
a  half  dozen  sheep  each,  strong  enough  to  keep  out  the 
wolves,  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  hauled  to  any  part  of 
ihe  range.     Any  lambs  dropped  late  in  the  day  might  be  put 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  431 

into  these  for  the  night.  If  covered  with  brush  they  will  be  a 
protection  from  the  storm.  We  can  see  how  a  half  dozen  such 
pens  would  be  convenient  in  numberless  cases,  paying  iheir 
cost  every  season.  The  lack  of  water  is  the  great  objection  to 
prairie  husbandry,  and  there  is  no  use  of  locating  a  range  unless 
water  is  to  be  had  the  year  around.  Turnips  sown  broadcast 
on  the  inverted  sod  will  give  green  food  in  abundance.  Indian 
corn  is  the  chief  feed  in  addition  to  hay,  and  often  almost  wholly 
substituted  for  it.  Its  cultivation  on  the  prairie  soils  is  easy  and 
cheap.  One  man  with  a  pair  of  horses,  planters,  and  cultivators 
can  take  care  of  fifty  acres  of  corn,  which  will  often  yield  eighty 
bushels  per  acre,  and  nearly  double  the  fodder  we  get  in  the 
Eastern  States.  It  should  be  cut  and  shocked  before  frost,  and 
drawn  to  the  sheep  as  wanted :  two  men  with  a  team  will 
feed  three  thousand  sheep.  One  acre  of  corn  with  the  fodder 
will  feed  twenty  sheep  through  the  winter.  Wheat  straw  brined 
will  be  eaten  for  the  salt.  This  is  the  cheapesi  way  to  furnish 
salt,  and  the  best  way  to  dispose  of  wheat  straw,  much  of  which 
is  now  wastefully  burned.  Washing,  and  shearing,  and  most 
of  the  operations  of  sheep  husbandry  are  the  same  under  all 
circumstances.     Care  and  culling  are  desirable  everywhere. 

Says  Hon.  Samuel  P.  Boardman,  in  regard  to  sheep  husbandry 
"on  the  range,"  as  prairie  husbandry  is  called: — "A  man 
should  spot  long  legged  and  bad  shaped  sheep,  broken  mouthed 
ind  old  sheep,  light  shearing  sheep,  bare  bellied  and  thin 
fleeced  sheep ;  ewes  with  spoilt  or  partially  spoilt  bags ;  ewes 
which  are  known  to  be  poor  nurses,  and  whose  lambs,  for  a 
year  or  two,  are  known  to  have  been  given  to  other  ewes  to 
raise ;  wethers  which  are  three  years  old,  and  which  shear  so 
light  that  the  butcher  had  better  have  them  ;  and,  if  trying  to 
breed  common,  coarse  sheep  into  fine  wool,  all  the  coarse, 
hairy  hipped  sheep.     No  man  will  ever    get  a  first  rate,  even 


432  now   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM   PAY. 

projitabk  flock  of  slieep,  who  does  not  make  a  practice  of  yearly 

culling. 

Before  turning  bucks  off  the  floor,  daub  them  well  behind, 
and  under  the  horns  with  pine  tar.  This  will  prevent  the  flies 
blowing  them,  which  they  frequently  do  in  hot,  damp,  weather, 
being  attracted  by  the  stench.  If  fly-blown,  and  not  attended 
to,  the  maggots  will  kill  them.  In  case  maggots,  from  any 
cause,  get 'a  lodgment,  scrape  them  all  out,  and  rub  the  parts 
with  turpentine. 

The  Diseases  of  Sheep  are  few  compared  with  those  of 
other  animals,  and  where  sheep  are  well  kept,  according  to  the 
rules  we  have  laid  down,  foot  rot  and  scab  are  the  only  diseases 
to  be  feared.  The  face  sometimes  gets  sore,  or  the  lips  swell 
and  crack,  but  if  the  lips  are  rubbed  with  lard  or  common  pot 
grease,  (both  without  salt,)  the  soreness  will  disappear.  Sore 
or  inflammed  eyes  should  be  treated  with  the  eye  wash  pre- 
scribed for  the  horse. 

Grub  in  the  Head  is  a  troublesome  and  perhaps,  occasion- 
ally, fatal  disorder,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  is  generally 
supposed.  In  mid-summer  a  gadfly  attacks  the  sheep  and  lays 
her  eggs  in  the  nostrils;  these  soon  hatch  into  grubs,  and 
burrow  into  the  head  to  spend  the  winter.  Prevention  is  better 
than  cure  in  this  case.  Plow  occasional  furrows  through  the 
sheep  pasture,  about  the  first  of  July,  and  the  sheep  when 
attacked  will  run  their  noses  into  the  fresh  earth  to  escape  the 
fly.  About  the  same  time  smear  the  bottom  of  the  salt  trough 
with  tar  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  and  sprinkle  the  salt  over  it. 
The  tar  they  get  on  their  noses  repels  the  fly. 

Colic  in  sheep  is  shown  by  twisting  the  head,  stretching, 
frequent  lying  down  and  rising  again,  and  other  symptoms  of 
pain  and  uneasiness.  An  ounce  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in 
warm  water  with  a  teaspoonful  of  essence  of  peppermint  should 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  438 

be  given   to  a  grown  animal,  and   half  that  dose   to  a  lamb. 
Thoroughwort  or  boneset  tea  are  the  next  best  remedies. 

Malignant  Catarrh  has  been  often  mistaken  for  grub  in 
the  head.  It  will  never  attack  sheep  kept  in  a  well  ventilated 
stable,  and  as  we  have  recommended.  We  know  of  no  satis- 
factory treatment  for  sheep  whose  whole  internal  structure  has 
been  debilitated  by  lack  of  fresh  air,  impure  odors,  etc.,  and  it 
is  only  such  that  are  subjects  of  this  disease. 

Abortion  among  sheep  is  not  common,  and  is  usually 
caused  by  some  injury,  crowding,  kicks,  a  butt  from  a  ram, 
fright,  etc.  It  sometimes  results  from  internal  causes,  however. 
We  consider  moderate  exercise  and  a  limited  supply  of  green 
food,  or  turnips,  an  almost  certain  preventive,  except  in  case 
•  of  accidents  and  injuries.  Two  abortions  in  succession  is 
suf^cient  excuse  for  sending  the  finest  ewe  in  the  flock .  to  the 
butcher.  The  ewe  that  aborts,  with  the  lamb,  after-birth,  etc., 
should  be  at  once  removed  from  the  sight  and  smell  of  the 
other  ewes.  Garget,  or  inflammation  of  the  udder,  is  treated 
the  same  as  in  cows.  Fomentation  in  hot  water,  and  a  purga- 
tive of  Epsom  salts  two  ounces  and  ginger  one  drachm,  are  the 
simple  remedies. 

The  Scab  is  a  contagious  skin  disease,  like  mange  iu  othei 
animals.  The  sheep  becomes  very  restless,  rubbing  itself 
against  whatever  comes  in  its  way  often  pulling  out  its  wool 
with  its  teeth  in  its  distress.  All  affected  animals  should  be 
separated  from  the  flock  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  discovered. 
Every  one  should  be  examined  for  the  little  red  spots  on  the 
skin  which  denote  the  scab.  If  the  disease  appears  when  the 
wool  is  short,  scrub  the  bodies  with  a  stiff  brush,  and  dip  them 
into  the  tobacco  decoction  described  for  ticks.  If  they  are  in 
long  wool,  as  is  usually  the  case,  mix  lard,  tar,  and  sulphur,  in 
the   proportion  of  one   pound  of  lard,  a   half  pound  of  sul- 


434  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY 

plmr,  uii'l  one-quarter  pound  of  melted  tar.  Rub  a  little  into 
the  head ;  then  make  a  part  in  the  wool  from  head  to  tail,  and 
rub  n  httle  in  with  the  finger  wherever  there  is  any  redness. 
C/ODtinue  this  all  over  the  back  and  sides.  We  also  recom- 
mend for  this  and  all  other  skin  diseases,  insects,  etc.,  the 
cresylic  soaps  and  cresylic  sheep  dip  before  mentioned. 

Diseases  of  the  Feet,  such  as  are  produced  by  sand, 
gravel,  frozen  mud,  hard  travelling  and  the  like,  require  first 
iht*  clciining  of  the  hoof  from  all  substances  which  cause  dis- 
e:u-e,  the  cutting  away  of  the  outer  portion  of  the  horn,  and  the 
application  of  a  coat  of  tar  and  turpentine. 

HouF  Rot  is  the  most  common  and  most  dangerous  of  all 
the  diseases  of  sheep  in  this  country;  we  shall  therefore  give 
Mr.  Randall's  description  and  treatment  in  full : — 

"  TliL"  horny  covering  of  the  sheep's  foot  extends  up,  gradu- 
ally thinning  out,  some  way  between  the  toes,  or  divisions  of 
the  hoof,  and  above  these  horny  walls  the  cleft  is  lined  with 
skin.  Where  the  points  of  the  toes  are  spread  apart,  this  skin 
is  shown  in  front,  covered  with  soft,  short  hair.  The  heels  can 
bo  separated  only  to  a  little  distance,  and  the  skin  that  is  in  the 
cleft  above  them  is  naked.  In  a  healthy  foot  it  is  as  firm, 
sound,  smooth,  and  dry  as  the  skin  between  a  man's  fingers, 
which,  indeed,  it  not  a  little  resembles,  on  a  mere  superficial 
inspection.  Tt  is  equally  destitute  of  any  appearance  of  redness 
or  of  feverish  heat. 

"  The  first  symptom  of  hoof  rot,  uniformly,  in  my  experi- 
ence, is  a  disappearance  of  this  smooth,  dry,  colorless  condition 
of  the  naked  skin  at  the  top  of  the  cleft  over  the  heels,  and  of 
its  coolness.  It  is  a  little  moist,  a  little  red,  and  the  skin  has  a 
slightly  chafed  or  eroded  appearance,  sometimes  being  a  very 
little  corrugated  as  if  the  parts  had  been  subjected  to  the  action 
)f  moisture.     And  on  placing  the  fingers  over  the  heels  it  wiU 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER   DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.         435 

be  found  that  the  natural  coolness  of  the  parts  has  given  place 
to  a  degree  of  heat.  The  inflammation  thenceforth  increases 
pretty  rapidly.  The  part  first  attacked  becomes  sore.  The 
moisture — the  ichorous  discharge — is  increased.  A  raw  ulcer 
of  some  extent  is  soon  established.  It  is  extended  down  to  the 
upper  portion  of  the  inner  walls  of  the  hoof,  giving  them  a 
whitened  and  ulcerous  appearance.  Those  thin  walls  become 
disorganized,  and  the  ulceration  penetrates  between  the  fleshy 
sole  and  the  bottom  of  the  hoof.  On  applying  some  force,  or 
on  shaving  away  the  horn,  it  will  be  found  that  the  connection 
between  the  horny  and  fleshy  sole  is  severed,  perhaps  half  way 
from  the  heel  to  the  toe,  and  half  way  from  the  Inner  to  the 
outer  wall  of  the  hoof  The  hoof  is  thickened  with  great 
rapidity  at  the  heel  by  an  unnatural  deposition  of  horn.  The 
crack  or  cavity  between  it  and  the  fleshy  sole  very  soon  exudes 
a  highly  fetid  matter,  which  begins  to  have  a  purulent  appear- 
ance. The  extent  of  the  separation  increases  by  the  disorgani- 
zation of  the  surrounding  structures  ;  the  ulceration  penetrates 
throughout  the  entire  extent  of  the  sole ;  it  begins  to  form 
sinuses  in  the  body  of  the  fleshy  sole;  the  purulent  discharge 
becomes  more  profuse;  the  horny  sole  is  gradually  disorganized, 
and  finally  the  outer  walls  and  points  of  the  toes  alone  remain. 
The  fleshy  sole  is  now  a  black,  swollen  mass  of  corruption,  of 
the  texture  of  a  sponge  saturated  with  bloody  pus,  and  every 
cavity  is  filled  with  crawling,  squirming  maggots.  The  horny 
toe  disappears;  the  thin,  shortened  side  walls  merely  adhere 
at  the  coronet ;  they  yield  to  the  disorganization ;  and  nothing 
is  left  but  a  shapeless  mass  of  spongy  ulcer  and  maggots.  At- 
tempts to  cure  the  disease,  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  other 
incidental  circumstances  cause  some  variations  from  the  above 
line  of  symptoms.  When  the  first  attack  occurs  in  hot  weather, 
the  progress  of  the  malady  is  much  more  rapid  and  violent. 


43«)  now    TO    MAKE  THE    FARM    PAY. 

The  fly  sometimes  deposits  its  egg  in  the  ulcer,  and  maggots 
appear  almost  before — sometimes  actually  before — there  are 
aiiv  cavities  formed  into  which  they  can  penetrate.  The  early 
appearance  of  maggots  greatly  accelerates  the  progress  of  dis- 
organization in  the  structures. 

"  Tlie  fore  feet  are  usually  first  attacked,  sometimes  both  of 
them  simultaneously,  but  more  generally  only  one  of  them. 
The  anima'l  at  first  manifests  but  little  constitutional  disturb- 
ance. It  eats  as  is  its  wont.  When  the  disease  has  partly  run 
its  course  in  one  foot,  the  other  fore  foot  is  likely  to  be  attacked, 
and  presently  the  hind  ones.  When  a  foot  becomes  consider- 
ably disorganized,  it  is  lield  up  by  the  animal.  When  another 
one  reaches  the  same  state,  the  miserable  sufferer  seeks  its  food 
on  its  knees;  and,  if  forced  to  rise  and  walk,  its  strange,  hob- 
bling gait  betrays  the  intense  agony  it  endures  on  bringing  its 
ulcerated  feet  in  contact  with  the  ground.  There  is  a  bare  spot 
on  the  under  side  of  the  brisket  of  the  size  of  the  palm  of  a 
man's  hand,  but  perhaps  a  little  longer,  which  looks  red  and 
inflamed.  There  is  a  degree  of  general  fever,  and  the  appetite 
is  dull.  The  animal  rapidly  loses  condition,  but  retains  con- 
siderable strength.  Nowhere  else  do  sheep  seem  to  me  to 
exhibit  such  tenacity  of  life.  After  the  disappearance  of  the 
bottom  of  the  hoof,  the  maggot  speedily  closes  the  scene. 
Where  the  rotten  foot  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  side  in 
lying  down,  the  filthy,  ulcerous  matter  adheres  to  and  saturates 
the  short  wool  of  the  shorn  sheep ;  and  maggots  also  are  either 
carried  there  by  the  foot,  or  they  are  speedily  generated  by  the 
fly.  A  black  crust  soon  forms,  and  raises  a  little  higher  round 
the  spot:  it  is  the  decomposition  of  the  surrounding  structures,— 
wool,  skin,  and  muscle,— and  innumerable  maggots  are  at  work 
below,  burrowing  into  the  living  tissues  and  eating  up  the  mise- 
rable animal  alive.     The  black,  festering  mass  rapidly  extends, 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         437 

and  tlie  cavities  of  the  body  will  soon  be  penetrated,  if  tbe  poor 
sufferer  is  not  sooner  relieved  of  its  tortures  b}'"  death, 

"The  offensive  odor  of  the  ulcerated  feet,  almost  from  the 
beginning  of  the  disease,  is  so  peculiar  that  it  is  strictly  pa- 
thognomonic. I  have  always  believed  that  I  could  by  the  sense 
of  smell  alone,  in  the  most  absolute  darkne!L<s,  decide  on  the 
presence  of  hoof  rot  with  unerring  certainty.  Acd  I  had  about 
as  lief  trust  my  fingers  as  my  eyes  to  establish  the  same  point, 
from  the  hour  of  the  first  attack,  if  no  other  disease  of  the  foot 
is  present.  But  the  heat,  which  invariably  marks  the  earliest 
presence  of  hoof  rot,  might  arise  from  any  other  cause  which 
produced  a  local  inflammation  of  the  same  parts. 

"  When  the  malady  has  been  well  kept  under  during  the  first 
summer  of  its  attack,  but  not  entirely  eradicated,  it  will  almost 
or  entirely  disappear  as  cold  weather  approaches,  and  not  mani- 
fest itself  again  until  the  warm  weather  of  the  succeeding 
summer.  It  then  assumes  a  mitigated  form  ;  the  sheep  are  not 
rapidly  and  simultaneously  attacked ;  there  seems  to  be  less 
inflammatory  action  in  the  diseased  parts,  and  less  constitu- 
tional disturbance,  and  the  course  of  the  disease  is  less  malig- 
nant, more  tardy,  and  it  more  readily  yields  to  treatment.  If 
well  kept  under  the  second  summer,  it  is  still  milder  the  third 
A  sheep  will  occasionally  be  seen  to  limp,  but  its  condition  will 
scarcely  be  affected,  and  dangerous  symptoms  will  rarely  super- 
vene. One  or  two  applications  of  remedies  made  during  the 
summer  will  now  sufi&ce  to  keep  the  disease  under,  and  a  little 
vigor  in  the  treatment  will  entirely  extinguish  it. 

"  With  all  its  fearful  array  of  symptoms,  can  the  hoof  rot  be 
cured  in  its  first  attack  on  a  flock?  The  worst  case  can  be 
promptly  cured,  as  I  know  by  repeated  experiments.  Take  a 
single  sheep,  put  it  by  itself,  and  administer  the  remedies  daily, 
after  the  English  fashion,  or  as  I  shall  presently  prescribe,  and 


i38  now   TO   MAKE  THE   FARM   PA-^. 

there  is  not  an  ovine  disease  whicli  more  surely  yields  to  treat- 
ment. But,  as  already  remarked,  in  this  country,  where  sheep 
are  so  cheap  and  labor  in  the  summer  months  so  dear,  it  would 
be  out  of  the  question  for  an  extensive  flock-master  to  attempt 
to  keep  each  sheep  by  itself,  or  to  make  a  daily  application  of 
remedies.  There  is  not  a  flock-master  within  my  knowledge 
who  has  ever  pretended  to  apply  his  remedies  oftener  than  once 
a  week,  or  regularly  as  often  as  that ;  and  not  one  in  ten  makes 
any  separation  between  the  diseased  and  healthy  sheep  of  a 
flock  into  which  the  malady  has  been  once  introduced.  The 
consequence  necessarily  is  that  though  a  cure  is  effected  of  the 
sheep  then  diseased,  it  has  infected  or  inoculated  others,  and 
these  in  turn  scatter  the  contagion  before  they  are  cured. 
There  is  not  a  particle  of  doubt,  nay,  I  know,  by  repeated 
observation,  that  a  sheep  once  entirely  cured  may  again  con- 
tract the  disease,  and  thus  the  malady  performs  a  perpetual 
circuit  in  the  flock.  Fortunately,  however,  the  susceptibility 
to  contract  the  disease  diminishes,  according  to  my  observation, 
with  every  succeeding  attack ;  and  fortunately  also,  as  already 
stated,  succeeding  attacks,  other  things  being  equal,  become  less 
and  less  virulent. 

"What  course,  then,  shall  be  pursued?  Shall  the  flock- 
master  sacrifice  his  sheep ;  shall  he  take  the  ordinary  half  way 
course,  or  shall  he  expend  more  on  the  sheep  than  they  are 
worth  in  attempting  to  cure  them?  Neither.  The  course  I 
would  advise  him  to  pursue  will  appear  as  I  detail  the  experi- 
ments I  have  made. 

"  Treatment.  The  preparation  of  the  foot  is  a  subject  of  no 
dispute,  but  the  labor  can  be  prodigiously  economized  by  atten- 
tion to  a  few  not  very  commonly  observed  particulars.  Sheep 
should  be  yarded  for  the  operation  immediately  after  a  rain,  if 
practicable,  as  then  the  hoofs  can  be  readily  cut.    In  a  dry  time, 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  439 

and  after  a  night  whicli  has  left  no  dew  on  the  grass,  their  hoofs 
are  almost  as  tough  as  horn.  They  must  be  driven  through  no 
mud,  or  soft  dung,  on  their  way  to  the  yard,  which  doubles  the 
labor  of  cleaning  their  feet.  The  yard  must  be  small,  so  they 
can  be  easily  caught,  and  it  must  be  kept  well  littered  down,  so 
they  shall  not  fill  their  feet  with  their  own  manure.  If  the 
straw  is  wetted,  their  hoofs  will  not  of  course  dry  and  harden 
as  rapidly  as  in  dry  straw.  Could  the  yard  be  built  over  a 
shallow,  gravelly  bottomed  brook,*  it  would  be  an  admirable 
arrangement ;  the  hoofs  would  be  kept  so  soft  that  the  greatest 
and  most  unpleasant  part  of  the  labor,  as  ordinarily  performed, 
would  in  a  great  measure  be  saved ;  and  they  would  be  kept 
free  from  that  dung  which,  by  any  other  arrangement,  will  more 
or  less  get  into  their  feet. 

"  The  principal  operator  or  foreman  seats  himself  in  a  chair ; 
a  couple  of  good  sharp  knives,  (one  at  least  a  thin  and  narrow 
one,)  a  whetstone,  the  powerful  toe- nippers,  a  bucket  of  water 
with  a  couple  of  linen  rags  in  it,  and  such  medicines  as  he 
chooses  to  employ,  within  his  reach.  The  assistant  catches  a 
sheep  and  lays  it  partly  on  its  back  and  rump,  between  the  legs 
of  the  foreman,  the  head  coming  up  about  to  his  middle.  The 
assistant  then  kneels  on  some  straw,  or  seats  himself  on  a  low 
stool  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  sheep.  If  the  hoofs  are 
long,  and  especially  if  they  are  dry  and  tough,  the  assistant 
presents  each  foot  to  the  foreman,  who  shortens  the  hoof  with 
the  toe-nippers.  If  there  is  any  filth  between  the  toes,  each 
man,  after  first  using  a  stick,  takes  his  rag  from  the  bucket  of 
water,  draws  it  between  the  toes  and  rinses  it,  until  the  filth  is 
removed.     Each  then  seizes  his  knife,  and  the  process  of  paring 

*  A  place  might  be  prepared  in  any  little  brook  by  gravelling  or  by  lay- 
ing a  floor  of  boards  on  the  bottom. 


440  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

away  the  born  coinineuces.  And  on  the  effectual  performance  of 
this  all  depends. 

."  If  tlie  disease  is  in  the  first  stage,  i  e.,  if  there  is  merely  an 
erosion  and  ulceration  of  the  cuticle  and  flesh  in  the  cleft  above 
the  walls  of  the  hoof,  no  paring  is  necessary.  Bat  if  ulceration 
ha^  established  itself  between  the  hoof  and  the  fleshy  sole,  the 
ulcerated  parts,  be  they  more  or  less  extensive,  must  he  en- 
tirely dentukd  of  their  horny  covering,  cost  what  it  may  of  time  and 
care.  It  is'better  not  to  wound  the  sole  so  as  to  cause  it  to  bleed 
freely,  as  the  running  blood  will  wash  off  the  subsequent  appli- 
cations ;  but  no  fear  of  wounding  the  sole  must  prevent  a  full 
compliance  with  the  rule  above  laid  down.  At  worst,  the  blood 
can  soon  be  staunched,  however  freely  it  flows,  by  a  few  touches 
of  a  caustic,  say  butter  of  antimony. 

"  If  the  foot  is  in  the  third  stage — a  mass  of  rottenness  and 
filled  with  maggots — the  maggots  should  first  be  killed  by 
spirits  of  turpentine,  or  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  or 
other  equally  efficient  application.  It  can  be  most  conveniently 
used  from  a  bottle  having  a  quill  through  the  cork.  By  con- 
tinuing to  rejpciove  the  dead  maggots  with  a  stick,  and  to  expose 
and  kill  the  deeper  lodged  ones,  all  can  be  extirpated.  Every 
particle  of  loose  horn  should  then  be  removed,  though  it  take 
the  entire  hoof;  and  it  frequent!}^  does  take  the  entire  hoof  at 
an  advanced  stage  of  the  disease.  The  foot  should  be  cleansed, 
if  necessary,  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  in  the- propor- 
tion of  a  pound  of  chloride  to  a  gallon  of  Avater.*     If  this  is 


♦  Mr.  Youatt  recommends  this,  and  says  it  "will  remove  the  fetor  and 
tendency  to  sloughing  and  mortification  which  are  the  too  frequent  attend- 
ants on  foot  rot."  I  never  yet  saw  mortification  (gangrene)  of  the  foot 
result  from  this  disease.  Mr.  Youatf  s  directions  as  to  treatment  are  far 
more  satisfactory  than  are  his  statements  of  the  causes  and  symptoms  of 
•his  malady. 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  441 

not  at  "hand,  plunging  the  foot  repeatedly  into  water,  just  short 
of  scalding  hot,  will  answer  the  purpose.  And  now  comes  the 
important  question,  what  constitutes  the  best  remedy  ?  t 

"  The  most  common  and  popular  remedy  now  used  in  Central 
New  York  is  :  One  pound  blue  vitriol;  one-quarter  pound  (with 
some  one-half  pound)  verdigi'is ;  one  pint  of  linseed  oil ;  one 
quart  of  tar.  The  vitriol  and  verdigris  are  pulverized  very 
fine,  and  many  pei'sons,  before  adding  the  tar,  grind  the  mixture 
through  a  paint  mill.  Some  use  a  decoction  of  tobacco  boiled 
until  thick,  in  the  place  of  oil. 

"  The  remedy  recommended  by  Mr.  James  Hogg,  of  Scotland, 
is  turprjntine  two  ounces,  sulphuric  acid  two  drachms;  to  be 
well  mixed  before  it  is  used  and  applied  freely  to  the  diseased 
part. 

"Any  of  these  remedies,  and  jQfty  more  that  might  be  com- 
pounded, simply  by  combining  caustics,  stimulants,  etc.,  in  dif 
ferent  forms  and  proportions,  will  prove  sufficient  for  the 
extirpation  of  hoof  root,  loith  proper  preparatory  and  subsequent 
treatment.  On  these  last,  beyond  all  question,  principally  de 
pends  the  comparative  success  of  the  applications. 

"  First.  No  external  remedy  can  succeed  in  this  malady  unless 
it  comes  in  contact  with  all  the  diseased  parrs  of  the  foot ;  for 
if  such  part,  however  small,  is  unreachea,  tne  unhealthy  and 
ulcerous  action  is  perpetuated  in  it,  and  it  gradually  spreads 
over  and  again  involves  the  surrounding  tissues.  Therefore 
every  portion  of  the  diseased  flesh  must  be  denuded  of  horn, 
filth,  dead  tissue,  pus,  and  every  other  substance  which  can 
prevent  the  application  from  actually  touching  it  and  producing 
its  characteristic  effects  on  it. 

"  Second.  The  application  must  be  kept  in  contact  with  the 
diseased  surfaces  .long  enough  to  exert  its  proper  remedial  influ- 


442  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FAEM   PAY. 

ence.     If  removed,  by  any  means,  before  this  is  accomplisbed, 
it  must  necessarily  proportionably  fail  in  its  effects. 

•'  The  preparation  of  the  foot,  then,  requires  no  mean  skill. 
The  tools  must  be  sbarp,  the  movements  of  the  operator  careful 
and  deliberate.  As  he  shaves  down  nearer  the  quick,  he  must 
cut  thinner  and  thinner,  and  with  more  and  more  care,  or  else 
ho  will  either  fail  to  remove  the  horn  exactly  far  enough,  or  he 
will  cut  into  the  fleshy  sole  and  cause  a  rapid  flow  of  blood.  I 
have  already  remarked  that  the  blood  can  be  staunched  by 
caustics ;  but  they  coagulate  it  on  the  surface  in  a  mass  which 
requires  removal  before  the  application  of  remedies,  and  in  the 
process  of  its  removal  the  blood  is  very  frequently  set  flowing 
again,  and  this  sometimes  several  times  follows  the  application 
of  the  caustic*  Cutting  down  to  the  crack  between  the  horny 
and  fleshy  sole  is  not  enough.  The  operator  must  ascertain 
wliether  there  is  any  ulceration  between  the  outside  horny 
walls  and  the  fleshy  part  of  the  foot,  or  at  the  toe,  or  whether 
tliere  is  even  a  rudiment  of  an  unreached  sinus  or  cavity  in 
any  part  of  the  foot  where  the  ulceration  has  penetrated  or  is 
beginning  to  penetrate.  The  practised  eye  decides  these  ques- 
tions rapidly  from  the  characteristic  appearances,  without  the 
removal  of  unnecessary  horn ;  but  the  new  beginner  must  feel 
his  way  along  cautiously  removing  more  horn  where  there  is 
doubt,  but  so  removing  it  that  he  will  not  unnecessarily  cause 
an  effusion  of  blood,  or  uncover  the  healthy  quick,  or  disarrange 
the  proper  bearing  of  the  foot.  If  the  foot  is  in  the  third  state, 
the  removal  of  the  maggots,  the  cleaning  of  the  ulcers,  the 
proper  excision  of  the  dead  tissues,  etc.,  require  much  time, 
eometimea  more  than  half  an  hour  to  each  foot.     The  most  ex- 


•  The  toe  vein  bleeds  very  freely,  and  it  often  requires  some  time  and 
trouble  to  staunch  it. 


SHEEP,   SWINE,    AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  443 

perienced  operator  cannot  perform  sucli  processes  in  a  harry— 
the  inexperienced  one  must  perform  them  slowly,  or  all  the 
time  saved  will  be  lost,  twenty  times  over,  in  having  to  repeat 
them  for  an  indefinite  number  of  times. 

"  I  had  a  flock  of  sheep  a  few  years  since  that  were  in  the 
second  season  of  the  disease.  They  had  been  but  little  looked 
to  during  the  summer,  and  as  cold  weather  was  setting  in  many 
of  them  were  considerably  lame — some  of  them  quite  so.  The 
snow  fell  and  they  were  brought  into  the  yards,  limping,  and 
hobbling  about  deplorably.  This  sight,  so  disgraceful  to  me  as 
a  farmer,  roused  me  into  activity.  I  bought  a  quantity  of  blue 
vitriol,  made  the  necessary  arrangements,  and  once  more  took 
the  chair  as  principal  operator.  Never  were  the  feet  of  a  flock 
more  thoroughly  pared.  Into  a  large  washing  tub,  in  which 
two  sheep  could  stand  conveniently,  I  poured  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  blue  vitriol  and  water,  as  hot  as  could  be  endured  by  the 
hand  even  for  a  moment.  The  liquid  was  about  four  mches  deep 
on  the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  was  kept  at  about  that  depth  by 
frequent  additions  of  the  hot  solution.  As  soon  as  a  sheep's  feet 
were  pared,  it  was  placed  in  the  tub  and  held  there  by  the  neck, 
by  an  assistant.  A  second  one  was  prepared  and  placed  beside 
it.  When  the  third  one  was  ready,  the  first  was  taken  out,  and 
so  on.  Two  sheep  were  thus  constantly  in  the  tub,  and  each 
remained  in  it  about  ten*  minutes.  The  cure  was  perfect. 
There  was  not  a  lame  sheep  in  the  flock  during  the  winter  or 
the  next  summer.  The  hot  liquid  penetrated  to  every  cavity 
of  the  foot,  and  had  doubtless  a  far  more  decisive  eftect  even  o\ 
the  uncovered  ulcers  than  would  have  been  produced  by  merely 
wetting  them.   Perhaps  the  lateness  of  the  season  was  also  favor- 

*  This,  by  a  misprint,  was  published  five,  in  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the 

South. 

27 


444  n<>^\'    TO    MAKE   TUE    FARM    PAY. 

iiblc,  as  ill  cold  weather  the  ulcers  of  ordinary  virulence  dis- 
chari'C  no  matter  to  inoculate  the  healthy  feet ;  and  thus  at  the 
time  of  applving  the  remedy  there  are  no  cases  where  there  has 
been  inoculation  not  yet  followed  by  the  actual  disease.  I 
think  that  the  vitriol  required  for  the  above  one  hundred 
siieep  was  about  twelve  pounds,  and  that  it  cost  me  fifteen  cents 
per  pound.  The  account  then  would  stand  thus  : — Twelve 
pounds  of  vitriol  at  fifteen  cents,  one  dollar  and  eighty  cents ; 
labor  of  three  men  one  day  each,  two  dollars  and  twenty-live 
cents;  total  four  dollars  and  five  cents — or  about  four  cents  per 
Bheep. 

"  Many  years  after  the  above  took  place,  I  treated  a  flock  of 
diseased  lambs  in  the  same  way — except  that  they  were  put  into 
a  larger  tub  which  would  hold  five  of  them,  so  that  each  stood 
in  the  hot  fluid  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes  :  and  again 
the  cure  was  perfect.  They  too  were  handled  just  as  winter 
was  setting  in;  were  wintered  alone;  and  were  turned  early  in 
the  spring  into  a  flock  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  which 
had  never  had  hoof  rot." 

As  Mr.  Randall  has  himself  treated  upwards  of  five  thousand 
sheep  with  this  disease,  we  need  no  better  authority. 

Broken  legs  are  treated  with  cold  water  and  simple  splints 
bandaged  to  the  legs.  From  four  to  six  weeks  is  required  to 
firmly  heal  a  simple  fracture  below  the  knee  Fractures  above 
the  knee  make  a  case  for  the  butcher.  Dog  bites  and  other 
wounds  should  be  fomented  with  warm  water  until  clean;  the 
wound,  if  possible,  sewed  up,  and  a  poultice  applied.  Flax- 
seed, slippery  elm,  or  bran  make  a  good  poultice.     The  poultice 


NoTK.  We  are  indebted  to  Messrs.  N.  P.  Boyer  &  Co.,  Parkesl)urcr, 
Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  for  the  cuts  of  Merino  Sheep,  Figs.  80 
and  81.  i  -       o 


Fig.  80.    Suffolk  Boar. 


WW^^ 


im 


^ft^^v£^^^=^-= 


JPt^.  87.    Improved  Prince  Albert. 


445 


SHEEP,    SWINE,   AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  447 

should  be  changed  twice  daily  until  inflammation  is  over.  An 
oiled  or  greased  cloth,  over  the  place  will  be  all  that  is  required 
after  this. 

Hogs  fill  an  important  place  in  our  plan  of  mixed  hus- 
bandry, because  they  will  convert  into  manure  and  pork  much 
that  would  otherwise  be  unconsumed.  But  few  farmers  at  the 
East  raise  as  much* pork  as  they  might  with  profit,  and  the 
markets  are  supplied  with  Western  pork.  The  reason  why 
they  do  not  make  it  pay  is,  that  they  do  not  manage  right  with 
their  hogs.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  no  use  in  feeding  a  long, 
thin,  slab-sided  breed  of  pigs,  even  if  they  are  given  to  you. 
Get  a  good  sow  of  some  first  rate  breed,  or  else  breed  the  best 
common  sow  you  can  find  to  a  thoioughbred  boar  and  raise  a 
good  breeding  sow.  Manage  so  as  to  have  two  litters,  one  early 
in  the  season,  and  the  other  long  enough  before  winter  to  have 
them  get  well  agoing.  Good  pigs  are  always  in  demand,  and  it 
is  just  as  easy  to  get  six  to  ten  good  pigs  as  the  same  number 
of  poor  runts  that  will  never  fat.  And  the  same  amount  of 
food  fed  to  a  good  pig  will  m^ake  twite  as  much  meat  as  to  the 
other.  The  only  difference  in  expense  is  the  first  cost  of  the 
boar  or  sow,  and  one  litter  of  pigs  will  pay  all  the  differ  ence  in 
expense  between  a  pure  bred  Chester,  Suffolk,  or  Berkshire,  and 
the  lank  specimens  oidinarily  used  for  breediug. 

"What  is  the  Best  Breed  ?  is  a  question  often  asked ;  but 
there  are  several  so  good  that  it  is  difficult  to  answer.  Where 
the  "  Chester  White"  is  known,  no  other  breed  can  compete 
with  it.  It  is,  according  to  our  notion,  nearer  perfection  as  a 
hog  than  has  ever  before  been  arrived  at.  Its  outline  is  beauti- 
ful, its  disposition  gentle,  its  habits  quiet  and  contented — not 
disposed  to  roam  and  fret,  so  that  the  food  it  consumes  goes  to 
the  formation  of  flesh,  and  is  not  spent  in  running  after  mischief. 
It  is  not  a  gross  feeder,  but,  like  all  other  animals,  requires  its 


^3  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

food  at  regular  intervals.  This  care  and  attention  is  never  lost 
on  it.  There  is  no  other  breed  that  enjoys  better  health.  If 
kept  and  properly  cared  for  until  twelve  or  fifteen  months  old, 
it  will  yield  from  five  to  seven  hundred  pounds  of  pork.  What 
otiier  animal  will  yield  so  much  in  so  short  a  time,  from  so 
small  a  beginning,  with  such  a  small  outlay  of  capital  ? 

The  Berkshires  are  a  larger  breed,  fatten  well  in  propor- 
tion to  theit  food,  and  are  excellent  breeders.  No  one  can  go 
amiss  in  purchasing  d  Berkshire.  The  Suffolks,  and  the  im- 
proved Prince  Albert  Suffolks  especially,  are  good.  The 
Essex,  Cheshire,  Leicester,  and  Polands  are  much  better  than 
the  "  no  breed."  The  China  is  fit  only  for  crossing  with  some 
of  the  large  coarse  breeds.  Such  a  cross  improves  the  China 
in  size  and  the  larger  breeds  in  quality. 

But  in  buying  a  sow  or  a  boar  for  breeding,  do  not  be  satis- 
fied with  its  being  called  a  Chester,  or  Suffolk,  or  Berkshire, 
(unless  you  buy  of  some  responsible  breeder,)  but  see  for 
yourself  that  the  animal  has  the  good  points  of  the  breed. 
These  points  can  be  seen  by  close  examination  of  the  cuts  we 
give  in  this  chapter  from  photographs  of  hogs  owned  and  bred 
by  Messrs.  N.  P.  Boyer  &  Co.,  Parkesburg,  Chester  County, 
Pennsylvania. 

Breeding.  The  sow  goes  from  fifteen  to  seventeen  weeks  with 
pigs.  At  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  week  she  should  be  watched 
considerably,  and  if  she  appears  to  be  suffering,  restless,  wander- 
ing about  collecting  straw,  etc.,  coax  her  into  a  sty  by  herself, 
where  you  can  take  care  of  her  and  the  pigs.  This  sty  should 
have  cleats  nailed  on  the  sides  a  foot  from  the  floor,  under  which 
the  pigs  can  escape,  or  else  the  sow  may  lie  on  them.  It  is  not 
best  to  interfere  to  take  away  the  pigs  unless  she  seems  likely 
to  crush  them,  but  it  is  well  to  be  where  you  can  watch  her 
without  being  seen  yourself.    When  the  farrowing  is  over  and 


F'uj.  89.    Chester  White  Boar 


441 


SHEEP,    SWINE,   AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         451 

the  after-birth  is  dropped,  remove  it  at  once,  for  if  she  eats  it 
she  will  be  likely  to  eat  her  pigs  also.  If  she  should  commence 
to  eat  her  pigs,  give  her  a  half  pint  of  spirits  and  make  her 
drunk.  If  she  is  not  too  fat  she  will  manage  without  lying  on 
her  pigs.  For  a  week  or  two  before  farrowing  she  should  be 
fed  on  cooked  meal  and  milk,  and  this  should  be  continued  for 
some  time  after.  If  roots  are  given,  they  should  be  cooked 
also.  If  convenient,  turn  her  out  an  hour  or  two  every  day 
into  grass.  If  a  farmer  has  a  few  lengths  of  adjustable  fence 
always  about  his  premises  he  will  find  it  handy  on  many  occa- 
sions. He  can  fence  in  a  few  rods  of  grass  for  pigs,  calves,  or 
lambs,  as  required.  After  ten  or  twelve  days  the  pigs  can  be 
let  out  with  the  sow.  Frequent  feeding  is  better  for  the  sow 
than  large  feeds.  If  she  is  weakly,  or  seems  to  have  too  many 
pigs  for  her  milk,  make  a  mash  of  whey  and  bran,  or  skim  milk, 
meal  and  bran,  and  teach  the  pigs  to  eat  as  soon  as  possible. 

Messrs.  N.  P.  Boyer  &  Co.,  large  breedora  of  improved  swine, 
say,  in  their  "  Stock  Journal." 

It  sometimes  happens  that  sows,  especially  with  a  first  litier, 
refuse  to  acknowledge  the  maternal  relation ;  and,  like  some  of 
our  own  species,  endeavor  to  discard  their  ofl'spriug. 

When  a  case  of  this  kind  shall  occur,  after  the  sow  has  ceased 
labor  enter  the  pen  quietly  and  catch  the  sow,  placing  her  upon 
her  side,  and  whilst  one  person  at  her  back,  with  his  knees 
gently  pressing  upon  her  to  keep  her  down,  and  a  hand  over 
her  to  each  set  of  feet  to  keep  her  from  struggling,  another  one 
places  the  pigs  in  position  at  the  teats,  which  they  sometimes 
refuse  until  the  nipple  be  wet  with  new  milk,  when  they  readily 
take  hold  and  require  little  invitation  afterward.  After  the  pigs 
have  sucked  they  must  be  removed  before  letting  go  of  the  sow, 
if  she  still  remains  belligerent,  or  she  may  injure  them  in  her 
haste  to  rise  and  get  away ;  but  if  she  utters  that  short  and  con- 


4:,2  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

tiuuous  lively  grunt  that  sows  are  known  to  do  when  their  pigs 
are  sucking,  it  shows  that  she  is  becoming  reconciled,  and  little 
danf^er  may  be  apprehended.  But  sometimes  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  repeat  the  coercive  process,  which  must  be  done  as 
gently  as  possible,  and  a  second  trial  rarely  fails  to  induce  the 
sow  to  take  to  and  become  reconciled  to  her  young  brood 
Whilst  I  have  known  them  to  become  reconciled  and  passive 
upon  the  fii*st  trial,  so  as  to  continue  quietly  permitting  the  pigs 
to  suck,  after  the  attendants  have  retired,  I  have,  in  a  few  cases, 
had  to  apply  compulsion  a  third  time  before  the  sow  would 
succumb ;  but  this  is  rare,  as  a  second  trial  scarcely  ever  fails  to 
succeed." 

In  any  case,  begin  when  they  are  two  weeks  old  to  give  them 
warm  milk,  and  gradually  thicken  it  with  boiled  vegetables  or 
bran.  They  should  have  a  little  trough  of  their  own,  under 
their  railing,  where  the  sow  cannot  get  at  it.  If  another  litter  is 
wanted  in  the  fall  from  this  sow  turn  the  boar  in  to  her,  when 
she  is  out  in  the  yard  away  from  her  pigs,  a  week  or  ten  days 
after  farrowing.  She  should  not  suckle  her  pigs  more  than  six 
weeks  after  taking  the  boar.  When  you  get  pigs,  Avhether  you 
raise  them  or  buy  them,  keep  them  growing  all  the  time.  This 
is  the  secret  of  success  in  making  pork.  If  a  pig  is  allowed  to 
stop  growing  it  takes  twice  the  time  and  twice  the  food  to  get 
liim  started  again.  There  is  nothing  equal  to  milk  to  give  pigs 
growth.  Let  them  have  oat  meal,  corn  meal,  and  wheat  bran 
in  equal  quantities,  always  cooked.  Scalded  food  will  fotten 
them  all  one-third  more  than  raw.  Never  feed  any  grain  whole. 
^^.nv  the  pigs  grass  and  clover.  Many  farmers  just  keep 
their  pigs  on  slops,  grass,  and  whole  grain  until  autumn,  just 
enough  to  "  keep  them  along,"  and  then  crowd  them  in  fatten- 
ing. This  is  the  reason  they  do  not  make  it  pay.  With  a  good 
breed  that  will  fat,  nothing  they  eat  is  lost  upon  them,  it  all 


SHEEP,    SWINE,   AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         453 

comes  back  in  pork.  So  grain  should  always  be  ground  and 
steamed  for  bogs.  Tbej  will  make  full  one-third  more  tat  on 
the  same  quantity.  A  box  like  that  described  on  page  398,  will 
answer  the  purpose.  See  our  remarks  on  cooking  food  for  cattle. 
The  same  remarks  apply  here.     J.  Y.  Mapes,  of  Elmirjv,  says : 

"  Instead  of  whole  grain  it  is  much  more  economical  to  grind 
and  cook  it  either  by  boiling  or  steaming.  In  winter,  boiling 
is  much  better  than  steaming,  for  the  reason  that  it  takes  con- 
siderably less  fuel  to  boil  a  small  quantity  than  to  steam  it ;  and 
farther,  that  you  can  boil  merely  what  is  wanted  for  a  feed  at  a 
time,  and  give  it  moderately  warm,  which  renders  it  very  grate- 
ful to  the  animal  in  extreme  cold  weather.  I  am  wintering 
thirteen  hogs,  weighing  from  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds  to 
five  hundred  pounds,  by  feeding  the  lot  on  twelve  quarts  of  cat 
meal,  boiled  thoroughly  with  cut  hay  or  cornstalks,  and  diluted  to 
thirteen  pailfuls  for  a  mess  three  times  a  day,  which  makes  a  veiy 
fine  porridge,  adding  about  a  pint  of  salt  to  each  mess,  making 
for  the  whole  thirty-six  .quarts  of  ground  oats  per  day.  If  the  same 
hogs  were  kept  on  whole  corn  or  any  other  grain  it  would,  pro- 
bably, cost  five  times  as  much,  and  they  would  be  in  no  bettei 
condition,  while  they  would  be  much  more  liable  to  disease. 

"  This  kind  of  feed  is  very  fine  for  sows  suckling  pigs,  because 
it  keeps  them  in  good  heart  and  gives  a  large  flow  of  milk.  It 
is  also  very  fine  for  pigs  just  weaned,  as  they  will  leave  butter 
or  skimmed  milk  to  eat  this.  It  is,  probably,  more  nutritious 
than  buttermilk. 

"  In  the  summer  season  hogs  and  pigs  should  most  certainly 
have  access  to  a  good  field  of  clover,  both  as  a  matter  of 
economy  and  of  health,  as  they  will  keep  in  good  condition  and 
grow  rapidly  thereon  with  but  little  or  no  other  feed.  Thus 
by  a  rigid  economy,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  hogs  may  be 
kept  as  a  matter  of  profit  as  well  as  any  other  class  of  stock." 


454  now   TO   MAKE   TEIE   FARM   PAY. 

Uof's  turned  into  the  orchards,  as  recommended  in  the 
chapter  on  Fruit  Culture,  will  not  only  be  of  benefit  to  the  or- 
chard, but  will  pick  up  considerable  forage.  Thej  are  very  fond 
of  acorns,  beech  nuts,  etc.,  and  will  fat  on  them  faster  than  on 
any  other  food.  It  is  not  good  economy,  however,  anywhere 
to  let  hogs  run  in  the  woods  much,  for  they  will  run  off  their 
fat.     A  very  large  hog  raiser  in  Kentucky  says : — 

"  First,  we  bought  the  best,  thinking  the  only  true  economy 
was  in  having  the  hog  that  made  most  meat  and  grease  in  the 
shortest  time,  from  the  food  we  provided.  And  we  never  per- 
mitted them  to  get  poor;  finding  it  cheapest  to  feed  a  fat  hog 
and  keep  it  so  than  to  save  by  stinting,  and  then  bringing  np. 

"Secondly,  we  never  permitted  our  hogs  to  roam,  keeping 
them  under  fence;  believing  it  cheaper  to  provide  food  than 
to  run  them  upon  Uncle  Sam's  property,  or  any  other  body's, 
and  pilfer  for  a  living.  We  provided  pastures,  water,  small 
grain,  peas,  pumpkins,  squashes,  potatoes,  pindars,  corn,  etc. 
Of  course,  we  say  not  that  we  had  all  at  once,  or  all  of  the  time, 
but  we  have  had  six  acres  of  squashes,  six  acres  of  pindars, 
hauled  in  ninety  ox  loads  of  pumpkins,  etc.  We  never  relied 
on  corn  alone,  it  was  too  expensive.  We  had  pastures  of  divers 
sizes  and  of  the  various  clovers  and  grasses," 

The  western  firmer  depends  largely  upon  corn  of  course, 
after  the  pasturing  is  over,  but  we  think  the  suggestion  of  pump- 
kins is  a  good  one.  The  piggery  is  an  important  consideration, 
and  in  the  following  plan  and  explanation  will  be  found  our 
ideas  upon  this  matter.     {Fig.  90.) 

The  heavy  lines  represent  a  building  fifteen  by  thirty  feet  and 
two  stories  high.  The  upper  story  is  divided  into  two  rooms ;  in 
one  is  stored  the  meal,  bran,  etc.,  required  for  feeding.  In  the 
other  is  a  set  kettle  for  cooking  the  food.  A  pump  runs  from 
this  room  to  the   barn  well,  and   water   is   therefore   handy. 


SHEEP,   SWINE,   AND   OTHER    DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         455 


c 

o 
o 

o 
o 

1 

c 

""^ 

o 

-m 

o 

y 

a 

o 

o 

a 

,'' 

\ 

u 

o 

y 

< 

/ 

• 

a-^' 

< 

> 

"n^ 

* 

o 

o 

'>v 

y 

Cb 

o 

o 

CL 

N 

,' 
-.'■ 

o 

1—' 

o 

*-*^ 

c 

o 

c 

c 

/                                                     

~  , 

o 

c 

— 

{Fig.  90.) 

Having  a  fire  liere,  this  is  used  for  a  work  room  in  winter,  and 
all  sorts  of  little  odd  jobs  of  mending,  etc.,  are  done  in  cold 
weather.  This  heater  is  also  very  handy  at  butchering  time. 
P  is  the  passage  way,  and  S  the  stairs  leading  to  the  second 
story.  A^  a,  a,  a,  are  for  feeding  pens,  each  having  an  entrance 
to  yards,  C,  C,  0,  C.  These  feeding  pens  have  solid  floors,  of 
matched  boards  and  slant  so  that  all  the  urine  runs  into  the 
yards.  Each  pen  has  two  slide  windows  made  of  boards,  one 
opening  into  the  yard,  C,  and  the  other  at  the  end. 

The  troughs  which  run  along  next  the  passage  way  are 
square  boxes  of  solid,  seasoned,  oak  plank,  with  oblong  holes 
in  the  top  for  the  pigs  to  eat  through.  This  keeps  each  pig  in 
his  place  and  prevents  them  getting  their  feet  in  the  trough- 
The  feeding  places  at  the  corners  are  represented  in  the  cut. 
The  side  of  the  trough  towards  the  passage  way  opens  on 
hinges  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning. 

The  yards  outside  the  pen,  represented  by  the  light  lines,  were 
dug  out  two  feet,  and  a  stout  board  fence  built.  Three  feet  of 
peat  were  then  filled  in,  and  this  is  taken  out  each  year  and  re- 
thaced  bv  fresh.     It  is  almost  the  best  manure  made  on  the 


458  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

f:irm,  soaking  up  all  the  urine  from  the  animals.  Over  the 
parts  inside  the  dotted  lines,  and  marked  C  is  a  roof  of  rough 
boards,  matched  so  as  to  shed  all  the  raiu  and  keep  a  dry  sleep- 
ing place  for  the  hogs.  The  whole  yard  is  kept  well  littered 
with  straw,  leaves,  etc.,  and  never  gets  muddy.  There  is  a  gate 
in  each  yard,  not  represented  in  the  cut. 

Diseases  of  Swine.  Diarrhcea.  Change  the  food  and  mix 
in  tlie  morning's  mess  a  teacupful  of  powdered  chalk  for  a  full 
grown  aniiiKiI.  lIoG  Cholera.  The  principal  symptom  is 
almost  constant  evacuations  of  a  dark  color,  of  a  fetid  odor, 
and  containing  much  bile ;  the  extremities  are  cold.  If  one  hog 
has  these  symptoms  give  each  of  the  others  three  times  a  day, 
in  their  feed,  a  tablespoonful  of  the  following  mixture.  Sul- 
phate of  iron,  one  part;  cinchona,  two  parts;  charcoal,  two 
parts ;  flour  of  sulphur,  twelve  parts.  (One  pound  of  sulphur 
two  ounces  each  charcoal  and  cinchona,  and  one  ounce  sulphate 
of  iron,  will  make  six  days'  doses  for  one  hog.)  Continue  to 
give  for  six  days. 

Fever.  Symptoms.  Eyes  red  ;  skin,  lips,  nostrils  hot  and 
dry;  great  tliirst  and  poor  appetite.  Bleed  a  large  hog  a 
quart,  and  smaller  ones  in  proportion.  Bleed  from  one  of  the 
veins  in  the  ear,  or  in  the  fore  leg,  just  above  the  knee.  Feed 
nourishing  food  often.  If  the  bowels  are  closed  inject  warm 
soap  and  water.  Cracking  of  the  skin,  mange,  and  other  cuta- 
neous diseases  are  to  be  treated  with  a  mixture  of  lard  and  tar.^ 
In  cases  of  mange  keep  the  hog  without  food  for  half  a  day,  and 
then  give  from  one  to  three  ounces  of  epsom  salts  in  a  warm 
bran  mash.  After  this  give  a  tablespoonful  of  sulphur  in  each 
meal,  until  the  sores  heal. 

Measles.    Symptoms.    Red   eyes  and  pustules    about  the 


Also  Cresylic  soap,  before  recommended  for  cows,  sheep,  etc. 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND   OTHER    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.         457 

throat.  Give  no  food  for  one  day,  then  give  sulphur  with  each 
meal.  Cases  of  Colic  are  best  treated  with  doses  of  warm  water, 
and  injections  of  warm  soap  and  water  if  possible.  Rheuma- 
tism, stiffness  of  the  limbs,  and  unwillingness  to  move.  Keep 
the  animal  on  boiled  diet  given  warm.  Wash  the  limbs  and 
shoulders  in  hot  water,  put  him  in  a  warm  clean  place  and  give 
sulphur  and  cinnamon  half  and  half,  at  each  meal.  Sometimes 
the  fore  legs  will  be  stiff  from  the  stopping  up  of  the  little  open- 
ings on  the  inside  of  the  fore  legs.  Scrub  with  soapsuds  and  a 
corncob,  until  all  scurf  is  removed,  then  soak  in  hot  water,  and 
finish  by  rubbing  in  a  little  lard.  Cleanliness.  It  may  sound 
strange  to  some  when  we  say  that  cleanliness  is  necessary  to  the 
health  of  the  hog.  N'o  animal  will  keep  cleaner  if  you  will 
give  him  a  chance.  He  wallows  in' mud,  but  would  prefer  clean 
water,  he  roots  in  filth,  but  prefers  fresh  earth,  turf,  and  leaves. 
He  eats,  sleeps  and  evacuates  in  the  same  room,  only  when  you 
oblige  him  to.  Give  him  a  place  to  eat,  a  place  to  sleep,  and 
a  place  for  rooting,  etc.,  and  he  will  keep  his  sleeping  apartment 
cleaner  than  any  other  domestic  animal  under  the  same  circum- 
stances. The  hog  should  have  a  clean,  dry,  well  floored,  well 
littered  place  to  sleep.  When  in  a  closed  room  it  should  be 
cleaned  out  every  morning,  just  as  much  as  the  horse  stable ;  it 
should  have  a  slide  at  each  end,  so  that  it  can  be  ventilated  all 
day.  All  the  diseases  of  the  hog  are  bred  of  the  dirt,  wet,  filth 
and  bad  air  to  which  he  is  forced.  The  trough  should  be 
washed  down  daily.  Our  plan  for  the  piggery  shows  how  these 
things  can  be  done.  Castrating  should  be  done  at  six  or 
seven  weeks  old,  before  the  pigs  are  weaned.  The  operation  is 
the  same  as  described  for  calves.  Spaying  is  also  done  about 
the  same  age,  when  the  sow  pigs  are  not  required  for  breeders. 
It  is  also  done  when  sows  are  to  be  fatted.  AVhen  sows  abort, 
or  protrude  the  womb  after  farrowing,  or  eat  their  pigs,  thej 


458  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FAKM    PAY. 

should  l)c  spayed  and  fatted.  The  animal  is  laid  on  the  left  side 
aud  firmly  held  by  the  assistants.  An  incision  is  then  made, 
and  the  fore  finger  inserted  until  it  finds  the  ovaries ;  these  are 
drawn  out  of  the  opening  and  both  cut  off  at  once.  The  womb 
is  returned  and  the  wound  sewed  up,  and  rubbed  over  with  a 
little  lard.  Care  should  be  taken  for  a  few  days  after  spaying 
that  they  get  neither  wet  nor  cold. 

Goats.  The  goat  is  destined  before  many  years  to  be  an  im- 
portant member  of  our  family  of  domestic  animals,  and  a 
source  of  wealth  both  to  farmers  and  manufacturers.  Already 
preparations  arc  on  foot  for  manufacturing  the  durable  and 
brilliant  fabrics  so  long  imported  from  Cashmere;  already  rich 
worsted  stuffs  and  richer  drdss  goods  have  been  made  in  this 
country,  and  we  are  promising  ourselves,  our  daughter  shall 
have  a  Cashmere  shawl  from  an  American  loom  on  her  wedding 
day.  And  it  will  be  well  for  enterprising,  far  seeing  men  to 
make  an  investment  in  this  direction. 

The  Cashmere  or  Angora  goats,  from  whose  silky  hair 
Buch  lustrous  articles  are  manufactured,  are  hardy,  healthy, 
and  prolific.  There  are  already  some  three  or  four  thousand 
of  them  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  they  have  proved 
their  adaptation  to  the  various  climates  of  the  United  States. 
They  will  thrive  in  bleak,  cold,  mountainous  regions  or  in  the 
tropics.  Says  the  "  Wisco7isin  Farme?,"  "  The  goat,  generally, 
ifl  as  cosmopolitan  as  the  dog,  or  the  sheep.  He  is  found 
amidst  thesnows  of  Norway  and  Siberia,  on  the  burning  sands 
of  Africa,  and  in  the  flowery  and  poetic  vales  of  Turkey  and 
Cashmere.  The  finest  varieties  of  the  wool  bearing  goat  live 
in  different  countries  and  latitudes,  from  Persia  on  the  thirtieth 
to  Silesia  on  the  sixtieth  parallel  north  latitude;  from  China 
in  the  east  to  Asia  Minor  in  the  west;  even  the  most  valua- 
ble and   delicate   varieties,   in   the   bleak,    cold,    mountainous 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.        459 

climate  of  the  Himalayas,  Thibet  and  Eassia,  feeding  on  shrubs 
and  the  scanty  vegetation  of  those  sterile  regions;  also  in  the 
warmer  climates  of  Persia,  Turkey  and  Cashmere.  There- 
fore, since  this  natural  habitat  embraces  all  the  degrees  of  lati- 
tude, including  the  United  States,  and  has  a  similar  variety  of 
climate,  mountains,  etc.,  reason  and  common  sense  teach,  that 
every  variety  of  the  wool  bearing  goat  will  thrive  in  most  parts 
of  the  United  States,  particularly  in  the  mountainous  and  more 
barren  portions,  as  well  as  in  any  region  on  the  globe,  while 
abundant  experience  has  established  the  fact,  that  wherever  this 
goat  has  been  introduced,  he  has  flourished  as  well  as  the 
sheep." 

All  the  evidence  at  hand  shows  without  doubt  that  the  goat 
thrives  with  less  care  and  on  more  scanty  herbage  than  ■  the 
sheep,  and  is  especially  adapted  to  the  mountainous  grazing  re- 
gions of  the  Northern  States.  In  New  England,  where  the  wool 
would  be  at  the  door  of  the  mills  of  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut, we  can  imagine  no  addition  to  the  farm  stock  which 
would  be  productive  of  more  wealth  than  the  goat.  Their  flesh 
makes  the  nicest  of  meat,  their  milk  is  worth  twice  that  of  cow's 
milk,  and  often  gives  twice  as  much  cream  as  the  richest  cow's 
milk.  Goat's  milk  is  often  ordered  for  children  and  the  sick  by 
our  best  physicians,  and  its  peculiarly  nutritious  and  healthful 
qualities  have  long  been  known  and  acknowledged  by  the 
medical  fraternity.  For  many  ^'ears  to  come  their  wool  will 
be  much  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  sheep,  while  they  can 
be  kept  at  less  expense,  and  will  pay  a  large  proportion  of  their 
keep  in  milk. 

An  extensive  breeder  in  Ohio  writes  to  the  Ruratisi :    "  For  a 

number  of  years  I  have  been  somewhat  extensivelv  engaged  in 

breeding  these  Cashmere  and  other  breeds  of  goats.     I  have 

found  the  Cashmere  especially  healthy  and  hardy,  and  have  de- 
28 


4(50  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

rived  the  greatest  satisfaction  from  the  attention  I  have  be 
stowed  upon  them.  They  are  very  prolific,  well  adapted  to  our 
climate,  and  are  profitable,  not  only  for  their  wool,  but  for  their 
skins,  which  makes  the  most  beautiful  furs  for  the  use  of 
ladies  and  children.  Their  flesh  is  superior  in  flavor  to  that  of 
truiton. 

"  I  have  now  on  my  farm  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
head,  nnd  I  can  state  with  certainty  that  it  costs  no  more  to 
raise  and  keep  two  good  goats  than  one  sheep. 

"  Dogs  are  not  inclined  to  molest  them.  They  are  not  partial 
in  their  choice  of  food,  and  will  live  on  any  kind  of  herbage. 
They  are  very  domestic  in  their  habits,  and  readily  seek  their 
proper  shelter  at  night,  and  evince  a  ready  instinct  to  seek 
shelter  from  a  coining  storm." 

These  are  great  advantages,  not  the  least  of  which  is  that  they 
will  defend  themselves  against  the  dogs,  whose  ravages  are  so 
destructive  among  the  sheep. 

The  fleece  of  the  Cashmere  goat  weighs  from  four  to  nine 
pounds.  They  seem  to  improve  in  this  country  both  in  size 
and  weight  of  fleece.     Says  the  authority  before  quoted: 

"  The  skins  of  the  mature  animals  are  dressed  for  robes,  which 
sell  for  from  fifteen  dollars  to  twenty-five  dollars.  The  skins 
of  the  young  are  dressed  for  furs,  colored  or  not,  and  command 
often  fifty  dollars  each,  for  such  has  been  the  progress  of  Ihe 
wor.sted  manufacture  within  the  last  ten  years,  that  machinery 
already  exists  in  this  country  and  Europe  upon  which  tnis 
fleece  can  be  made  into  every  fabric  to  which  it  has  been 
applied  in  the  East,  with  equal  success  and  far  greater  dispatch 
At  present  the  main  effort  should  be  directed  towards  import- 
ing perfect  specimens  of  the  wool  bearing  animals,  and  crossing 
tbem  upon  the  common  goats  already  in  the  country.  By  this 
means  the  latter  are  so  much  improved  as  to  be  in  the  third  or 


SHEEP,    SWINE,  AND   OTHER   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.         461 

fourtli  generation  scarcely  distinguishable  from  pure  breads. 
Says  the  American  Agricultwist :  "  Rocks  that  goats  will  not 
climb,  foliage  that  they  will  not  eat,  bark  that  they  v/ill  not 
gnaw,  are  things  hard  to  find.  Still,  these  propensities  to 
overstep  bounds,  and  do  what  we  would  rather  they  would  not, 
may  all  be  controlled,  and  their  silky  fleeces  made  available  to 
the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  man.  We  have  been  much  inter- 
ested in  examining  samples  of  the  fleece  of  different  pure 
blooded  and  grade  animals  of  this  breed,  if  so  it  miiy  be  called, 
as  well  as  the  animals  themselves,  and  are  convinced  from  tho 
diversity  of  form  in  the  animals,  and  of  fineness  of  the  wool  ov 
hair,  that  there  is  in  the  stock  great  capacity  for  improvement. 
These  goats  impress  their  characteristics  with  great  certainty 
and  power  upon  their  offspring,  when  crossed  with  common 
goats.  The  fleece  consists  of  the  long,  often  very  tine,  silky 
hair,  and  beneath  it,  very  close,  fine  wool,  which  coats  the 
animal  in  the  winter  season,  and  affords  a  most  efiicient  protec- 
tion from  the  cold.  By  careful  breeding,  doubtless  either  of 
these  kinds  of  fleece  may  be  increased  in  quantity.  The  fine 
Cashmere  shawls  are  made  from  the  soft,  fine  wool;  and,  though 
experiments  in  inl^roducing  the  fine  haired  goats  of  Cashmere 
and  Thibet  into  Southern  India,  to  produce  this  fine  fleece,  have 
failed,  yet  the  Cashmere  introduced  into  this  country,  and  their 
descendants,  are  said  not  to  deteriorate  in  this  respect." 

A  still  further  recommendation  of  these  animals  is  that  they 
are  not  subject  to  rot,  grub,  and  other  diseases,  to  which  sheep 
are  liable.  The  cut  we  give  is  from  a  goat  owned  by  Messrs. 
N.  P.  Boyer  &  Co.,  of  Parkesburg,  Pa.     {Fig.  91.) 

The  Dog.  •  The  late  H.  W.  Herbert  published  a  work,  of  six 
hundred  and  sixty-three  pages  devoted  to  the  breeding,  break- 
ing, training,  and  diseases  of  dogs,  yet  the  number  of  worthless 
ours  has  continually  increased.     There  is  nothing  so  worthless 


4(V2  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

as  a  worthless  dog,  and  yet  they  are  counted  by  miDions.  The 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  estimates  the  yearly  cost  of  the 
dogs  in  this  country  at  fifty  millions  of  dollars,  for  a  set 
of  good  for  nothing,  thieving,  sheep  killing,  mongrel  curs. 
It  is  a  shame  to  our  civilization.  And  not  only  a  shame  and  a 
I0S.S,  but  a  great  disadvantage  to  the  sheep  interests.  These 
do"-3  annually  destroy  two  million  dollars  worth  of  sheep.  It 
is  often  a  great  drawback  to  sheep  raising,  especially  mutton 
sheep,  near  large  places.  At  least  nine  out  of  every  ten  dogs 
should  be  at  once  killed  by  process  of  law,  and  the  remainder 
put  under  bonds  of  at  least  five  hundred  dollars  each  to  keep 
the  peace.  Then  every  dog  owner  will  be  responsible  for  the 
damage  done  by  his  dog,  and  no  one  can  keep  a  dog,  that  is 
not  responsible ;  the  trouble  now  is  that  the  owners  of  the  half 
starved  pack  that  destroy  the  sheep  usually  have  no  property 
but  the  dogs,  and  no  damages  can  be  recovered.  This  is  one 
of  the  hindrances  in  the  way  of  raising  pure  bred  sheep,  for  the 
dogs  might  destroy  the  work  of  years  in  a  single  hour.  Thus 
one  department  of  greatest  importance  is  kept  back  by  these 
mongrels.  We  call  upon  fanners  to  see,  each  for  himself,  every 
representative  to  the  legislature  or  assembly  from  his  section, 
and  urge  the  passage  of  more  stringent  laws,  in  regard  to  dogs 
Let  a  ten  dollar  tax  be  instituted  and  collected.  Let  any  one 
be  permitted  to  kill  any  dog  on  which  the  tax  is  not  paid  and 
soon  there  will  be  ii  thinning  of  these  hated  ranks.  We  do  not 
advocate  the  killing  of  good  dogs,  of  good  breeds,  with  good 
qualities.  No  one  admires  such  a  dog  more  than  the  author, 
who  would  like  to  see  the  ranks  of  good  dogs  increased.  But 
such  dogs  are  the  rare  exceptions.  The  so-called  watch  dog,  if 
of  any  service  in  that  capacity,  is  usually  an  ugly,  vicious  brute, 
and  is  no  protection  against  a  regular  burglar  or  thief,  for  such 
will  give  him   chloroform   even   throucrh   barred   and   bolted 


Fuj   01.     C  vsiniERE  Doe. 


-^3sSS«.!^~I 


Firj.  92.    Shepherd  Dog. 


463 


SHEEP,    SWIXE,    AND    OTHER    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS  465 

doors.  And  the  bulldogs  and  other  watch  dogs  are  among  the 
most  destructive  when  they  once  get  into  the  sheep  pasture. 
The  full  blooded  Newfoundland  and  St.  Bernard,  or  a  cross 
between  the  two,  may  be  made  of  great  service  to  the  farmer, 
and  seldonr.  of  themselves  attack  sheep,  but  as  soon  as  you  begin 
to  cross  them  with  any  thing  else,  unless  it  be  the  shepherd 
dog,  you  spoil  them  entirely.  We  would  not  have  a  cross 
from  a  Newfoundland,  St.  Bernard,  or  shepherd  dog  and  a 
bulldog,  about  our  premises  much  more  than  we  would  a 
rattlesnake.  The  Shepherd  dog  is  the  most  valuable  of  the 
whole  family  of  dogs.  A  writer  in  the  Western  Rural  thus 
describes  them : 

"  The  Spanish  shepherd  dog  is  said  to  belong  to  the  same 
family  as  the  St.  Bernard  spaniel.  Like  the  dogs  of  this  breed, 
he  possesses  great  intelligence  and  sagacity,  combined  with 
courage  and  endurance,  properties  that  are  invaluable  in  a 
country  infested  by  thieves  and  wolves. 

"  The  Hungarian,  French,  and  Mexican  shepherd  dogs  are 
evidently  of  Spanish  origin.  In  Mexico  the  pups  are  suckled 
by  ewes,  and  become  so  much  attached  to  the  flock  that  they 
never  leave  them,  except  when  compelled  by  hunger  to  visit 
the  ranche.  In  the  sheep  districts  of  New  Mexico  the  shep- 
herd's dog  not  only  defends  the  flocks  from  the  attacks  of 
wolves  and  other  beasts  of  prey,  but  contends  to  the  death  with 
the  Indian  marauders  who  endeavor  to  take  the  sheep  by 
stealth  or  force; 

"The  Scotch  shepherd  dog  or  colley  is  a  light,  active  animal, 
of  great  sagacity  and  of  incalculable  use  to  the  shepherds  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  and  other  mountainous  pastures.  Mr. 
James  Hogg,  the  '  Ettrick  Shepherd,'  says  that  a  single  shep- 
herd and  his  dog  will  accomplish  more  in  gathering  a  flock  of 
sheep  from  a  Highland  farm  than  twenty  shepherds  could  do 


4B6  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

without  dogs ;  iu  fact,  without  tliis  docile  animal,  the  pastoral 
life  would  be  a  mere  blank.  It  would  require  more  hands  to 
manage  a  flock  of  sheep,  gather  them  from  the  hills,  force  them 
into  houses  and  folds,  and  drive  them  to  market  than  tlie  profit 
of  tlic  whole  flocks  would  be  capable  of  maintaining. 

"Although  the  sheep  husbandry  of  the  United  States  differs 
materially  in  many  particulars  from  that  of  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  'the  colley  is  pretty  extensively  diffused  in  this 
oxjuntry,  and  is  valued  very  highly  by  the  farmer,  shepherd,  or 
drover.  In  a  communication  to  the  American  Agriculturist, 
Mr.  T.  C.  Peters,  of  Darien,  New  York,  says : — '  I  think  the 
shepherd  dog  the  most  valuable  of  his  species,  especially  for  tbe 
farmer.  Our  dog  Jack,  a  thoroughbred  Scotch  colley,  has 
been  worth  one  hundred  dollars  a  year  in  managing  our  small 
flock  of  sheep,  usually  about  seven  hundred  iu  number.  He 
has  saved  us  more  than  that  in  time  in  running  after  them. 
After  sheep  have  been  once  broken  in  by  and  become  used  to 
the  dog,  it  is  but  little  trouble  to  manage  them ;  one  man  and 
the  dog  will  do  more  than  five  men  in  driving,  yarding,  etc. 
Let  any  man  once  possess  a  good  dog,  he  will  never  do  without 
one  again.  The  sagacity  of  the  shepherd's  dog  is  wonderful, 
and  if  T  h.ad  not  seen  so  much  myself,  I  could  scarcely  credit  all 
I  read  about  them.' 

•'The  English  sheep  dog,  or  drover's  dog,  is  a  tailless  animal, 
larger,  coarser,  and  stronger  than  the  cclley.  It  is  very  easily 
trained,  and  seems  especially  adapted  for  working  among  cattle, 
keeping  the  herd  from  straggling  when  on  the  prairie  or  the 
road  to  market,  and  acting  as  an  aid  to  the  farmer  in  the  man- 
agement of  his  flocks  and  herds." 

We  consider  it  always  well  to  allow  the  ewe  to  suckle  the 
pups. 

In  training  these  dogs  for  service  they  should  be  taught  to 


SHEEP,    SWINE,    AND    OTHEPw    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  467 

follow  behind  the  flock,  running  to  this  side  and  that,  to  start 
up  lagging  sheep,  to  run  over  the  fence  and  head  ofl:'  runaways, 
to  stand  in  front  and  hold  them  at  bay,  but  never  to  worry 
:hem,  bite  them,  or  in  any  way  frighten  them.  These  dogs 
thus  brought  up  with  the  sheep,  are  the  best  drovers  that  can 
be  found.  The  sheep  learn  to  obey  them  without  fear,  and 
they  drive  the  sheep  without  harming  them.  We  have  known 
a  slut  of  this  breed  to  nurse  and  raise  a  lamb  whose  dam  had 
died.  Such  a  race  of  dogs,  well  trained,  whi/3h  only  requires 
practice,  for  they  take  naturally  to  the  business,  would  be  of 
great  advantage  in  herding  large  flocks  "  on  the  range,"  and 
we  call  the  attention  of  flock-masters  to  their  merits. 

The  Diseases  of  Dogs  are  numerous,  but  are  not  at  all 
necessary.  The  present  style  of  promiscuous  breeding  is  the 
source  of  most  of  them.  Keep  your  breeds  pure,  and  at  once 
kill  a  diseased  slut  and  castrate  a  diseased  dog,  and  diseases 
will  lessen.  Distempee  is  the  more  common  of  these  diseases. 
The  first  symptoms  are  dulness  and  loss  of  appetite,  purging  or 
vomiting,  running  from  the  eyes  and  nose,  and  a  short  cough. 
The  animal  becomes  very  sensitive  to  cold,  seeks  warmth,  and 
is  constantly  shivering.  The  bowels  generally  become  consti- 
pated. All  these  and  other  symptoms  increase,  the  eyes  and 
nose  are  obstructed  by  the  discliarge  from  them,  and  the  clog 
fiist  wastes  away.  But  there  is  often  a  lapse  of  two  or  three 
weeks  between  the  first  symptoms  and  the  last,  in  which  time 
it  is  often  supposed  that  the  dog  is  recovering.  When  the  dis- 
temper is  mastered  the  dog  will  at  once  begin  to  fatten  ;  ii  he 
does  not  the  disease  is  only  dormant.  As  soon  as  the  s^'inp- 
toms  are  discovered  all  flesh  must  be  forbidden,  and  skim  milk 
and  bread  given.  When  the  bowels  are  constipated  inject 
warm  soap  and  water.  For  the  very  largest  dog  make  the 
following  into  twenty -four  pills,  and  give  three  daily :  Bella- 


468 


HOW  TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 


doniia,  twenty-four  grains;  nitre,  four  scruples;  gentian,  four 
drachms ;  giuger  to  mix.  One  eighth  of  the  above  is  sufficient 
for  a  lapdog.  If  diarrhoea  sets  in,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  chalk 
three  times  a  day.  If  fits  set  in,  kill  the  dog  at  once.  Dis- 
temper is  not  contagious,  but  epidemic. 

Mange  is  another  common  ailment  of  the  dog,  the  result 
either  of  poor  condition,  filth,  or  contagion.  Eub  with  lard 
and  sulphuF.  If  in  poor  condition,  give  beef  tea  strong,  and 
good  gruels ;  the  object  being  to  get  him  in  flesh  as  soon  as 
possible,  without  overloading  his  stomach.  If  the  dog  is  in 
very  high  condition,  very  fat,  reduce  him  to  a  diet  of  gruel, 
and  get  oflf  his  surplus  flesk. 


J:  "J.   '-' 


r^jT 


Fl(j.  94.    Sumatra  Games. 


\ 


Fi(j.  03.    GA3LE  Cock. 


Fig.  9G.    Clipper  Game. 


470 


CHAPTER  XII. 

POULTRY      AND      BEES. 

jAEMERS  usually  keep  a  little  Poultry,  and  yet  but  few 
are  aware  that  they  are  the  most  profitable  stock  on  the 
farm.  The  farmer  can  well  keep  a  liberal  supply  ot 
fowls  by  feeding  them  three  or  four  months  in  the  year; 
the  remainder  of  the  time  they  will  forage  for  themselves. 
They  will,  if  given  the  range  of  the  barnyard,  the  orchard,  the 
stubble  field,  or  the  tobacco  plantation,  secure  worms,  irrubs 
bugs,  and  scattered  seeds  from  April  to  November,  sufficient  to 
keep  them  in  good  flesh  and  return  their  owners  from  three 
to  six  dozen  eggs  each,  to  pay  for  the  privilege.  We  coiisider  that 
a  flock  of  hens  or  turkeys  turned  into  the  orchard  or  tobacco 
field  ^\  ill  pay  for  their  winter's  keep  in  destroying  worms  and 
insects.  If  the  hen  only  lays  fourteen  weeks  out  of  the  fifty-two, 
(which  is  less  than  the  average  for  two,  three,  or  four  year  old 
fowls,)  say  one  hundred  eggs  at  three  cents  a  piece,  you  have 
three  dollars  for  her  keep,  and  a  little  pile  of  the  strongest  manure, 
besides  her  services  among  your  insect  enemies.  But  what  will 
it  cost  to  keep  her  through  the  winter.  A  peck  of  grain  will 
feed  a  large  hen  about  three  weeks;  so  if  you  feed  four  months, 
you  will  feed  six  pecks  of  grain.  Will  any  other  animal  return 
you  so  much  for  so  small  an  outlay  ?  But  this  is  not  all ;  you  still 
have  the  hen  either  to  put  in  the  pot,  send  to  market,  raise  yen 

471 


472  now  TO  make  tue  faem  pay. 

a  brocxl  of  chicks  or  give  joii  another  three  dollars  worth  of 

eggs- 

The  raising  of  poultry  on  a  large  scale  can  be  made  profitable 

anywhere  within  a  day's  roach  of  any  of  our  large  cities.  We 
uro  templed  here  to  condense  a  little  account  of  poultry  raising 
on  the  farm  belonging  to  the  Metropolitan  Hotel,  of  New  York. 
The  farm  is  located  in  West  Chester  County,  and  about  twenty 
acres  of  rough  land,  worth  little  for  tillage,  all  devoted  to 
poultrv.  The  undergrowth  is  allowed  to  grow ;  the  turkeys 
have  the  woods  to  range  in,  and  there  is  a  pond  for  the  ducks 
and  geese.  During  the  summer  they  are  all  allowed  to  range 
at  will ;  but  fowls  once  accustomed  to  a  roosting  and  laying 
place  will  usually  return  to  it.  For  Avinter  quarters,  there  are 
two  houses.  Lime  and  plaster  are  used  very  freely  to  absorb 
the  ammonia,  and  compost  the  droppings.  The  sloping  shelves 
under  the  roosts  are  swept  every  week  and  newly  sprinkhsd 
with  lime.  All  this  valuable  manure  is  barrelled  and  applied  to 
corn,  producing  the  biggest  corn  in  the  country,  and  sixty  tons 
of  hay  froni  twenty  acres. 

We  quote  from  the  Neiu  York  World: — "The  eggs  pay 
for  food  and  attendance,  leaving  the  sales  of  poultry  clean 
profit.  Mr.  L.  says  he  can  produce  a  thousand  pounds  of 
poultry  cheaper  than  he  can  the  same  weight  of  mutton,  beef, 
or  purk.  He  finds  as  much.  i)rorit  from  turkeys,  and  often 
greater  tlian  from  hens.  They  often  require  more  attention, 
but  some  years  ho  has  fifty  to  sell,  for  which  he  gets  five 
tlollars  each,  besides  a  great  many  more,  for  which  he  gets 
.Tom  one  to  three  dollars.  Just  now  he  has  three  thousand 
young  chickens,  several  hundred  young  turkeys,  two  hundred 
hens  laying  every  day  or  hatching  broods,  and  handsome  pla- 
toons of  ducks  and  goslings,  probably  about  four  tliousand  in 
all,  of  d  .mestic  fowls,  each  of  which,  on  an  average,  is,  or  will 


POULTRY    AND    BEES,  475 

be  by  Thanksgiving,  worth  a  dollar.  Deduct  from  this  the 
cost  of  two  hundred  bushels  of  grain,  and  the  hire  of  an  attena- 
ant,  to  whom  he  may  pay  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  a  year 
and  board,  perhaps  more.  They  eat  up  the  grasshoppers,  grubs, 
worms,  eggs  of  insects,  larvae,  beetles,  snails,  katydids,  and 
June  bugs,  so  clean  that  his  farm  is  less  beset  wdth  pests  than 
most  others  about  him.  He  has  apples  when  others  are  ruined 
by  the  borer,  the  caterpillar,  the  tent  worm,  the  canker  worm, 
or  the  curculio." 

This  looks  like  a  hazardous  business,  but  it  is  not,  and  there 
are  hundreds  of  rough  farms  in  the  vicinity  ot  cities  where  u 
flock  of  five  hundred  fowls,  to  begin  with,  would  soon  become 
a  vast  army  of  producers.  Since  writing  the  above  we  have 
read  a  somewhat  elaborate  article  in  a  western  paper  to  prove 
that  one  hundred  a  year  is  all  that  caji  profitably  be  raised 
together,  yet  the  above  poultry  farm  has  been  carried  on  for 
years  with  unbroken  success.  The  best  points  in  Mr.  L.'s 
system  are,  free  range  in  summer,  cleanliness  at  all  times, 
liberal  feeding  and  warmth  in  winter,  and  a  change  of  cocks 
every  spring :  and  these  things  can  be  secured  by  every  farmer. 
We  will  try  to  give  a  few  plain  directions  for  farmers. 

First,  get  a  cock  of  some  good  breed  for  everj^-  twelve  hens. 
Secondly,  build  a  poultry  house  for  the  winter  protection  of 
the  fowls,  for  nests,  for  a  roosting  place,  and  for  the  sake  of  the 
rich  ammonaical  manure  they  will  drop.  The  droppings  will 
soon  pay  for  a  good  poultry  house.  "We  recommend  the  follow- 
ing plan.  {Fig.  97.)  This  is  ten  by  thirty  feet,  and  eight  feet 
above  ground,  with  a  roof  sloping  one  way.  It  can  be  built  up 
against  a  shed  or  other  building,  the  shed  answering  for  the 
backside  of  the  poultry  house.  In  the  first  place  a  cellar  is 
dug  six  feet  deep,  and  the  bottom  filled  one  foot  with  cobble 
stones,  rammed  down  hard;   afoot   of  the  earth  thrown  out  is 


476 


HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 


a O, 


{Fig.  97. 
tliera  rammed  down  upon  the  stones,  and  a  foot  of  good  gravel, 
fine,  on  top,  as  a  floor.  This  secures  permanent  drainage,  cleanli- 
ness, and  the  gravel  is  indispensable  to  the  health  of  the  fowls. 
The  floor  is  three  feet  below  the  surface,  which  secures  warmth 
in  the  coldest  weather.  The  house  may  now  be  built  as  directed. 
Castaway  boards  are  just  as  good  as  any  thing,  for  it  is  not  the 
looks  you  are  after,  but  the  profits.  Ten  or  fifteen  dollars  will 
build  such  a  house  on  many  farms,  and  twenty-five  dollars  will 
pay  for  it  anywhere.  The  slant  lines  near  the  entrance  repre- 
sent the  roosts,  which  are  five  feet  from  the  floor  and  two  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Underneath  these  roosts  is  a 
slanting  shelf,  which  is  swept  every  week  and  coveied  with 
lime.  Don't  omit  this,  whatever  shape  you  put  your  poultry 
hou.se  in.  The  squares  at  the  opposite  ends  represent  the  nests, 
which  are  ranged  in  tiers,  commencing  on  the  bottom.  There 
are  three  tiers,  allowing  three  feet  for  each  tier ;  forty-five  nests 
in  all.  After  the  hens  come  off  with  their  broods,  the  nests  are 
scalded  out  with  boiling  water  and  lime.  The  hens  should  be 
act  as  nearly  as  possible  about  the  same  time,  and  when  they 
come  off  twenty  to  thirty  chicks  given  to  one  hen  to  take  care 
of,  and  the  other  hens  treated  to  a  cold  bath,  and  shut  up  for  a 
few  days,  when  they  will  commence  laying  again.  Cracked 
I'-oro  is  the  best  and  most  economical  feed  for  fowls,  but  they 


Fifj,  100,    Beaioia  Pootkas. 


2f 


Fig.  101.     TTniTE  Brah3ias. 

477 


POULTPwY   AND   BEES.  479 

should  never  be  kept  on  any  one  kind  of  food ;  oats,  kitobcu 
scraps,  buckwheat,  bonny  clabber,  sunflower  seeds,  and  other 
changes  should  be  made.  Never  feed  all  they  will  eat,  but 
stop  when  they  cease  to  be  greedy  for  the  food.  Lime,  burned 
oyster  shells,  and  the  shells  of  their  own  eggs  will  assist  them 
in  forming  new  shells.  Give  chickens  plenty  of  room  and 
plowed  ground  to  scratch  in.  If  you  do  not  want  the  hens  in 
the  plowed  land,  fasten  the  coop  near  it  and  let  the  chickens 
run.  But  it  is  better,  after  the  first  week  or  two,  to  let  them  all 
run,  calling  them  to  the  house  at  least  once  a  day  to  make 
them  feel  at  home  there. 

What  are  the  best  Breeds  ?  We  have  already  advised 
the  purchase  of  cocks  of  some  good  breed,  and  we  will  now 
give  the  characteristics  of  the  best  breeds.  Says  a  poultry 
raiser  writing  to  the  Prairie  Farmer:  "  Our  common  barnyard 
fowl,  with  good  care,  will  lay  one  hundred  and  forty  eggs  each 
year,  and  give  them  time  to  rear  each  a  brood  of  chickens.  A 
Black  Spanish  vnll  lay  one  hundred  and  twenty  eggs,  but  does 
not  set  at  all.  A  Leghorn  fowl  will  lay  two  hundred  eggs  in  a 
year;  this  breed  does  not  set  till  three  years  old.  Hamburgs 
(Grolden  Pencilled)  will  lay  from  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and 
forty  eggs  each  year,  but  does  not  set  till  three  years  old,  and 
sometimes  not  even  then.  Bramah  fowls  will  lay  one  hundre4 
and  forty  eggs,  and  bring  up  two  broods  of  chickens  each  year. 

"  The  average  cost  of  keeping  fowls,  of  all  kinds,  with  corn,  at 
one  dollar  per  bushel,  and  small  grain  in  that  proportion,  wiL 
be  not  far  from  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  each  per  year." 

We  indorse  the  above  estimate  of  the  Hamburgs,  their 
refusal  to  set  being  no  objection  to  them  if  you  have  Cochins  to 
set  their  eggs  under.  The  game  cock  put  upon  common  fowls 
of  good  size  is  one  of  the  best  investments  we  ever  made  in 
poultry.     Their  chicks  make  great  layers,  are  hardy,  always 


4S0  now   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

keep  u\  good  flesh.  There  is  nothing  like  the  game  cock,  for 
keeping  order  in  the  flock  and  for  keeping  hawks,  cats,  skunks, 
and  all  other  enemies  at  bay.  The  black  Spanish  fowls  are 
good  layers,  but  do  not  make  good  meat,  and  are  not  to  be 
recommended.  The  Dorkings  are  good,  and  no  one  can  be 
amiss  in  purchasing  a  few  eggs  and  raising  a  cock  of  tliis  breed. 
The  Cochin'  crossed  on  the  common  fowl  improves  the  latter,  but 
we  should  prefer  investing  our  money  in  something  else.  The 
Bramahs  are  much  better.  The  Polands  are  also  good  layers 
but,  like  the  Hamburgs,  do  not  set.  The  Leghorns  also  como 
in  the  same  class,  but  are  of  smaller  size.  We  hope  that  no 
one  of  our  readers  will  ever  have  the  "  hen  fever."  Wo  recom 
mend  no  one  to  buy  a  stock  of  any  of  the  above  fowls.  But 
what  we  do  recommend  to  every  man  that  cultivates  an  acre  of 
ground  is,  improve  your  stock  by  an  admixture  of  some  one  or 
more  of  the  above  breeds.  Make  it  a  rule  to  get  a  new  cock 
every  year.  If  your  fowls  are  too  small,  get  a  large  breed.  If 
poor  layers,  get  a  Hamburg  or  a  game  cock.  If  they  are  not 
hardy,  and  none  of  them  make  good  mothers,  get  a  game  or  a 
Bramah.  It  will  pay;  having  been  surrounded  by  poultry 
more  than  ten  years,  we  insist  that  it  will  pay. 

The  Diseases  of  Poultry  are  caused  by  breeding,  filth,  im- 
pure water,  lack  of  gravel,  and  close  confinement.  Pure  water 
is  absolutely  essential  to  the  health  of  fowls.  When  ranging 
in  the  summer  they  will  go  to  running  streams  or  the  barn- 
yard trough,  but  in  the  winter  they  suffer  for  lack  of  fresh 
water.  In  the  plan  of  a  poultry  house,  given  in  a  picceding 
page,  A  is  a  pipe  on  the  bottom  of  the  coop  three  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  ground,  running  into  a  keg  set  in  the  ground,  with 
an  outlet  on  the  other  side.  This  pipe  comes  from  the  barn- 
/ard  trough,  and  as  long  as  there  is  water  in  it  the  hens  are 
supplied.     As  this  poultry  house  is  built  against  one  of  the 


Fiq.  102.     Silver  Hamburgs. 


Fig.  103.  White  Dorkings. 


481 


POULTRY   AND    BEES.  483 

barnyard  sheds  only  twenty  feet  from  the  pump,  the  operation 
was  easy. 

A  box  of  wood  ashes  set  in  the  coop  and  changed  every  week 
or  two  will  keep  the  fowls  pretty  free  from  lice.  Gravel  and 
sand  on  the  floor  keep  their  digestion  good.  Camphor  in  the 
water  or  mixed  with  meal  dough  will  cure  gapes  in  chickevih. 
Rubbing  the  heads  of  chicks  with  lard  and  sulphur  before  they 
are  a  week  old  will  prevent  gapes,  killing  the  worms  that  cause 
it.  Roup  is  the  most  dangerous  disease  attacking  fowls.  The 
breathing  becomes  hard  and  distressed;  through  the  mouth 
instead  of  the  nostrils.  The  fowls  affected  with  it  should  be 
removed  from  the  rest  and,  if  of  no  special  value,  killed.  Ii  it  rs 
desired  to  save  them,  feed  with  stale  bread  soaked  in  spirits, 
boiled  and  mashed  potatoes,  and  hard  boiled  eggs  chopped  fine, 
and  give  them  a  clear,  airy  but  Vv'arm  place.  As  they  begin  to 
improve,  chop  fresh  meat  fine  and  give  them  every  daj.  The 
great  cause  of  disease  is  yet  to  be  considered ;  it  is  the  continual 
use  of  the  same  cock  or  his  descendants.  A  new  cock  should 
be  introduced  every  year,  or  there  can  be  no  just  expectation  of 
health  or  large  returns  of  eggs. 

Turkeys  are  also  a  source  of  profit  near  all  large  places. 
The  bronze  turkey  is  the  most  desirable,  and  it  would  be  well 
if  a  cock  or  a  pair  could  be  introduced  into  every  ^arm  in  our 
more  thickly  settled  States.  Many  farmers  object  to  them  in 
the  meadows,  but  if  they  can  get  at  plowed  ground,  orchards, 
tobacco  fields,  or  stubble,  they  will  not  tangle  your  grass.  The 
hen  turkey  is  a  wanderer  and  will  naturally  seek  to  hide  her 
nest.  This  can  be  prevented.  Says  Saunders,  a  poultry 
breeder:  "  About  the  middle  of  March,  generally  speaking,  tho 
female  commences  laying;  she  indicates  the  coming  event  bj^  a 
peculiar  cry,  by  strutting  about  with  an  air  of  self  satisfaction, 
and  often  prying  into  out  of  the  way  places,  evidently  in  quest  of 


484  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

a  secret  spot  for  incubation.  She  should  now  be  closely  watched, 
and  some  management  is  required  to  induce  ber  to  lay  in  the 
nest  assigned  to  her.  The  nest  should  be  prepared  witb  straw 
and  dry  leaves ;  it  should  be  secluded,  and  to  incite  her  to 
adopt  it  a  nest  egg  should  be  placed  in  it.  When  her  uneasi- 
ness to  lay  is  evident,  she  should  be  shut  into  the  barn  or  shed 
wlicre  her  nest  is  prepared,  and  let  out  as  soon  as  the  egg  is 

laid." 

The  turkey  is  a  persistent  setter  and  often  persists  in  staying 
on  her  nest  when  she  is  suft'ering  for  food  and  water.  She 
should  bo  removed  occasionally,  and  during  the  last  ten  days 
the  eggs  should  be  lightly  sprinkled  with  water  while  she 
is  off.  This  sprinkling  applies  to  the  eggs  of  all  fowls.  After 
hatching,  the  chicks  should  be  sheltered  for  a  few  days,  when 
they  will  look  out  for  themselves.  AVater  is  their  great  enemy, 
for  a  thorough  ducking  often  kills  them.  After  the  hatching 
appears  to  be  all  over,  chop  up  some  hard  boiled  eggs  and  feed 
the  brood.  Bread  crumbs  wet  up  with  milk  or  curd,  or  oat- 
meal dough,  will  answer  after  this.  Water  should  be  put  in  a 
very  shallow  dish  for  fear  of  ducking  the  chicks.  Turkeys  nor 
any  other  fowl  should  ever  be  allowed  on  the  hay,  or  in  the 
stables,  when  the  horses  are  there. 

Fattening  Poultry  for  market  is  a  very  simple  operation. 
Not  more  than  two  weeks  before  they  are  wanted  shut  them 
up  in  coops  with  just  room  to  stand  comfortably.  Mix  a  dough  _ 
of  meal  and  milk,  just  thick  enough  so  that  you  can  make  it 
into  rolls.  Roll  it  into  crams  about  the  size  of  your  little 
finger,  (smaller  for  small  pullets,)  put  it  into  the  bill  and  help  it 
down.  If  the  cram  is  dipped  in  milk  it  will  go  down  easy. 
We  would  say  here  that  all  fowls  should  be  fed  as  soon  after 
light  in  the  morning  as  possible,  for  they  worry  for  their  food 
and  lose  their  fat  if  they  have  to  wait.    At  midday  put  a  little 


Fig.  104,    Grey  Dorkings. 


.r.-iP  --^^m 


"■■'-=^^w*■«•=--^^*e^ 


Fig.  106.    Wild  Turkey. 

4SS 


POULTRY    AXD    BEES,  487 

cracked  corn  or  oats  where  the  cooped  fowls  can  reach  it ;  also 
keep  water  and  sand  within  their  reach.  At  night  cram  again, 
unless  the  crop  is  still  partly  filled,  in  which  case  the  bill  must 
be  held  up,  some  warm  water  turned,  in  and  the  bill  closed.  In 
this  way  inside  of  two  weeks  the  largest  fowls  can  be  made 
very  flit  at  a  trifling  expense.  This  feeding  should  never  b  > 
continued  more  than  two  weeks.  For  twelve  hours  before 
poultry  is  killed  neither  food,  or  water  should  be  allowed. 

Ducks  can  be  raised  by  any  one  who  has  an  acre  of  waste 
land,  with  a  stream  or  a  pond  at  hand,  but  it  is  useless  to  at- 
tempt to  keep  them  in  close  quarters  or  without  plenty  of  water. 
They  are  good  layers,  and  drop  a  large  egg  with  very  rich 
meat ;  their  eggs  are  very  heavy,  and  when  eggs  come  to  be 
sold  by  the  pound,  as  they  ought  always  to  be,  ducks'  eggs  will 
bring  a  high  price.  The  Eouen  and  Aylesbury  are  the  finest 
breeds  for  eggs  and  poultry,  and  a  pair  of  either  of  them  will 
soon  raise  a  flock,  as  the  eggs  are  set  under  the  hen.  One  drake 
should  be  allowed  to  every  six  layers. 

Geese  also  require  water  and  pasture,  but  will  not  pick  up 
all  their  living,  as  the  duck  will  when  it  has  a  good  range. 
Geese  must  be  fed  morning  and  night  with  grain.  When  set- 
ting, the  female  should  have  food  and  water  convenient.  Like 
the  duck  and  the  turkey,  the  eggs  require  about  four  weeks  to 
hatch,  and  should  be  sprinkled  several  times  in  the  last  ten  days. 
The  Bremen  or  Embeden  geese  are  large,  (weighing  often  fortv- 
five  pounds  per  pair,)  quiet,  fat  readily,  not  as  likely  to  stray 
as  others,  and  the  most  profitable  for  market. 

The  Habits  and  Management  of  Bees  present  the  most 
interesting  study  we  have  ever  attempted.     Upwards  of  twenty 

Note.  The  cuts  of  fowls  in  this  Chapter  are  from  poultry  owned  by  N 
P.  Boyer  &  Co.,  stock  breeders,  Parkesburg,  Chester  County,  Pa. 


4S3  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

volumes  have  been  written  and  published  in  this  country  alone 
concerning  them,  and  the  half  has  not  jot  been  told.  We  shall 
aim  .siniplv  to  give  plain,  practical  directions,  which  all  can  un- 
derstand for  takino-  care  of  bees  so  as  to  make  them  profitable. 
Certain  well  established  facts  must  be  well  understood  before 
.ludertaking  Bee  keeping. 

1.  There  are  three  kinds  of  bees  in  every  prosperous  hive, 
viz.,  the  queen,  the  drones,  and  the  workers. 

2.  The  Queen  Bee  is  the  only  perfect  female  in  the  hive.  She 
is  the  mother  of  all  the  others.  No  swarm  can  prosper  without 
a  queen.  She  is  readily  distinguished  from  all  the  others  by 
her  long  bodj^-,  short  wings,  and  yellow  abdomen.  [See  No.  6, 
Fi<j.  lll.-^)  There  are  never  two  in  a  hive,  as  the  reigning 
queen  destroys  all  others  before  they  come  out  of  their  cells. 
If  the  queen  is  lost,  the  industry  of  the  hive  is  stopped  until 
preparations  are  completed  for  hatching  another.  The  queen 
leaves  the  hive  when  about  seven  days  old  to  meet  the  male  bee, 
is  impregnated,  and  never  leaves  the  hive  again,  except  with  a 
Kwann.  Queens  are  the  only  bees  that  live  more  than  (me 
season ;  they  sometimes  live  three  years.  They  are  capable 
of  laying  one  hundred  thousand  or  more  eggs  in  a  season,  if 
supplied  with  brood  cells.  They  have  an  effective  sting,  but 
never  use  it,  except  against  each  other.  A  queen  goes  out  with 
every  swarm ;  if  by  any  accident  she  is  lost  in  swarming,  the 
bees  return  to  the  hive. 

3.  The  Drone  is  the  male  bee.     A  large  number  are  usually 


♦  NoTK.  Description  of  Fig.  m.  i.  Egg.  2.  Position  of  egg  and 
larva  in  Iho  cells.  3.  Full  grown  worker  larva.  4.  AVorker  nymph  or 
pnpa.  5.  Drone,  f..  Qleen.  7.  Worker,  c.  Queen  Cet.l.  9.  Probe 
scis  or  tongue  of  worker.  ;0.  Sling  of  worker.  11.  Ovaries  of  Quoen. 
12.  Honey  sac,  intestines,  and  stomach  of  worker.  It  is  exceedingly  diffi- 
call  to  make  a  good  representation  of  comb  on  paper. 


Fig.   107.  Bronze  Turkeys, 


Fiy.   108.  Bremen  Geese. 


POULTKY    AND    BEES.  491 

reared  iu  eacli  hive,  only  to  be  destroyed  after  the  honey  season 
is  over  and  the  young  queens  have  been  impregnated.  They 
are  not  producers,  but  constant  consumers.  They  do  no  labor 
whatever.  In  short,  they  are  drones.  They  are  larger  and  more 
clumsy  than  the  workers.  {N'o.  5,  Fig.  111.)  There  are  some- 
times several  thousand  in  a  hive,  but  they  are  soon  killed.  As 
they  are  never  allowed  to  live  out  their  terrh  of  life,  it  cannot 
be  said  how  long  they  will  live. 

4.  The  Workers  constitute  the  main  body  of  the  colony;  thev 
do  all  the  labor  of  the  hive.  For  the  first  two  weeks  after  they 
are  hatched  they  work  inside  the  hive,  after  which  they  go  out 
to  gather  honey.  During  the  working  season  a  worker  Heldom 
lives  more  than  two  months,  so  that  the  colony  is  wholly 
changed  (except  the  queen)  several  times  during  the  season.  A 
good  swarm  ought  to  contain  from  twenty  thousand  to  thirt}' 
thousand  bees,  and  previous  to  swarming  they  often  contain 
double  the  above  number.  The  workers  have  a  poisonous 
sting,  which  they  use  for  defence,  but  when  carefully  handled 
they  will  seldom  sting.  When  away  from  their  hives  they  will 
never  sting,  if  they  can  escape  without  it.  When  swarming 
they  may  be  handled,  shaken,  or  brushed,  and,  unless  likely  to 
be  crushed,  will  not  attempt  to  sting.  When  filled  with  honey,  at 
any  tivie^  they  icill  not  attack^  even  in  defence  of  their  hi\e  and 
its  treasures.  They  are  smaller  than  the  queen  or  the  drone, 
have  a  little  sac  for  storing  honey  and  little  baskets  on  their 
legs  for  pollen.  In  Fiy.  Ill  are  seen  the  proboscis  or  tongue, 
the  'honey  sac,  the  sting,  etc. 

5.  There  are  four  substances  secreted  or  gathered  by  the  bee, 
and  found  in  every  prosperous  hive,  viz.,  pollen  or  bee  bread, 
propolis,  wax,  and  honey. 

6.  Pollen  is  gathered  from  the  blossoms,  and  is  essential  in 
rearing  the  brood.     Unless  pollen,  or  a  substitute,  is  furnished 


492  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

I  he  colon  V  will  soon  run  out.     Eye  flour  is  a  good  substitute 
for  pollou. 

7.  Propolis  is  a  substance  gathered  from  trees,  with  which 
ihe  bee  stops  the  cracks,  fills  the  corners,  and  varnishes  the 
interior  surface  of  the  hive.  It  is  also  used  with  wax  in  fa.s- 
toning  up  the  comb,  and  sometimes  in  varnishing  the  comb. 

8.  Wax  is  a  secretion  from  which  the  bees  make  their  comb. 
It  is  more  valuable  than  honey,  for  it  requires  at  least  twelve 
pounds  of  honey  to  produce  one  of  wax.  Good  bee  comb 
should  therefore  never  be  destroyed  when  it  can  be  avoided. 
Just  the  amount  of  time  and  honey  required  to  build  the  comb 
is  saved  by  furnishing  each  swarm  with  comb. 

9.  There  are  two  kinds  of  comb,  bi'ood  comb  and  honey 
comb;  and  the  brood  comb  is  also  divided  into  worker  comb 
and  drone  comb,  the  drone  comb  having  the  largest  cells.  The 
size  of  brood  cells,  as  built  by  the  bees,  never  varies  a  hair; 
that  is,  worker  cells  are  all  one  size  and  brood  cells  one  size; 
while  honey  cells  are  of  all  sizes  and  depths.  It  is  very  im- 
portant to  be  able,  from  the  first,  to  distinguish  the  different 
kinds  of  comb.  The  difierence  in  the  size  of  the  cells  deter- 
mines the  future  of  the  bee,  for  all  the  eggs  are  the  same. 
Three  or  four  worker  cells  are  made  into  one  long  cell  for  a 
queen,  (c,  Fig.  Ill,)  and  drone  cells  never  hatch  workers,  nor 
workers  drones,  although  the  eggs  in  both  are  just  alike. 
Comb  building  is  carried  on  at  night  and  in  stormy  weather. 
When  comb  must  be  provided  for  the  honey  as  fast  as  it  is 
gathered,  much  time  is  lost;  but  if  the  bees  have  plenty  of 
empty  comb  on  hand,  or  it  is  furnished  to  them  as  fast  as  filled, 
they  will  fill  it  with  astonishing  rapidity  in  the  honey  season. 
We  have  known  a  strong  colony  add  six  pounds  to  their  store 
in  a  single  day. 

10.  Honey,  the  great  object  of  our  labors  in  bee  keeping,  is 


Fig.  109.    Dog  Churn. 


Fig.  110.  ^'(1-  "^10.  h. 

Langstroth's  Movable  Co:.in  Hive. 


3l> 


493 


POULTRY   AND   BEES.  495 

the  nectar  of  the  blossoms.  The  number  of  plants  that  supply 
honey  on  a  large  scale  is  limited.  As  the  honey  undergoes  no 
change  at  the  hands  of  the  bee,  but  is  the  same  when  deposited 
in  the  combs  as  when  sipped  from  the  blossom,  there  is  necessa- 
rily a  great  difference  in  the  quality.  It  is  especially  desirable 
that  there  should  be  a  succession  of  honey  producing  plants; 
for  the  yield  of  surplus  honey  depends  upon  the  length  of  the 
honey  season,  and  not  upon  a  large  quantity  at  any  one  time. 
The  main  stay  of  the  bees  is  clover ;  but  its  season  is  so  short 
that  it  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  a  supply.  The  following  is 
a  succession  of  honey  producing  trees  and  plants;  any  one  within 
a  mile  or  two  of  such  a  succession  is  in  a  most  favorable  posi- 
tion for  bee  keeping.  The  willows  are  the  first  to  give  their 
supplies  in  the  spring  ;  then  follow  the  sugar  maples,  fruit  trees, 
the  dandelion,  the  tulip  or  poplar  tree,  the  linden  or  bass  wood, 
the  locust,  seed  onion,  red,  white  and  Alsike  clovers,  buckwheat, 
berries,  thistles,  etc. 

The  first  four,  with  the  buckwheat,  clover,  and  beriies,  form 
the  main  supply.  We  venture  to  say  that  there  is  no  farm  in 
the  country  but  what  will  readily  yield  sufiicient  supplies  for  a 
few  colonies  of  bees.  Under  the  head  of  miscellaneous  items 
will  be  found  an  article  in  regard  to  Alsike  clover,  which,  while 
it  is  better  for  general  cultivation  than  red  clover,  is  the  best 
possible  pasturage  for  bees. 

11.  Hives.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  one  half  m  bee  keeping 
depenis  upon  the  hive  and  the  other  half  upon  careful,  intelli- 
gent management.  The  bees  will  do  their  part  if  they  have  a 
chance.  In  the  old  fashioned  management  the  bees  were  hived 
in  square  box  hives,  and  kept  there  through  the  season.  At  the 
end  of  the  season  the  old  colony  was  murdered  and  robbed.  A 
small  amount  of  poor  honey  mixed  with  brood  was  obtained,  and 

but  little  pure,  clean,  unmixed  honev  could  be  had.    Each  swarm 
30 


40()  now   TO   MAKE  THE   FAKM   PAY. 

hnd  to  begin  anew  to  build  comb,  and  as  some  forty  to  sixty 
pounds  of  honey  was  required  for  comb,  the  honey  season  was 
nearly  over  before  the  bees  could  begin  to  store  surplus  honey. 
There  was  no  way  to  examine  the  comb ;  all  was  in  the  dark 
And  at  hap-hazard,  and  bee  keeping  was  unprofitable.  This  is 
all  changed.  The  Eev.  L.  L,  Langstroth  has  invented  a  hive, 
the  intelligent  use  of  which  renders  success  certain.  Bee  keep- 
i tig  is  now  a  safe  and  profitable  business.  The  main  principle 
in  the  Langstroth  hive  is  the  movable  frame,  as  shown  at  Fig. 
110.  Suppose  the  top  which  is  turned  up  in  the  figure  to  be 
taken  ofi^  and  also  the  six  honey  boxes  and  the  board  under 
them ;  you  have  now  the  whole  interior  of  the  hive  open  to 
you.  The  frames,  J,  are  hung  inside  the  hive  from  front  to  rear, 
and  instead  of  attaching  their  combs  to  the  hive,  they  will  build 
tliem  in  these  frames.  As  each  one  of  these  frames  can  be 
removed  and  replaced  at  pleasure,  all  the  operations  of  the  bees 
are  under  observation  and  control,  which  is  the  secret  of  success 
in  rearing  bees.  The  second  advantage  of  this  hive  is  the 
honey  board,  or  the  board  between  the  top  of  the  hive  and  the 
honey  boxes.  {See  Fig. 110.)  This  board  has  several  holes,  which 
are  kept  covered  until  the  lower  hive  is  pretty  well  supplied 
with  comb,  brood,  and  honey.  They  are  then  removed,  and 
the  bees  are  allowed  to  fill  these  upper  boxes  with  their  surplus 
honey.  Any  one  of  these  boxes  can  at  any  time  be  removed 
and  an  empty  one  put  in  its  place.  We  advise  every  farmer  in 
this  country  to  buy  a  Langstroth  hive  with  the  right  to  make 
and  use  them,  and  bee  keeping  will  become  both  a  pleasure  and 
a  profit.  There  are  many  other  advantages  in  using  the  Lang- 
stroth  hive,  which  may  be  hinted  at  as  we  proceed. 

Sprin-g  Management.  March.  Bees  which  have  been  re- 
moved from  their  stands  for  the  winter  may,  some  calm,  sunny 
lay.  this  month  be  replaced  for^^e  summer.     It  should    be 


I 


Fig.  111.     Bees  and  Comb. 


POULTRY   AND    BEES.  499 

done  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  the  top  of  the  hive  at  once 
removed,  allowing  the  sun  to  shine  directly  on  the  bees.  Clean 
hives,  dry  and  warm,  should  be  at  hand,  and  the  combs  with 
all  the  adherino;  bees  put  into  one  of  them.  With  the  Lang- 
stroth  hive  this  is  so  easily  done  that  there  is  no  excuse  for 
neglect.  The  hive  in  which  the  bees  were  wintered  can  now 
be  washed,  scalded,  and  made  ready  for  another  colony,  or  for 
a  swarm  by-and-by.  In  making  this  change  from  one  hive  to 
another,  the  condition  of  the  bees  can  be  ascertained.  If  they 
have  lost  their  queen,  there  will  be  no  young  brood  hatching ; 
and  they  must  either  be  united  with  another  colony,  or  brood, 
or  queen  cells  furnished  them  from  some  other  colony  Avho  have 
them  to  spare.  If  they  have  brood,  they  should  be  supplied 
with  water  and  rye  flour.  They  cannot  raise  brood  without 
water,  and  by  feeding  rye  flour  you  may  gain  from  ten  days  to 
three  weeks  in  the  hatching  of  the  brood.  A  sponge  saturated 
in  sweetened  water,  and  put  over  one  of  the  holes  in  the  honey 
board,  is  the  best  plan  for  supplying  water.  The  following 
most  interesting  communication  from  Messrs.  Ijangstroth  and 
Son  explains  the  feeding  process, 

"As  soon  as  the  weather  permits  the  be&s  to  fly  and  discharge 
their  accumulated  f^ces  they  are  ready  to  commence  breeding 
with  vigor ;  and  experience  demonstrates  the  advantage  of  now 
beginning  stimulative  feeding,  to  encourage  the  spread  of  brood. 
It  is  not  the  abundance  of  old  stores  of  honey  or  pollen  that , 
tempts  to  early  breeding,  (though  their  scarcity  will  prevent  it, 
unless  the  deficiency  is  supplied,)  but  it  is  the  sense  of  something 
coming  in  that  encourages  the  bees  to  hasten  matters.  There- 
fore we  supply  them  with  this  encouragement ;  and  where  the 
hives  have  plenty  of  honey,  it  is  an  open  question  with  ud 
whether  in  pleasant  weather  the  Jiour  alone  is  not  all  the 
btimulus  required.     Let  us  tell  you,  readers,  how  we  feed  it 


500  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

As  soou  as  the  bees  begin  to  fly  freely  in  the  spring  we  pre- 
pare  one  or  two  boxes,  sixteen  by  twenty  inches,  and  six  inches 
deep.  Put  a  good  layer  of  clean  straw  in  the  bottom,  spread 
the  flour  on  the  straw,  and  set  the  boxes  in  some  quiet,  sunny 
place,  in  or  near  the  apiary.  To  start  the  bees  to  work,  we  put 
n  few  drops  of  honey  or  sugar  syrup  on  a  comb  in  each  box  ; 
once  started,  tliey  will  keep  at  it  until  the  blossoms  appear. 
The  bees  quickly  "get  the  hang  of  the  operation,"  and  it  is 
amusing  to  see  them  collecting  the  flour — the  boxes  being 
nearly  black  with  bees,  and  the  whole  air  resounding  with  their  " 
joyous  hum.  They  moisten  the  flour  with  honey  from  their 
.stomachs  and  take  it  up  with  their  jaws  and  front  legs ;  then, 
hovering  in  the  air  over  the  box,  transfer  it  to  the  baskets  on 
their  hind  legs,  then  away  to  the  hive.  We  had  them  thus  at 
work  (Itahans)  one  bright,  still  day  this  month,  when  the 
thermometer  was  at  twenty-six  degrees !  To-day  (March  12th) 
was  constantly  showery,  yet,  with  the  covers  over  the  boxes 
propped  open  to  admit  them,  they  have  carried  in  fully  ten 
pounds  of  flour,  working  until  it  was  dark.  This  suggests 
putting  the  boxes  in  a  shed  opening  to  the  south,  if  such  a  one 
is  at  hand,  where  they  can  work  under  cover.  Our  only  fear  has 
sometimes  been  that  they  might  carry  in  too  much  flour,  but 
the  combs  show  no  especial  accumulation  of  it,  and  it  is  evident 
that  they  use  it  almost  as  fast  as  gathered. 

"  Wheat  flour  and  oat  meal  will  do,  if  rye  is  not  to  be  had. 
See  that  your  bees  have  enough  honey  left  over  to  last  them 
until  blossoming  time.  A  little  feeding  will  bring  forward  ten 
thousand  workers  to  assist  in  the  honey  harvest,  as  soon  as  the 
first  blo.ssoms  open.  The  hives  should  be  protected  from  the 
high  winds  as  much  as  possible,  and  yet  be  open  on  two  sides 
at  least  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  We  should  recommend 
that  the  bees  be  placed  where  they  are  to  stand  for  the  summer, 


POULTRY   AND   BEES.  501 

as  soon  as  they  are  set  out  in  tlie  spring.  We  prefer  tliat  no 
two  hives  should  have  an  entrance  less  than  one  rod  apart.  If 
it  is  desirable  to  place  hives  nearer  than  this,  turn  the  entrances 
in  different  directions,  and  do  not  change  their  positions  after  the 
bees  have  marked  it.  Thousands  of  bees  are  lost  from  getting 
into  the  wrong  hives  when  the  hives  are  too  near  together. 
While  the  hives  should  all  be  of  exactly  the  same  size,  the 
fronts  may  be  painted  different  colors,  or  set  in  irregular  order 
so  that  each  bee  may  readily  distinguish  his  own." 

April  will  usually  bring  some  sunny  da3's  and  a  few  blossoms, 
but  if  your  stocks  are  strong  and  you  have  fed  as  directed,  your 
increased  and  increasing  brood  are  consuming  a  large  amount 
of  honey.  As  you  went  through  the  hives  last  month  you  saw 
the  state  of  each  colony.  If  any  had  more  brood  comb  than 
honey  they  will  now  require  feeding.  A  little  judicious  feed- 
ing is  desirable,  even  in  well  supplied  hives.  It  encourages  the 
workers,  both  to  early  swarming  and  to  storing  surplus  honey, 
A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  honey  and  sugar  is  the  best  for 
feeding.  Southern  honey  will  answer.  Boil  and  remove  the 
scum;  when  it  cools- turn  into  an  empty  comb,  or  into  saucers, 
and  put  them  in  the  place  of  the  honey  boxes.  With  a  Lang- 
stroth  hive  you  can  take  out  a  frame  and  oomb,  and  insert 
another  containing  the  feeding  mixture.  If  you  feed  in  saucers, 
chop  up  straw  and  sprinkle  on  the  surface  of  the  mixture,  or 
your  bees  will  be  drowned  in  it.  As  soon  as  the  blossoms  are 
abundant  remove  the  feed.  [Sei  Winter  Management  for  further 
remarks  on  feeding)  Every  bee  that  you  keep  alive  now  will 
bring  you  in  golden  treasures  bye  and  bye.  The  supply  of 
water  should  be  continued,  as  the  bees  are  still  maturing  large 
numbers  of  brood. 

May.  Have  hives  ready  for  swarming.  As  the  weather  be- 
comes warmer  the  increase  of  bees  in  the  hives  is  amazing. 


502  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAT. 

Drones  begin  to  come  out,  and  if  any  swarms  were  witliont  a 
queen,  and  you  gave  them  brood  comb  from  other  hives,  you 
will  have  young  queens.  If  they  are  not  impregnated  within 
fourteen  days,  take  them  out  and  destroy  them,  and  give  another 
brood  eomb  from  some  other  full  hive.  You  can  tell  readily 
whether  the  queen  is  fertile,  for  she  will  then  begin  laying  eggs 
in  one  of  tbe  central  combs.  If  the  bees  now  begin  to  gather 
much  honey,  put  on  a  honey  box  and  give  them  access  to  it,  and 
tbus  let  them  use  the  lower  hive  mostly  for  brood.  If,  after 
commencing  to  gather  honey,  they  are  shut  off  by  a  long  cold 
spell  their  numbers  are  so  immense  and  so  active  that  they  will 
soon  consume  all  their  store,  and  feeding  will  again  be  necessary. 
But  if  the  weather  is  good,  and  the  fruit  blossoms  abundant, 
colonies  treated  as  we  have  advocated  will  often  swarm,  or  be 
ready  to  swarm.  (We  shall  treat  of  both  natural  and  artificial 
swurms  under  the  head  of  June  Management.)  Bees  will  only 
swarm  when  honey  is  abundant  in  the  fields,  no  matter  how  , 
large  and  crowded  the  colony,  or  how  large  the  stores.  As  fast 
as  they  fill  the  surplus  honey  boxes  and  seal  over  the  cells,  re- 
move the  boxes,  and  put  empty  ones  in  their  place.  Foi-  making 
artificial  swarms,  queen  bees  should  be  raised.  It  is  well  to 
commence  this  about  the  first  of  May  in  this  latitude,  (Pennsyl- 
vania.) Late  in  the  afternoon  of  some  warm  day,  take  a  comb 
with  worker  eggs,  and  young  bees  just  gnawing  out  of  their 
cells,  and  put  it  with  all  the  bees  that  are  on  it  into  an  empty 
hive.  A  pint  of  bees  are  enough  to  take  with  it.  If  you  do 
not  secure  this  number  on  the  comb,  shake  them  off  from 
another  comb  into  the  empty  hive.  These  bees  will  at  once 
begin  to  raise  a  queen.  They  should  be  fed  with  honey  and 
water.  In  about  three  weeks  this  little  colony  will  have  a  fer- 
tile  queen  for  use  in  artificial  swarming. 
Summer  Maxagemext.    Jme  is  the  great  swarming  month, 


POULTKY   AND   BEES.  503 

and  with  the  Langstroth  hives  the  farmer,  who  has  a  dozen  colo- 
nies, may  take  a  swarm  from  each  ahnost  any  day,  and  thus 
have  swarming  over.  But  we  will  speak  first' of  natural  swarms. 
The  common  idea  that  the  young  bees  go  off  leaving  the  old 
bees  in  the  hive  is  a  mistaken  one.  As  we  have  before  stated,  the 
average  life  of  the  bee  at  this  season  is  not  over  two  months,  and 
the  oldest  of  the  bees  in  the  hive  must  be  the  ones  to  swarm,  for 
the  very  young  bees  are  not  yet  ready  to  leave  the  hive.  The 
natural,  swarming  instinct,  is  so  strong  that  great  care  and  many 
precautions  are  often  necessary  to  prevent  overswarming.  The 
indications  of  a  first  swarm  from  a  hive  are  not  very  distinct. 
The  swarm  is  to  be  led  off  by  the  old  queen,  and  young  queens 
are  reared  to  supply  her  place.  An  old  queen  will  seldom  ven- 
ture out  with  a  swarm  except  about  the  middle  of  a  fair  still 
day.  If,  on  such  a  day,  when  the  other  colonies  are  busy 
gathering  stores,  one  colony  seems  to  be  idle,  but  few  bees 
leaving  for  honey,  there  is  probability  of  a  swarm.  If  the 
inside  is  now  examined,  and  queen  cells  are  found  sealed 
over,  the  bees  intend  to  swarm  at  once.  We  say  intend,  for 
they  often  delay  after  all  their  preparations  are  made.  A  sudden 
failure  in  the  supply  of  honey  blossoms,  or  a  sudden  change 
in  the  weather  will  often  delay  them.  Before  leaving,  each  of 
the  departing  bees  fills  the  honey  sac  with  honey,  a  large  swarm 
sometimes  taking  six  or  eight  pounds.  As  soon  as  they  get 
well  out  of  the  hive  they  will  usually  cluiiter  on  some  limb,  and 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  bee  hives  in  plain  sight  of  some 
low  trees.  A  still  better  plan  is  to  have  three  or  four  pieces  of 
board  hung  up  in  sight  of  the  hives,  with  a  large  black  cluster 
painted  on  each  of  them  in  imitation  of  a  swarm,  with  a  new 
clean  hive  set  under  each.  Take  a  board  twelve  inches  lonsc 
and  six  wide,  make  a  circle  or  an  oblong  on  it,  and  drive  in  a 
dozen  small  wooden  pegs  inside  this  circle,  leaving  their  heads 


504  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

out  half  an  inch.  Now  paint  the  circle  black,  drive  a  liook  into 
one  end  of  the  board,  hang  it  on  a  low  limb  in  plain  sight  from 
the  hives,  and  you  will  catch  a  good  proportion  of  your  swarms 
on  them.  Uave  one  in  each  of  four  directions.  Every  swarm 
clustering  on  one  of  these  can  be  hived  without  dif&cuity,  by 
unhooking  the  board,  putting  it  down  on  a  sheet,  setting  the 
hive  over  it,  and  taking  the  hive,  inclosed  in  the  sheet,  to  the 
stand.  On  no  account  ring  bells,  drum  on  pans,  shout,  shoot, 
or  make  any  such  disturbance.  Its  only  effect  can  be  to  drive 
off  the  swarm.  If  they  rise  high  in  the  air,  and  make  a  bee- 
line  away,  throw  the  rays  of  a  looking  glass  upon  them.  When 
they  cluster  on  a  limb,  jar  them  off  into  a  basket,  and  tip  them 
down  on  a  sheet  before  the  hive,  which  should  be  propped  up 
to  receive  them.  If  they  alight  on  the  body  of  a  tree,  they  can 
be  dipped  off  with  a  tin  cup  and  turned  on  the  sheet  before  the 
hive.  If  they  do  not  all  go  in  readily,  take  a  spoon  and  scoop 
them  in.  If  a  little  piece  of  comb  is  fastened  with  wax  on  the 
frames,  they  will  usually  take-  to  their  new  home  more  readily, 
and  often  begin  work  within  an  hour.  As  soon  as  they  are  all 
in,  remove  to  their  permanent  position.  Do  not  leave  them 
long  where  they  are  hived,  for  some  will  leave  for  honey  when 
they  discover  comb,  and  will  be  lost  when  they  return  and  find 
the  hive  gone.  We  speak  of  dipping,  scooping,  jarring,  and 
shaking  bees  as  if  they  had  no  stings.  Well,  bee-keepers  per- 
form all  these  operations,  with  no  protection,  without  being 
Btung.  The  bees  are  filled  with  honey,  and  will  not  make  an 
attack.  The  only  danger  of  attack  is  from  some  improvident 
bee  who  failed  to  fill  his  sac,  and  is,  therefore,  ill  natured.  We 
advise  all  who  are  timid  and  those  who  suffer  severely  from  a 
.sting  to  wear  a  bee  hat  and  rubber  gloves  when  handling  bees. 
The  bee  hat  is  made  by  sewing  a  strip  of  cloth  to  the  edges 
of  a  common  stiff  brim  hat,  long  enough  to  button  under  the 


POULTRY   AXD    BEES.  505 

coat.  Over  the  face  sew  into  the  cloth  wire  gauze ;  if  just  coarse 
enough  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  a  bee  it  will  not  obstruct  the 
sight,  A  little  sugar  and  water  sprinkled  on  the  bees  at  any 
time  will  make  them  docile.  Have  a  sprinkler  with  a  fine  rose 
spout,  put  in  sweetened  water,  lift  off  the  cover  of  the  hive, 
and,  before  they  recover  from  their  astonishment,  give  them  a 
sprinkling,  and  their  animosity  is  all  gone;  you  can  takeout 
their  combs,  brush  them  oft",  cut  out  pieces  of  comb,  and  do  just 
as  you  please  with  them,  so  that  you  do  not  squeeze  them,  which 
indignity  they  will  resent.  Many  men  open  their  hives  and 
examine  their  bees  without  even  this  precaution.  In  every 
case  great  care  should  be  taken  to  make  no  sudden,  quick 
motions  about  the  hives;  not  to  jar  the  combs,  but  lift  each 
one  slowly  and  carefully  ;  not  to  breathe  on  the  bees,  which  will 
instantly  rouse  their  anger,  when  not  dosed  with  sweetening; 
and  lastl}'-,  not  to  crush  any,  by  either  inserting  frames,  adjust- 
ing honey  board,  honey  boxes,  or  cover,  or  in  any  of  the  opera- 
tions of  hiving. 

Second  Swarms  are  more  clearly  indicated  tlian  first  swarms. 
The  second  swarm  comes  out  from  six  to  ten  days  after  the  first. 
If  you  listen  at  the  hive  in  the  morning  you  will  hear  the 
piping  of  the  queen.  It  is  different  from  any  other  sound  ever 
heard  in  the  hive ;  it  sounds  like  pee/,  peet^  several  times  re- 
peated. When  this  is  heard  a  swarm  may  be  expected  within 
two  days,  and  usually  the  next  day,  if  the  weather  is  good  and 
honey  abundant.  The  third  swarm  will  come  oft"  within  four 
days  after  the  second.  These  swarms,  after  the  first,  grow 
smaller,  and  are  likely  to  come  out  at  any  time  of  day ;  they 
are  also  more  likely  to  go  a  distance  before  clustering.  We 
should  lay  it  down  as  a  safe  rule  that  third  swarms  should  be 
returned.  Hive  them  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  next  day  return 
them  to  their  old  quarters.     AVhere  there  are  large  crops  of 


506  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

buckwheat,  second  swarms  form  large  colonies,  and  will  often 
make  very  strong  stocks.  One  swarm  from  each  stock,  how- 
ever, is  usually  the  better  plan  for  any  except  experienced 
,'ipiarians.  If  any  of  the  swarms  do  not  prosper,  they  can  be 
united  before  winter.  Keep  your  stocks  strong,  even  if  you 
allow  no  swarming.  Two  weak  stocks  will  perish,  when,  if 
they  were  united,  they  would  make  good  stocks.  In  the  Laug- 
stroth  hive  the  swarming  can  be  controlled,  and  one,  two,  or 
three  swarms  allowed,  as  desired. 

Artificial  Swarming.  The  advantages  of  being  able  to 
control  swarming  are  numerous.  The  three  principal  ones  are, 
that  it  obviates  the  necessity  of  watching  the  bees  all  through 
the  swarming  season,  prevents  the  loss  of  swarms,  and  secures 
^ust  the  number  of  divisions  desired,  and  no  more.  If  it  is  not 
desired  to  increase  the  number  of  hives  at  all,  the  queen  is  pre- 
vented from  leaving  the  hive,  and  the  colony  kept  in  the  same 
hive  for  several  successive  years.  This  makes  very  strong 
stocks,  and,  if  plenty  of  room  is  given  for  storing  surplus 
honey,  usually  nearly  two-thirds  as  much  will  be  secured  from 
this  one  hive  as  if  it  h-^d  been  made  into  two.  It  wall  be  oeen 
by  referring  to  Fifj.  110,  that  plenty  of  surplus  room  can  be 
given  to  the  bees  in  the  movable  comb  hive.  A  second  hive, 
with  the  bottom  off,  can  be  set  over  the  main  hive,  instead  of 
the  honey  boxes,  if  desired.  At  the  entrance  of  the  hive  are 
seen  two  little  blocks ;  these  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  prevent 
the  exit  of  the  queen,  while  giving  free  access  to  the  workers , 
and  by  this  means  swarming  is  controlled.  When  drones  begin 
to  appear,  and  queen  cells  have  been  constructed,  is  the  proper 
time  for  artificial  swarming.  Have  ready  as  many  hives  as  you 
intend  to  make  swarms.  In  arranging  the  frames  {see  frame  b, 
Fig.  110)  in  these  (which  we  shall  call  new  hives,  to  designate 
them  from  the  occupied  hives,  which  we  shall  call  old  hives) 


POULTRY   AND   BEES.  507 

leave  space  for  t\\  o  frames,  vacant.  If  you  have  plenty  of  good 
worker  comb  fasten  it  in  the  frames  with  wax.  The  bees  are 
delighted  to  find  such  treasures  in  their  new  quarters;  they 
serve  also  as  guides  in  building  new  comb.  Never  put  drone 
comb  in  the  frames,  but  if  good,  save  it  to  put  into  the  surplus 
honey  boxes.  Having  your  new  hives  all  ready,  you  wish  to 
open  a  hive  and  take  out  a  part  of  its  bees.  If  there  are  any 
clustered  about  the  entrance  give  them  a  puff  of  smoke.  A  tin 
tube  in  the  shape  of  a  cigar,  but  longer,  is  needed  in  these  ope- 
rations ;  in  it  put  a  burning  chip,  or  piece  of  dry,  decayed  wood, 
or  a  burning  puff  ball,  or  any  thing  that  will  make  smoke. 
Now  take  off  the  top  of  the  hive,  uncover  a  hole  in  the  honey 
board,  and  puff  in  two  or  three  whiffs  of  smoke.  Carefully 
loosen  and  lift  off  the  honey  board,  give  the  bees  a  gentle 
sprinkling  of  honey  water  or  sweetened  water,  and  you  can  do 
what  you  will  in  the  hive.  Experienced  bee  keepers  omit  the 
smoke  and  only  Sprinkle  the  bees.  Now  with  a  knife  carefully 
loosen  each  frame  from  the  side  of  the  hive.  Gently  move 
those  in  the  center  nearer  together,  so  as  to  give  plenty  of  room 
to  lift  out  the  end  frame  first.  If  it  should  be  fastened  to  the 
side  cut  it  ofi'  with  a  sharp  knife.  Slowly  and  steadily  lift  out 
each  frame  and  shake  the  bees  from  the  comb  on  to  the  sheet  in 
front  of  the  new  hive.  Get  the  bees  once  started  into  it  and  all 
will  follow.  If  you  see  the  queen,  which  you  will  be  likely  to 
do,  be  sure  that  she  goes  into  the  neiu  hive,  and  all  will  be  well. 
Put  about  three-fourths  of  the  bees  and  one  or  two  com.bs,  with 
both  brood  and  honey,  into  the  new  hive.  See  that  you  leave 
queen  cells  in  the  old  hive.  As  you  have  put  two  frames  from 
the  old  hive  into  the  new  hive,  you  will  make  their  places  good 
either  with  empty  frames  or  frames  with  worker  comb  in  them. 
This  whole  operation  is  readily  accomplished  inside  of  ten  min- 
utes, after  a  little  experience.    l\o\v  close  up  the  entrance  to  the 


508  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

old  hive  and  remove  it  to  the  most  distant  stand  from  its  former 
position,  facing  its  entrance  in  a  different  direction.  Keep  it 
closed  (e.Kcept  the  ventilating  holes)  until  the  evening  of  the 
next  daj.  Put  the  new  hive  where  the  old  one  stood  before. 
T/te  old  hive  must  always  be  removed  to  another  and  different  'position, 
and  the  new  hive  placed  where  the  old  one  stood. 

A  variation  of  the  above  mode  for  those  who  are  afraid  of 
the  bees  is  to  puff  the  hive  full  of  smoke,  remove  the  top  and 
honey  board  from  the  old  hive,  and  the  bottom  from  the  new 
hive.  Set  the  7iew  hive  on  top  of  the  old  hive.  Drum  with  two 
light  sticks  on  the  sides  of  the  old  hive,  at  the  same  time  puffing 
an  occasional  whiff  of  smoke  into  the  entrance.  The  bees  will, 
after  filling  themselves  with  honey,  ascend  into  the  upper  hive, 
when  they  may  be  treated  as  before.  This  is  a  more  uncertain 
method,  and  should  not  be  practised  by  any  one  who  can  muster 
up  courage  enough  to  handle  these  harmless  little  insects.  In 
a  week  or  two  after  making  the  swarms,  examine  all  the  colo- 
nies and  see  that  each  has  a  fertile  queen.  This  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  examining  the  combs  for  fresh  laid  eggs.  If  imma- 
ture bees  are  at  any  time  found  on  the  bottom  or  about  the  en- 
trance to  the  hive  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  a  fertile  queen.  If  colo- 
nies that  have  queens  are  raising  others,  it  is  a  sign  that  they 
intend  swarming,  and  the  queen  cells  should  be  cut  out. 

Juhj  is  often  a  swarming  month  in  bad  seasons,  and  swarms 
sometimes  fill  their  hives  and  make  some  surplus  honey.  Shade 
is  very  necessary  during  the  heat  of  summer,  and  also  free  ven- 
tilation. Give  plenty  of  room  to  old  colonies  for  surplus  honey, 
and  also  to  new  colonies  as  soon  as  they  get  the  hive  nearly 
filled  with  comb.  If  there  is  a  surplus  of  drone  comb  remove 
it,  for  drones  are  great  consumers.  After  your  young  queens 
begin  to  lay,  shut  out  the  drones  by  means  of  the  entrance 
blocks.     This  can  be  done  about  one  o'clock  on  some  fine  day, 


POULTRY    AND   BEES.  509 

wlien  a  large  number  of  these  idle  gentlemen  are  out  airing. 
As  long  as  there  are  plenty  of  supplies  the  workers  will  allow 
these  worthless  fellows  to,  live  and  eat  their  hard  earned  stores. 

Angust  is  usually  the  season  of  the  second  honey  harvest. 
The  second  clover  crop  and  the  buckwheat  now  furnish  sup- 
plies. Bees  will  sometimes  so  prosper  on  buckwheat  as  to 
swarm  again  while  it  is  in  blossom.  In  other  cases  the  supplies 
will  fail  in  this  month,  and  bees  will  be  tempted  to  robbing 
other  hives.  This  is  disastrous,  as  bees  once  succeeding  in  rob- 
bing another  hive  will  seldom  return  to  honest  labor.  Robbing 
often  occurs  when  the  hives  are  first  put  out  in  the  spring. 

If  feeding  is  commenced  and  stopped  before  honey  is  abun- 
dant, the  weak  colonies  are  likely  to  be  robbed.  In  opening 
hives  and  sprinkling  bees  Avith  sweetened  water  or  honey 
water,  a  temptation  is  given  to  neighboring  colonies,  and  an 
attempt  will  often  be  made  to  rob  the  favored  hive.  A  strong 
colony  with  a  queen  will  never  be  robbed.  If  hives  are  a  suita- 
ble distance  apart,  as  we  have  recommended,  the  chances^-that 
robbing  will  be  atempted  are  decreased.  A  strong  colony  with 
a  queen  will  defend  itself  so  vigorously  against  the  robbers  that 
the  attempt  will  be  speedily  abandoned.  Thousands  of  bees  are 
however  killed  in  these  en30uuters,  and  it  is  best  to  keep  all 
hives  Avell  apart,  all  stocks  strong,  all  colonies  supplied  with  a 
queen,  all  that  are  destitute  of  stoi'es  in  the  spring  well  fed,  to 
prevent  their  making  any  attempt  at  robbing;  and  keep  any 
colonies  that  may  be  weak  closed  up  when  the  honey  harvest 
suddenly  fails.  The  blocks  will  enable  you  to  so  arrange  the 
entrance  that  but  one  bee  can  pass  at  a  time.  If  you  discovei 
that  a  swarm  is  being  robbed  in  spite  of  this  precaution  close 
up  the  entrance  entirely.  The  robbers  will  soon  cluster  in 
large  numbers  on  the  outside  of  the  hive.  Now  sprinkle  them 
with  clear  cold  water  and  they  will  leave.     The  weak  colony 


510  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAT. 

should  now  citlier  be  joined  with  anotlier,  or  supplied  witli  a 
fertile  queen.  Some  directions  for  supplying  a  queen  will  be  in 
place  here. 

Three  weeks  are  gained  bj  supplying  colonies  with  a  queen 
when  lost.  The  queen  is  most  frequently  lost  when  going  out 
for  impregnation,  and  as  she  has  destroyed  all  the  unhatched 
queens  and  there  is  no  worker  brood,  the  loss  must  be  repaired 
by  the  keeper.  The  indications  of  loss  are  plain,  and  when 
young  queens  are  a  week  old  the  hives  should  be  glanced  at 
morning  and  evening.  The  bees  run  about  on  the  hive,  fly 
away  a  short  distance  and  return,  and  all  is  confusion  within 
and  without  the  hive.  This  swarm  should  now  be  given  some 
worker  brood  from  another  hive,  or  better  still  a  fertile  queen. 
(See  our  direction  for  rearing  extra  queens.) 

The  bees  will  receive  her  if  she  is  covered  with  honey  water. 
When  queens  survive  their  second  year  it  is  best  to  remove 
them  to  give  place  to  a  younger  and  more  vigorous  one.  In 
using  the  Langstroth  hives  brood  comb  can  be  obtained  at  al- 
most any  time.  The  bee  keeper  who  allows  his  stocks  to  remain 
without  queens  is  too  careless  to  succeed. 

F.VLL  Management.  September.  The  fall  flowers  which 
are  in  blossom  this  month  aflbrd  often  large  quantities  of  honey, 
but  some  colonies  now  seem  averse  to  storing  it  in  the  surplus 
honey  boxes,  but  will  crowd  the  hive  full  of  honey,  and  leave 
but  little  room  for  brood.  When  such  a  state  of  things  occurs 
remove  some  of  the  full  combs  and  insert  empty  ones.  If  the 
cap.s  of  the  cells  are  sliced  off  with  a  sharp  knife  and  the  combs 
laid  over  a  pan  and  kept  warm  a  little  while  a  large  share  of  the 
honey  will  drain  out,  and  the  same  combs  can  be  returned  again 
and  again  to  be  refilled. 

Odoh^r.  Any  stocks  now  found  without  a  queen  should  be 
joined   to  a  weak  colony.     Weak  colonies  should  be  joined 


POULTRY   AND   BEES.  51  i 

until  all  are  strong.  Put  two  or  tliree  of  tlie  fullest  honey 
combs  in  the  centre  of  the  hive.  If  any  stocks  have  not  a  large 
supply  of  honey  feed  them,  the  last  of  this  month,  or  the  first 
of  next.  Cut  a  hole  through  the  centre  of  each  comb  near  the 
top  for  winter  passage. 

November.  "Last  season  I  had  three  swarms  of  bees.  In 
November  two  of  them  died,  leaving  no  honey  in  either  hive. 
On  examination,  I  found  the  third  swarm  alive,  but  their  honey 
was  nearly  gone.  Being  anxious  to  preserve  my  stock,  I  de- 
termined upon  an  experiment  in  feeding.  I  obtained  twenty- 
three  pounds  of  Southern  honey  for  this  purpose,  costing  seven- 
teen cents  per  pound.  My  hive  was  of  the  Langstroth  pattern. 
In  place  of  the  surplus  box,  I  put  a  box  containing  a  part  of 
the  Southern  honey.  As  the  bees  emptied  the  box,  it  was  re- 
filled, until  in  three  days  they  had  disposed  of  the  twenty-three 
pounds.  The  swarm  wintered  well,  and  from  the  fifteenth  to 
the  thirtieth  of  last  June  the  bees  swarmed  three  times.  Dur- 
ino;  the  summer  and  autumn,  I  took  from  the  old  swarm  two 
boxes  of  honey,  weighing  eighteen  pounds,  and  from  the  first 
new  swarm  six  boxes  of  honey,  weighing  fifty-eight  pounds. 
The  four  hives  are  large  and  are  now  filled  with  comb  and 
honey — fifty  pounds  or  more  in  each  hive — making  in  all  two 
hundred  and  seventy-six  pounds  of  comb  and  honey.  Last 
season,  one  of  the  most  disastrous  +o  the  bee  keeper  of  any  I 
have  ever  known,  my  neighbors'  bees  all  died,  one  of  them  los- 
ing twenty-two  swarms.  Forty-four  swarms  died  in  our  neigh- 
borhood last  autumn  and  winter,  most 'or  all  of  which,  in  my 
opinion,  might  have  been  saved  by  feeding." — Cor.  N.  E. 
Farmer. 

Mrs.  Ellen  S.  Tupper,  of  Brighton,  Iowa,  one  of  the  best 

apiarians  in  the  country,  says :     "In  the  fall  in  every  apiary 

some   weak   stands  will   be   found.     Some  will  have  too  few 
31 


512  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

bees,  Others  too  little  honey.     I  unite  these  and  never  have  any 
difficulty. 

"I  alarm  the  bees  in  both  hives  which  I  wisli  to  unite,  then 
leave  them  a  few  moments  to  fill  themselves  with  honey.  I 
then  put  one  of  them  over  an  empty  hive,  (my  hives  hav*3 
movable  bottoms,)  take  each  frame  out,  and  shake  or  brush  the 
bees  into  the  hive  below.  When  all  are  out,  set  the  other  in  its 
place  and  proceed  in  the  same  way.  The  bees,  all  brushed  to- 
gether thus  into  an  empty  hive,  are  too  much  frightened  to 
quarrel.  I  then  arrange  all  my  frames  containing  honey  in  one 
hive,  and  set  it  over  the  one  in  which  the  be^es  are.  They  all 
go  up  rapidly  and  take  possession  of  the  frames  like  one 
colony." 

Winter  Management.  December.  The  later  in  the  season 
the  bees  are  able  to  fly  out,  the  better ;  the  bee  keeper  must 
therefore  be  governed  by  the  weather  and  the  climate.  If  the 
bees  are  to  be  housed  it  is  best  to  leave  them  out  until  winter 
is  fairly  settled.  A  cold  snap  or  even  a  heavy  snow  storm  will 
not  injure  them,  but  continuous  freezing  weather  will.  The 
best  place  to  winter  bees  is  undoubtedly  a  dry  cellar.  Next  to 
this  is  a  building  with  double  walls,  the  spaces  being  filled  with 
sawdust,  tanbark  or  charcoal  dust.  An  even  temperature  is 
the  main  object.  Darkness  and  steady  cool  air  tend  to  keep 
the  bees  quiet.  When  removed  to  winter  quarters  the  lower 
entrance  should  be  left  open  and  wire  cloth  placed  over  the 
holes  in  the  honey  board.  This  gives  upward  ventilation. 
After  the  bees  are  removed  to  their  winter  quarters,  let  them 
alone ;  all  light  and  disturbance  are  now  harmful.  It  is  some 
times  well  to  bury  bees  for  the  winter,  if  you  have  a  dry,  sandy 
8oil:  the  trench  should  be  made  larger  every  way  than  the 
liivea  and  the  spaces  filled  with  straw.  With  a  little  care,  bees 
z.^^^   ^>-  wintered  out  of  doors.     If  there  is  a  winter  entrance 


POULTRY  AND   BEES.  513 

near  the  lop  of  the  hive  the  lower  entrance  can  be  nearly  closed. 
The  honey  board  should  be  removed  and  a  straw  top  put  in  its 
place,  over  which  put  the  regular  top.  Drive  stakes  around 
the  hives  and  pack  in  straw.  All  but  the  front  of  the  hive 
should  be  thickly  covered,  with  straw.  The  entrance  should 
face  the  southeast.  We  have  seen  colonies  thus  packed  buried 
in  a  snow  bank  half  the  winter  and  come  out  in  good 
shape  in  the  spring.  In  January^  breeding  is  again  commenced. 
In  November  and  Decemher  there  is  no  breeding,  and  but  little 
activity  in  the  hive,  but  now  active  preparations  are  com- 
menced. Supposing  the  bees  to  have  been  closed  up  on  the 
first  of  December,  about  the  middle  of  January  the  bottom  of 
the  hives  should  be  cleaned  of  all  dead  bees  and  the  bees  that 
are  housed  supplied  with  water.  Eemove  the  wire  cloth  from 
one  of  the  centre  holes  in  the  honey  board  and  put  in  its 
place  a  sponge  filled  with  sweetened  water.  Cover  the  sponge 
with  a  tumbler.  Again  in  about  a  month  the  hive  should  be 
cleaned,  and  if  any  of  the  stocks  have  exhausted  their  stores 
they  must  be  fed. 

We  have  thus  far  spoken  only  of  management  in  the  mova- 
ble comb  hives,  and  have  recommended  only  Langstroth's.  It 
is  the  only  one  with  which  we  are  perbonally  familiar,  but  \(e 
are  assured  on  good  authority  that  che  '■^American  Hivc^^  is 
equally  meritorious. 

Box  Hives  will  still  be  largely  used,  at  least  until  th«  great 
superiority  of  the  movable  comb  hives  is  felt,  and  we  will  give 
a  few  directions  for  managing  them.  The  shape  of  the  hive 
should  be  long  from  front  to  rear,  fifteen  inches  deep,  twelve 
inches  wide,  and  twelve  inches  high.  About  these  proportions 
will  be  found  to  be  the  best.  Inch  boards  unplaned  are  betier 
than  planed.  The  timber  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned  and 
\rwy   carefully   put   togethei.      The   hive   should   set   into  a 


514  now    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

groove  in  the  bottom  board  and  not  be  f\xstened  to  it.  Two  or 
three  half  inch  sticks  crossing  each  way  in  the  centre  of  the 
hive  help  to  support  the  combs.  One-quarter  inch  from  the 
top  of  the  hive  fasten  slats  four  to  six  inches  wide,  of  one-half 
inch  stuff  leaving  cracks  one-quarter  of  an  inch  wide  between 
them.  Over  the  top  put  a  cover  projecting  on  all  sides  and 
Hastened  to  the  hive  by  small  hooks.  You  have  then  both  a 
movable  top  and  bottom  board,  and  a  honey  board,  which  is  as 
near  a  Langstroth's  hive  as  you  can  come  in  a  box  hive.  If 
you  already  have  box  hives,  bore  holes  in  the  top  and  put  on  a 
cover  like  the  one  turned  back  in  Fig.  110.  It  is  seldom  well 
to  take  honey  from  the  brood  chamber  ;  with  holes  in  the  top 
of  the  hive  you  can  set  on  surplus  honey  boxes  and  get  your 
honey  clean  and  clear  as  in  the  movable  comb  hive. 

Nearly  all  the  directions  for  feeding,  watering,  natural 
swarming,  and  wintering,  which  were  given  for  the  Langstroth 
hive  are  applicable  to  the  box  hive  thus  constructed.  Artifi- 
cial swarming  is  much  more  difficult  and  uncertain.  The  box 
hive  must  be  turned  bottom  upward.  This  is  accomplished  by 
smoking  the  bees.  "When  it  is  ascertained  what  colonies  are  in 
condition  to  part  with  a  swarm,  the  new  hive  is  prepared  as 
before  directed,  ;ilso  a  square. box  just  the  size  of  the  hive. 

Turn  the  hive  bottom  upwards  after  smoking  the  bees ;  set 
the  box  over  it  and  rap  steadily  on  the  sides  of  the  hive,  giving 
them  also  an  occasional  wliift"  of  smoke.  In  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  turn  the  bees  that  have  gone  up  into  the  box  out 
before  their  new  hive,  remove  the  old  hive  to  a  new  place,  and 
hct  the  new  one  on  its  stand  as  previously  directed. 

Italian  Bees  are,  on  many  accounts,  much  better  than  our 
common  bees.  Italian  queens  are  sent  in  little  wire  cages  to 
all  parts  of  the  country.  The  common  queen  is  removed  and 
;he  next  day  the  Italian  queen,  cage  and  all,  inserted  in'a  hole, 


POULTKY   AXD    BEES,  515 

«ut  into  one  of  the  combs.  The  next  day  she  can  be  released 
from  her  confinement  and  the  bees  will  usually  receive  her. 
The  hive  will  soon  be  filled  with  Italian  bees.  "We  have  often 
given  directions  in  this  chapter  without  giving  reasons,  and 
made  statements  without  bringing  proof.  For  full  explanation 
and  proofs  which  will  satisfy  the  most  sceptical,  we  refer  the 
reader  to  the  large  works  of  Langstroth  and  Quinby  upon  bee 
culture.  In  the  mean  time  follow  our  directions  if  vou  desire 
the  best  success. 


^  » 


■-3  114         115        116  117  118 

BUDDESTG  AND  GRAFTING, 


119  120 


121  122 

Pruning. 


123 
Setting  the  Cutting. 


Flij.  124.     The  Layer. 

523 


/ 


PART  THIRD-FRUIT  CULTDRE. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


ORCHARD    CULTURE. 

THEIFTY,    PROFITABLE    OECHARD    is    within 

the  reach  of  every  farmer,  by  as  plain  and  simple  means 

as  a  crop  of  potatoes  or  any  other  farm   crop,  and  we 

shall  try  to  rob  this  exceedingly  plain  subject  of  some 

of  the  mystery  that  has  been  thrown  about  it,  and  give  practical 

directions  for  accomplishing  so  desirable  an  object;  beginning 

with  the  NuESERY,  for  every  farmer  may  as  well  be  his  own 

nursery  man.     Select  for  the  nursery  a  warm,  dry  spot,  perfectly 

dry,  plow  it  eight  or  ten  inches,  subsoil  it  ten  or  twelve  inches 

more,  spread  on  three  inches  of  compost  of  muck  and  manure 

thoroughly  rotted,  {see  Manures,)  harrow  and  cross  harrow  it  in, 

then  cross  plow  it   under.     If  to  be  planted   in  the  fall,  the 

pomace  from  the  cider  press  may  be  planted  for  apple  stocks. 

Break  it  up  fine  by  raking  with  an  iron  rake.     If  planting  bo 

deferred  till  spring,  the  seed  must  be  separated  from  the  pomace 

by  a  coarse  sieve,  and  the  sifted   pomace  repeatedly  washed 

until  clean  seeds  alone  are  left.     Spread  the  seeds  thickly  on 

boards,  and  stir  until  perfectly  dry.     These  seeds   should  be 

packed  in  slightly  moistened  sand,  in  tight  boxes,  and   kept 

through   the  winter  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  and   planted  at  the 

earliest   moment  in  the   spring.     Pear   seeds  will    have  to  be 

519 


520  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

collected  more  carefully,  or  bought  of  the  seedsman ,  but  we 
recommend  the  purchase  of  a  few  bushels  of  pears.  They  can 
be  cut  and  dried,  and  when  cutting  them  to  dry  t^e  seeds  can 
I'eadily  be  saved.  ^  ""■ 

Cherries  should  remain  on  the  tree  until  perfectly  ripe,  then 
put  into  tubs  and  the  pulp  washed  off.  All  other  things  being 
equal  the  autumn  is  the  best  time  for  planting  all  seeds.  If 
they  are  to  'be  preserved  until  spring,  they  must  be  packed  in 
moist  sand.  They  should  be  sown  in  drills  three  feet  apart. 
Cover  oue  inch  deep  with  earth,  and  another  inch  with  leaf 
mould  from  the  woods. 

These  few  precautions  will  secure  you  a  vigorous  growth  of 
shoots. 

For  peaches,  apricots,  and  nectarines,  the  stones  should  be 
kept  in  layers  of  sand.  Put  a  layer  of  sand  in  a  box,  then  a 
layer  of  stones,  and  expose  them  to  the  action  of  the  frost 
through  the  winter.  They  should  be  examined  a  fortnight 
before  planting  time,  and  if  they  have  not  begun  to  crack,  give 
them  a  wetting ;  if  they  do  not  open  by  planting  time,  crack 
them  on  a  wooden  block  with  a  wooden  mallet.  Fruit  stones 
should  be  planted^deeper  than  seeds,  say  three  inches,  and  the 
rows  three  feet  apart  as  before,  and  covered  with  leaf  mould. 
This  prevents  evaporation,  retains  heat  and  moisture,  and  does 
not  exclude  the  air ;  and  heat,  moisture,  and  air  are  the  three 
requisites  of  germination.  These  preparations  are  simple  and 
easily  made,  and  will  insure  good  stocks. 

Plum  stocks  must  be  gotten  from  horse  plums,  or  some  other 
native  species  that  reproduces  itself  from  seed.  Otherwise  it  is 
to  be  treated  the  same  as  the  other  stone  fruits.  In  all  these 
operations  it  should  never  be  forgotten  that  one  good  vigorous 
stock  is  worth  five  poor  ones ;  and  the  temptation  to  drop  the 
seed  too  closely,  and  thus  crowd  and  stunt  the  plants,  should  be 


ORCHARD    CULTURE,  621 

resisted ;  and  as  soon  as  thej  appear  above  tlie  surface,  if  too 
thick,  they  should  be  thinned  out,  and  when  four  or  five  inches 
high,  all  the  feeble  plants  should  be  thinned  out,  and  only 
those  left  which  are  vigorous.  The  weeds  must  not  be  allowed 
to  grp^  in  the  nursery,  but  the  cultivator  must  be  kept  running 
between  the  rows,  which  have  been  left  three  feet  apart  for  this 
purpose;  and  the  hoe  must  supplement  the  cultivator. 

These  seedlings  will  often  make  a  growth  of  from  four  to  six 
feet  before  the  winter.  Three  feet  is  enough,  so  that  they 
thicken  and  are  vigorous.  If  the  seeds  are  planted  in  the  fell 
and  all  the  above  conditions  complied  with,  the  seedlings  will 
be  ready  for  transplanting  one  year  from  the  seed.  If  not 
planted  until  spring,  or  if  not  thoroughly  cultivated  and  un- 
sparingly thinned,  they  will  have  to  be  carefully  covered  for 
the  winter,  and  left  over  for  another  year.  There  is  only  one 
proper  time  for  taking  up  all  seedlings,  and  that  is  the  autumn. 
Begin  at  one  end  of  the  row,  run  your  spade  slanting  under  the 
roots,  pry  them  up  a  little,  and  then  pull  them  out  with  the 
hand.  These  seedlings  can  be  packed  away  in  the  cellar, 
covering  the  roots  and  half  the  stalks  with  sand  or  mellow 
earth,  or  they  can  be  heeled  in,  in  some  dry  place  protected 
from  the  frost,  and  taken  into  the  house  to  be  dressed  when  out 
door  work,  is  over. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  stocks  is  by  Cuttings,  {Fig.  123,; 
or  shoots  of  one  year's  growth,  cut  in  the  autumn,  or  spring 
before  growth  commences,  and  planted  in  the  soil.  Under  the 
ordinary  circumstances  of  the  farmer,  this  method  can  be  applied 
only  to  such  species  as  throw  out  roots  readily,  such  as  the 
grape,  quince,  currant,  and  gooseberry.  In  making  cuttings  it 
will  be  better  if  a  small  portion  of  the  older  wood  can  be  taken 
off  with  the  shoot.  If  cut  in  the  autumn  or  early  winter,  they 
should  be  kept  in  damp  mould  in  the  cellar  until  the  frost  is 


522  1H>W    TO    M.VKK   THE    FARM    PAY. 

out  of  the  grouud  in  the  spring.     Three-fourths  ot  the  shoot 
should  be  under  ground,  with  one  or  more  buds  above  ground, 
they  may  be  bid  in  a  slanting  position,  which  will  bring  them 
nearer  to  the  heat  and  air.     The  soil  should  be  pressed  closely 
•  the  cutting.     A  third  method  of  obtaining  stock  is  by 
....  ..RIXO,  (see  Fig.  124:,)  or  bending  down  the  branches  of  the 

plant  and  covering  a  portion  with  earth.  The  advantage  of 
this  method  over  the  preceding,  is  that  the  new  plant  is 
nouri.shcd  ty  the  mother  plant  until  it  has  taken  root.  Layer- 
ing should  be  done  in  the  spring,  and  the  new  plant  cut  from 
the  parent  in  the  autumn.  Make  a  slight  excavation  in  the 
soil  near  the  plant,  bend  the  branch  down  into  the  place,  make 
a  jjniall  cut  on  the  underside,  and  fasten  it  in  its  place.  Sprinkle 
a  very  little  earth  over  it  at  first,  and  more  as  it  sprouts. 
The  end  of  the  branch,  shoot,  or  twig  thus  layered  should  be 
fastened  up  straight.  A  fourth  method  is  often  successfully 
adopted  with  the  quince,  called  Mound  Layering.  The  plant 
is  cut  down  early  in  the  spring,  nearly  to  the  ground,  leaving 
only  a  few  buds  at  the  base.  During  the  summer,  shoots  will 
grow  from  each  of  these  tuds.  In  the  autumn,  the  earth  is 
drawn  up  around  the  base  of  the  plant,  so  as  to  entirely  cover 
the  old  stump;  another  season,  each  of  the  shoots  takes  root,  and 
in  the  autumn,  strong  stocks  are  ready  for  the  knife. 

Wc  repeat  that  all  stocks,  whether  from  seed,  cuttings,  or 
layers,  should  be  taken  up  in  the  fall  and  protected,  and  the 
Dressing  done  in  the  house  during  the  winter.  This  consists 
in  trimming  the  roots  and  cutting  back  the  stem.  If  the  tap 
root  is  long  and  there  are  but  few  branching  roots,  the  tap  root 
mu.st  be  cut  back  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  stem  ;  if  there 
are  branching  roots,  they  should  be  trimmed;  if  but  few  and 
short  roots,  the  ends  should  only  be  smoothed  off;  in  the  case 
r.f^v..^.  nnd  cuttings,  only  those  roots  that  have  been  mutilated 


OKCIIARU    CULTURE,  525 

will  need  to  be  removed.  All  injured  roots  should  be  cut  off. 
All  these  operations,  and  all  cutting  of  trees,  should  be  done 
with  a  very  sharp  knife,  in  order  that  the  cuts  may  be  perfectly 
smooth.  As  this  cutting  of  the  roots  lessens  the  power  of  the 
plant,  the  stem  must  also  be  cut  back  to  keep  the  balance.  It 
is  always  safe  to  cut  it  back  one-third,  and  if  it  has  grown  tall 
and  thin  with  but  few  buds  or  branches,  it  will  often  need  to  he 
cut  back  two-thirds  of  its  length.  If  the  tops  are  not  cut  back 
the  plant  will  not  grow  the  first  season,  and  thus  a  whole  season 
will  be  lost.  At  the  time  of  dressing,  the  stocks  should  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  to  be  planted  separately  in  the  nursery 
rows ;  the  most  vigorous,  both  in  root  and  stem,  will  be  ready 
to  bud  the  first  season,  while  the  feebler  ones  will  have  to  wait 
over  until  another.     Here  will  be  seen  the  advantasfe  of  that 

O 

thorough  preparation  of  the  soil,  cultivation,  and  thinning 
which  produces  strong  stocks.  The  work  of  dressing  and 
selection  having  been  done  in  the  winter,  the  stocks  will  be 
ready  for  replanting  as  soon  as  spring  opens.  The  soil  of  the 
nursery  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  as  directed  for  the 
nursery.  If  the  soil  is  pretty  dayey  it  will  answer  for  t^e  apple, 
pear,  quince,  and  plum  stocks ;  but  for  the  stone  fruits,  consider- 
able sand  must  be  worked  into  the  clay. 

The  rows  should  be  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  plot  being  ready,  and  the  dis- 
tances measured,  a  trench  shokl  be  made  deep  snough  and  wide 
enough  to  hold  the  roots  without  crowding.  The  roots  of  each 
plant  should  be  dipped  in  a  tub  of  mud  and  set  in  the  rows,  and 
perfectly  pulverized  earth  pressed  tightly  about  them.  But 
few  plants  should  be  taken  out  of  their  winter  bed  at  a  time, 
and  the  roots  should  be  exposed  as  little  as  possible.  Plants 
with  a  single  straight  tap  root  may  be  set  with  a  dibble, 
or  sharp   stick    two   or   three   inches   in    diameter;    but  care 


526  HOW  TO  :srAKp]  the  farm  pay. 

must  be  taken  that  the  earth  is  pressed  compactly  about  the 
8tem.  All  the  Cultivation"  necessary  in  the  nursery  is  that 
every  Aveed  shall  be  kept  out  and  the  ground  between  the  rows 
be  kept  mellow  by  the  cultivator.  This  should  be  furnished  with 
.1  short  whiffletree  and  long  traces,  so  that  cultivation  may  go 
close  to  the  rows  without  injuring  the  stems.  The  most  vigor- 
ous of  these  stocks  will  be  ready  for  Budding  the  same  season, 
twenty-one  mouths  after  planting  the  seed  or  putting  down  the 
layer. 

Budding,  is  inserting  the  bud  of  one  tree  under  the  bark 
of  another.  It  is  done  most  successfully  from  July  to  Septem- 
ber, when  the  trees  are  in  their  most  vigorous  growth.  The 
buds  should  be  fully  developed  and  the  bud  on  the  end  of  the 
shoot,  called  the  terminal  bud,  perfected.  In  budding  the  peach 
the  terminal  bud  is  the  best.  The  buds  are  cut  smoothly  off,  a 
very  little  of  the  wood  being  taken  with  them.  {See  Figs.  113 
arid  116.)  A  cut  is  then  made  in  the  stock  in  the  shape  of  a  T, 
the  bark  lifted,  and  the  bud  slipped  under  it.  {See  Figs.  114,  115, 
and  116.)  The  tree  should  then  be  tied,  leaving  only  the  bud 
exposed.  Bass-wood  bark  makes  the  best  bandage,  but  husks,  or 
even  clotb,  will  answer  the  purpose.  If  in  two  weeks  the  bud 
begins  to  swell,  it  has  taken,  and  the  bandage  may  be  removed  ; 
if  it  has  not  taken,  the  operation  may  be  tried  again  the  same 
^«.•asoD,  or  the  stock  left  over  to  be  grafted  in  the  spring.  It  is 
u.sually  best  to  bud  near  the  ground.  When  a  number  of  buds 
are  cut  at  once,  they  should  be  stripped  of  their  leaves  and 
packed  in  damp  cloths,  moss,  matting,  or  sawdust,  and  in  a  cool 
cellar,  several  days.  If  ordered  from  a  distance,  they  should  be 
used  as  soon  as  received.  All  suckers,  or  robbers,  as  they  are 
termed,  being  shoots  that  appear  on  the  stem  below  the  bud, 
should  be  removed.  The  following  spring  after  budding  the 
stock  may  be  cut  back,  as  shown  in  Fig.  117. 


ORCHARD   CULTURE.  527 

The  second  method  of  propagation  is  by  Grafting.  This 
differs  only  from  "budding,  in  that  it  is  the  insertion  of  a  stem 
with  several  buds,  called  a  scion,  into  the  wood  of  the  stock. 
Scions  should  be  cut  in  the  autumn  or  winter,  after  the  fall  of 
the  leaf,  from  healthy,  vigorous  trees,  and  buried  in  dry  sand, 
on  the  north  side  of  a  wall  or  building,  and  a  mound  made  over 
them  to  shed  the  rain.  The  three  common  methods  of  grafting 
are  shown  in  Figs.  118,  119,  and  120.  The  main  points  in 
either  are,  that  the  cuts  be  perfectly  smooth,  that  the  inner  bark 
of  the  scion  and  the  stock  fit  perfectly  on  one  side,  that  they  be 
pressed  tightly  together,  and  that  the  whole  be  covered  water 
tight.  The  latter  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  grafting  clay 
or  wax.  Grafting  clay  is  made  by  mixing  one-third  clear,  fresh 
horse  dung  with  two-thirds  clay  and  a  little  hair,  thoroughly 
be-aten  together.  Grafting  wax  is  made  of  tallow,  beeswax,  and 
resin,  in  equal  parts.  A  larger  proportion  of  tallow  makes  it 
more  pliable ;  a  larger  proportion  of  resin  and  less  tallow  makes 
a  composition  in  which  rags  can  be  soaked  and  tied  around  the 
graft.  It  is  sometimes  put  on  warm  with  a  brush,  or,  if  too 
stifi'  for  that,  worked  in  with  the  hands;  any  way  to  make  it 
water  tight.  Grafting  can  be  performed  on  quite  large  limbs;  and 
if  the  farmer  has  vigorous  trees  bearing  worthless  fruit,  a  few 
dollars  spent  in  grafting,  and  a  little  time  in  pruning,  will  prove 
abundantly  profitable. 

EoOT  Grafting  is  extensively  practised  by  nurserymen 
upon  apple  and  quince  stocks,  as  it  can  be  done  in  the  house  in 
Ihe  winter.  The  seedlings,  or  cuttings  that  are  to  be  root  grafted, 
are  taken  from  their  winter  bed,  a  few  at  a  time,  grafted,  and  at 
once  returned.  The  stem  is  cut  off  at  the  collar,  or  the  point 
where  it  emerges  from  the  ground,  and  the  graft  inserted  in  the 
same  manner  as  upon  the  stock.  {See  Figs.  118  and  120.)    When 


:f2S  U  )\V    TO    .AIAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

.<»ct  in  the  nursery  rows  only  the  graft  should  be  left  above 
ground. 

These  trees  in  the  nursery,  now  require  but  little  time  or 
attention ;  it  is  only  important  that  the  ground  be  kept  mellow 
I>y  frequent  cultivation,  that  the  weeds  be  kept  down,  that  shoots 
ihat  appear  on  the  old  stump  be  rubbed  off,  and  that  the  tree  be 
kept  upright.  If  exposed  to  high  winds,  or  inclined  to  a  crooked 
growth,  the  new  shoot  should  be  trained  to  a  stake. 

Let  us  now  take  a  note  of  time.  The^rs^  year  was  devoted 
to  the  growth  of  the  stock  from  the  seed,  layer,  or  cutting ; 
the  second  year  to  the  transplanting  of  the  yearlings  and  the 
budding  of  the  most  vigorous  growers.  The  third  year,  early 
in  the  spring,  those  trees  budded  the  second  year  should  be 
relieved  of  the  stocks,  {see  Fig.  117 ;)  those  that  failed'  to  take 
the  bud  should  be  grafted.  The  second  quality  stocks,  not 
vigorous  enough  to  be  budded  last  year,  should  be  headed 
down  to  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  ground.  In  the 
autumn  of  this  year  the  second  quality  stocks  are  to  be  budded. 
The  fourth  year  we  commence  a  systematic  Pruning,  which  is 
to  be  continued  during  the  life  of  the  tree.  Pruning  is  resorted 
to  for  various  purposes.  1st.  Pruning  to  direct  the  growth 
from  one  part  of  the  tree  to  another,  as  from  the  top  to  the 
ba.se.  This  is  accomplished  by  pruning  the  more  vigorously 
growing  parts,  and  thus  directing  the  sap  to  the  other  parts. 
2d.  To  renew  the  growth  of  stunted  or  feeble  trees,  by  pruning 
them  back  to  a  few  buds  and  throwing  the  whole  vigor  of  the 
tree  into  these  few.  3d.  To  promote  fruitfulness,  by  pruning 
after  the  foliage  appears  in  the  spring,  thus  checking  the  growth 
of  the  wood,  which  promotes  the  formation  of  fruit  -Ith.  To 
regulate  the  growth  and  shape  of  the  tree.  5th.  Root  pruning, 
to  lessen  the  dimensions  of  trees  and  promote  fruitfulness.  We 
^hall  give  directions  for  p.runing  each  variety  of  fruit  in  future 


Fig.  125.  Fig.  126.    Setting  out  the  Yixe. 

Planting  the  Vine. 


Fig.  127.  Pruning  Sheaks. 


Fig.  128.    Grafting  Chisel. 


F'kj.  120.    Pruning  Saw  and  Chisel. 


Fig.  130.  Pole  Pruning  Shears.        Fig.  131.    Fruit  Ladder. 
32  '52» 


V 


ORCHAKD   CULTURE.  531 

pages,  but  will  here  give  the  general  principles  and  prac- 
tice OF  PRUNING. 

The  time  for  pruning  varies  with  the  climate,  variety  of  fruit, 
and  the  object  to  be  attained.  Perfectly  hardy  trees  may  be 
pruned  at  any  time  between  the  fall  of  the  leaf  in  autumn  and 
its  reappearance  in  spring.  This  may  always  safely  be  done  in 
the  South  and  Southwest.  More  tender  trees,  north  of  the  forty- 
third  degree  of  latitude,  should  be  pruned  in  the  spring,  before 
growth  has  commenced.  Trees  that  throw  out  shoots  rapidly, 
like  the  peach,  may  be  pruned  just  before  midsummer;  but  if 
limbs  of  any  size  are  cut,  the  wound  should  be  covered  with  a 
preparation  of  shellac  and  alcohol,*  or  with  grafting  wax, 
thinned  and  applied  with  a  brush.  The  exceptions  to  the 
above  general  rules  in  regard  to  the  time  of  pruning  are,  that 
trees  which  grow  wood  and  leaves  vigorously,  without  fruit,  are 
pruned  back  after  the  leaves  are  grown;  and  the  pruning  of 
young  trees  during  the  summer  by  pinching,  of  which  we  shall 
speak  hereafter. 

The  amount  to  be  pruned  also  varies  with  circumstances ;  but 
we  are  sure  that  one  thousand  trees  are  pruned  too  little,  for 
every  one  that  is  pruned  too  much.  As  a  general  rule,  one-half 
of  each  year's  growth  should  be  cut  away  before  another  season's 
growth  commences.  This  increases  the  strength  and  vigor  of 
the  tree,  induces  earlier  fruitfulness,  and  promotes  longevity 
A  well  pruned  fruit  tree  will  bear  sooner,  more  freely,  better 
fruit,  and  for  a  much  longer  period  than  an  unpruned  one. 
These  are  objects  worth  accomplishing,  when  fruit  is  in  such 
great  demand  and  at  such  remunerative  prices.  The  cut  should 
be  made  with  a  very  sharp  knife.     Haggling  defeats  the  objects 

*  Mix  enough  shellac  in  alcohol  to  make  a  preparation  of  the  consist- 
ency of  paint,  and  apply  with  a  brush. 


5:^2  now    TO    MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

of  pruning.  If  tlie  limbs  are  so  large  as  to  need  a  saw,  the  cut 
sliouia  aftorw.inls  be  pared  perfectly  smooth  and  covered  with 
the  preparation  of  shellac.  The  cut  surface  should  be  as  small 
as  possible,  and  always  iu  single  shoots  just  beyond  a  bud.  {Fig. 
121.)  The  peach  and  grape  should  have  a  little  roore  wood 
above  the  bud  than  represented  in  this  cut.  By  elaborate 
sv.«!tom3  of  pruning  and  training,  a  tree  may  be  made  to  grow  in 
an  form  desired,  and  the  curious  specimens  in  the  gardens  of 
many  horticulturists  of  France  and  England,  and  a  few  in  this 
country,  are  the  admiration  of  all  beholders.  We  speak  of  this 
hero  only  to  show  that  the  unsightly  and  ill  shaped  trees  com- 
monly seen  in  farmers'  orchards  are  advertisements  of  either  the 
i_';iorance  or  indilference  of  their  owners,  as  the  shape  of  the 
tiv..'  is  entirely  in  the  hand  of  the  cultivator.  This  shaping 
>hoii!d  commence  in  the  nursery,  according  to  our  plan,  the 
.-■;c')ftd  season  after  budding,  or  the  fourth  year  from  the  seed. 
Tliii  trees  have  had  a  whole  season  of  growth  and  will  show 
very  marked  differences.  All  will  be  too  tall  and  spindling,  and 
the  tops  must  be  cut  back  one-third  to  one-half,  and  the  other 
branches  trimmed  so  as  to  give  the  desired  shape  to  the  tree. 
The  best  shapes  for  each  fruit  are  given  in  connection  with  the 
treatment  of  that  fruit.  The  shape  of  the  tree  during  this  its 
last  season  in  the  nursery  is  governed  by  pinching  off  the  ends 
of  the  shoots:  a  few  minutes  each  week  spent  among  a  thousand 
youn-.,'  trees  iu  the  nursery  will  sufTice  for  correcting  any  bad 
Iinbit,s  of  growth.  If  the  top  shoots  up,  at  the  expense  of  the 
side  brar.chcs,  pinch  off  the  terminal  bud,  if  shoots  form  too  low, 
pinch  them;  if  shoots  appear  in  wrong  places,  pinch  them  oft; 
keeping  in  mind  always  the  shape  desired.  This  is  usually 
done  with  the  thumb  nail,  but  a  pair  of  nippers  may  be  used 
to  advantage.  The  main  point  in  this  process  is  not  to  let  the 
trees  spindle  nor  develop  on  one  side  at  the  expense  of  the 


ORCHAKD   CULTURE.  538 

Other.  In  the  autumn  of  the  fourth  year,  or  two  years  from  the 
bud,  the  trees  should  be  transplanted  to  the  orchard.  This  is 
sometimes  done  one  year  from  the  bud,  but  the  safer  and  better 
way  is  to  wait  till  the  second  year. 

Orchards  should  be  underdrained,  unless  very  dry.  A  fruit 
tree  will  never  be  productive  with  stagnant  water  about  its 
roots.  It  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  to  the  depth  of  twenty 
inches  by  subsoiling,  manuring,  harrowing,  and  cross  plowing,  as 
described  in  the  directions  for  preparing  the  nursery.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  compost  of  muck,  manure,  leaves,  night  soil,  etc.,  an 
application  of  fifty  bushels  of  ashes  or  lime  to  the  acre  will  be 
advantageous  and,  if  the  soil  be  destitute  of  lime,  necessary. 
Does  this  preparation  look  like  too  much  cost  and  labor  ?  Eest 
assured  it  is  the  very  cheapest  way  of  producing  fine  crops  of 
fruit,  which  will  surely  return  the  outlay  many  fold.  Never  set 
trees  in  holes  without  thoroughly  preparing  the  whole  soi'l.  If 
you  cannot  spare  the  time  and  labor  to  prepare  an  acre  in  this 
thorough  manner,  pre})are  one-half  or  one-quarter  of  an  acre, 
and  leave  the  rest  until  you  can  prepare  it.  The  scarcity  of 
fruit  is  due  to  the  liole  system.  If  the  young  trees  have  been 
properly  pinched  back,  they  will  not  need  much  pruning  when 
transplanted.  Cut  back  only  enough  of  the  head  to  balance 
the  loss  the  roots  have  sustained.  When  raised  in  the  farmer's 
own  nursery  this  loss  of  roots  should  be  small ;  when  they  are 
transported  to  him  from  a  distant  nursery  the  roots  will  be 
nearly  all  cut  off  for  convenience  in  transportation.  This  is 
one  of  the  reasons  why  we  advocate  the  home  nursery.  The 
roots  of  the  tree  extend  as  far  in  each  direction  as  the  height  of 
the  tree,  and  where  the  ground  has  been  kept  mellow  by  culti- 
vation, there  will  be  but  little  difficulty  in  getting  them  up 
nearly  entire.  Every  wound  should  be  pared  smooth  with  a 
sharp  knife  ;  the  roots  searched  for  borers,  and  dipped  in  mud 


534  now   TO   MAKE  THE   FARM   PAY. 

before  replanting.  A  trench  should  be  dug  in  the  already  pre 
mred  ground,  of  such  width  and  depth  as  to  accommodate  all 
the  roots  in  their  natural  position.  The  tap  root  if  l«ng  may 
be  considerably  shortened,  say  one-half  its  length,  taking  care 
that  enoufrh  shall  be  cut  from  the  top  to  balance  the  loss.  If 
transplanting  is  done  while  in  leaf,  the  leaves  should  all  be  re- 
moved. The  tree  should  be  set  at  the  same  depth  as  before  its 
removal.  One  person  should  hold  the  tree  in  the  required 
|K>sition,  while  another  throws  in  the  finely  pulverized  earth 
about  the  roots  and  turns  in  water  to  settle  the  earth.  It  is 
essential  that  the  earth  should  be  closely  packed  about  each 
root,  and  puddling  is  the  surest  way  to  accomplish  it.  If  trans- 
planted in  the  autumn,  a  mound  of  earth  should  be  drawn 
around  the  stem,  both  to  stiffen  it  against  the  wind  and  to  pro- 
tect it  from  being  girdled  by  mice.  Otherwise  it  should  be 
fastened  to  an  upright  stake  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  chafe  the 
bark.  Watering  young  trees  after  transplanting,  as  usually  con- 
ducted, is  injurious. 

Watering  the  tops  with  a  sprinkler  or  hose  at  evening, 
during  severe  droughts  is  the  most  effectual ;  but  keeping  the 
ground  mellow  about  the  roots  and  mulciihstg  is  usually  sufli- 
ci'.-nt.  Spread  a  thin  coating  of  hay,  straw,  or  coarse  litter 
aV.out  the  trees,  and  it  prevents  evaporation  and  the  drying  of 
tiie  surface  soil.  It  is  also  a  protection  to  the  roots  in  winter, 
and  tljcrefore  is  to  be  recommended  for  all  trees  at  all  seasons  of 
transplanting,  and  for  tender  trees,  like  the  cherry,  peach,  and 
apricot,  is  almost  indispensable. 

If  the  roots  become  frozen  and  thawed  again  in  contact  with 
the  air  thej  are  spoiled,  but  if  well  buried,  filling  all  the 
cavities  before  thawing,  they  will  be  uninjured.  In  transplant- 
in.-,  carefully  prepared  labels  stating  the  variety  should  be 
i:ept  on  the  trees,  and  a  record  made  in  some  book  of  whai 


ORCHARD   CULTURE. 


535 


trees  are  in  each  row.     The  following  table  shows  the  q umber 
of  trees  or  plants  required  to  the  acre  at  given  distances  apart: 


40  feft  apart 28 

33    "        '•     40 

25    "        "     70 

20    "        '•     108 

15    "        ••     194 


12  feet  apart 302 

10    "        "     436 

8    "        "     680 

6    "        "     1208 

4    "        "     2720 


The  rule  for  guidance  should  be  to  allow  space  enough  at 
least  on  two  sides  of  the  tree  freely  to  admit  the  sun  and  air. 


Note.  The  pruning  saw  and  chisel  and  pole  pruning  shears  {Figs.  129 
and  130)  will  be  found  exceedingly  useful  in  cutting  high  limbs,  removing 
the  wolts  of  worms,  cutting  off  fruit  in  the  tops  and  on  the  outermost 
branches  of  large  apple  trees,  etc.  They  can  be  had  of  any  dealer  in 
implements. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

APPLES,    PEARS,    AND    QUINCES. 

'he  apple  will  grow  upon  almost  any  soil,  but,  as  a  pro- 
perly planted  and  cultivated  apple  tree  will  bear  for  one 
hundred  years,  the  selection  of  soil  and  situation  is  wor- 
thy of  careful  attention.  The  soils  best  suited  to  the 
apple  are  limestone  soils,  strong  clayey  loams,  and  sandy  loams. 
A  too  sandy  loam  may  be  modified  by  a  dressing  of  clay.  And 
both  clayey  and  sandy  loams,  if  destitute  of  limestone,  should 
be  liberally  dressed  with  lime,  before  planting  the  trees, 
and  occasionally  afterwards.  Never  plant  an  orchard  in  wet 
land,  until  it  is  underdrained. 

The  northern  slope  of  a  hillside  is  the  best  position  for  the 
apple  in  the  Northern  States,  and  the  bottom  of  a  valley  is  the 
worst  for  any  fruit  in  any  section.  If  it  is  the  intention  to  cul- 
tivate grain  on  the  same  ground  with  the  apple  orchard,  the 
trees  should  be  planted  forty  feet  apart.  We  believe  the  better 
way  to  be  to  plant  them  twenty  to  thirty  feet  apart,  according  to 
the  natural  size  of  the  tree,  and  cultivate  nothing  but  hoed 
crops  between  the  rows.  Rye  should  never  under  any  circum- 
stances be  grown  among  fruit  trees;  and  clover  only  to  be 
plowed  under,  or  fed  on  the  ground.  The  ground  should 
always  be  kept  mellow,  and  for  three  reasons  we  recommend 
high  manuring  and  root  crops  in  the  orchard.  The  cultivation 
of  root  crops  keeps  the  ground  mellow;  the  manure  which  es- 


APPLES,  PEARS,  AND  QUINCES.  537 

capes  the  crop,  will  be  caught  by  the  roots  of  the  trees  and  thua 
saved.  The  crops  can  be  kept  from  growing  near  the  trunks  of 
the  trees.  •  The  pinching  and  pruning  process  must  be  kept  up 
to  maintain  the  proper  shape  of  the  tree.  For  the  standard 
apple  tree  in  the  farmer's  orchard  the  lowest  limbs  must  be  six 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  all  buds  below  this  should  be  rubbed 
off  or  cut  off  after  they  get  started. 

The  lower  limbs  should  oe  the  largest  and  longest  on  the 
tree.  The  tendency  of  growth  is  towards  the  top.  If  any  of 
tbe  upper  limbs  outstrip  the  lower  they  must  be  cut  back. 
The  better  shape  for  the  standard  apple  is  the  vase  shape, 
leaving  the  inside  of  the  tree  quite  open.  A  few  hours  each 
season  will  suffice  to  regulate  the  growth  of  quite  a  large  or- 
chard, and  this  care  makes  all  the  difference  between  a  moss 
covered,  scraggy  tree,  and  small,  mealy,  crabbed  fruit ;  and  fine 
trees  with  large,  fair,  and  well  ripened  fruit.  The  heads  of  most 
apple  trees  are  allowed  to  become  so  full  of  limbs  that,  the  foli- 
age shades  all  the  inside  of  the  tree,  and  no  fruit  ripens  except 
upon  the  outer  branches,  while  if  the  surplus  branches  are  kept 
cut  out  the  whole  tree  will  produce  fruit.  Eoot  pruning  in  con- 
nection with  manuring  is  of  great  importance  when  there  is  too 
vigorous  growth  of  the  wood  without  fruit.  Dig  a  trench  around 
the  tree  as  far  from  the  trunk  as  the  extension  of  the  branches, 
cutting  off  the  roots  with  a  very  sharp  spade  or  a  knife,  and 
fill  the  trench  with  thoroughly  rotted  compost. 

We  have  seen  most  wonderful  effects  following  this  treatment 
of  trees.  If  repeated  every  other  year,  we  believe  most  apple 
trees  can  be  made  to  bear  every  year.  We  have  certainly  seen 
a  small  orchard  treated  in  this  manner  bearing  one  hundred 
bushels,  when  every  other  orchard  in  the  vicinity  was  nearly 
barren.  To  rejuvenate  an  old  apple  orchard,  prune  and  graft 
one-third  of  the  top  each  year,  and  apply  manure  to  the  roots. 


538  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

Scrape  off  all  the  coarse  bark  from  the  roots  to  the  branches, 
and  wash  the  trunk  in  strong  soapsuds. 

Says  K.  L.  Pell,  Esq.,  of  Esopus,  New  York,  a  very  successful 
culturist :  "  For  several  years  past  I  have  been  experimenting  on 
the  apple,  having  an  orchard  of  two  thousand  bearing  Newtown 
l'ij)pin  trees.  Three  years  ago,  in  April,  I  scraped  all  the  rough 
bark  from  the  stems,  washed  all  the  trunks  and  limbs  within  reach 
with  soft  soap,  and  trimmed  out  all  the  branches  that  crossed 
each  other."  In  the  latter  part  of  June  "  I  slit  the  bark  by 
running  a  sharp  pointed  knife  from  the  ground  to  the  first  set 
of  limbs.  In  July  I  placed  one  peck  of  oyster  shell  lime  under 
each  tree,  leaving  it  piled  about  the  trunk  until  November, 
when  it  was  dug  in  thoroughly.  The  following  year  I  collected 
from  these  trees  seventeen  hundred  barrels  of  fruit  for  market, 
besides  the  cider  apples.  The  trees  were  then  manured  with 
stable  manure,  composted,  and  the  succeeding  autumn  they  were 
again  loaded  with  fruit,  while  the  trees  not  so  treated  were  quite 
barren."  This  is  the  experience  of  many  others  who  have  tried 
this  process  in  a  less  thorough  manner. 

Pigs  and  fowls  may  be  turned  into  the  orchard  before  the 
fruit  ripens,  and  after  the  crop  is  gathered ;  they  will  eat  the 
windfalls,  and  destroy  thousands  of  worms  by  their  rooting  and 
picking. 

Sheep  are  less  valuable  in  the  orchard,  as  they  only  eat  what 
is  on  the  surface.  If  the  orchard  is  plowed  very  early  and  clover 
sown,  when  the  clover  is  pretty  well  grown,  a  litter  of  pigs  may 
be  turned  in,  and  with  a  little  additional  feed  will  grow  fat  on  the 
feed  an.l  the  windfalls  while  they  grub  about  the  roots,  destroy 
the  worms,  and  leave  their  valuable  droppings  to  enrich  the  soil 

We  say  to  every  farmer  plant  an  apple  orchard;  it  will  be  a 
i^urce  both  of  pleasure  and  of  profit.  Six  years  from  the 
planting  of  the  seed  you  may  begin  to  gather  enough  for  your 


APPLES,    PEARS,    AND   QTJIXCE3.  539 

own  consumption,  and  in  ten  years  a  full  supply.  If  properly 
cared  for,  for  ten  years,  you  may  safely  calculate  on  fifty  years 
of  productiveness,  and  we  have  seen  twenty  bushels  of  apples 
gathered  from  a  tree  one  hunderd  and  thirty  years  old. 

To  aid  you  in  the  selection  of  varieties  we  give  a  list  of  the 
best  and  most  successfully  cultivated,  as  collated  from  the  re- 
ports of  the  various  Pomological  Societies  of  the  country. 
The  month  named  after  each  variety  shows  the  average  time  of 
ripening.  Best  varieties  for  the  whole  country:  Eed  Astra- 
chan,  August ;  American  Summer  Pearmain,  September ;  Early 
Harvest,  July,  August;  Gravenstein,  October,  November; 
Baldwin,  late  fall ;  Khode  Island  Greening,  late  fall.    {Fig.  135.) 

Select  varieties  for  the  North  Eastern  States  in  addition  to 
above.  Golden  Sweet,  August ;  AYilliam's  Favorite,  August ; 
Sops  of  Wine,  August ;  Early  Joe,  August,  September ;  Porter, 
September ;  Fall  Pippin,  November ;  Hubbardston  Nonesuch, 
December ;  Ribston  Pippin,  Eoxbury  Russet,  late ;  Fameuse, 
November;  Tallman's  Sweet,  November;  Northern  Spy,  about 
Noveml»er ;  Rambo,  late ;  Westfield  Seek  No  Farther,  Novem- 
ber, December.  Select  varieties  of  the  Middle  States:  Early 
Harvest,  Red  Astrachan,  Early  Joe,  Primate,  August;  Sweet 
Bough,  August ;  Jersey  Sweet,  September,  October ;  Porter,  Fall 
Pippin,  Gravenstein,  Belmont,  November ;  Twenty  Ounce  Pip- 
jiin,  (for  market,)  November;  Rhode  Island  Greening,  King  of 
Touipkinji  County,  November;  Fameuse,  Mother,  November; 
Tillman's  Sweet,  Ladies'  Sweet,  Baldwin,  Northern  Spy,  Roxbury 
Russet,  late  fall. 

Select  varieties  of  apples  for  Northern  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Northern  and  Central  Ohio,  etc.  Summer  Apples  ;  Early  Har- 
vest, Carolina  Red  June,  Benoni,  Early  Pennock,  High  Top 
Sweet,  Red  Astrachan,  Keswick  Codlin,  Hocking.  Autum:n 
Apples:    Autumn  Strawberry,  Bailey's  Sweet,  Dyer,  Haskell 


540  now   TO   MAKE   TIIK   FAKM   PAY. 

Sweet,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Lowell,  Maiden's  Blusb,  Rams- 
dell's  Sweet,  Fameuse,  Fall  Pippin,  Fulton,  Mother,  Rambo. 
Winter  Apples:  Winesap,  Rawles  Jannett,  Dominie,  Jona- 
than, Carthouse,  Westfield  Seek  No  Farther,  White  Winter 
Pearmain,  Minkler,  Tallraan  Sweet,  Northern  Spy,  Swaar,  Bul- 
lock's Pippin,  Eamsdell's  Sweet. 

Select  varieties  for  Southern  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Missouri.  Summer  :  Early  Harvest,  Red  Astrachan, 
Carolina  Red  June,  American  Summer  Pearmain,  Large  Yel- 
low Bough.  Autumn  :  Maiden's  Blush,  Buckingham,  Rambo. 
Winter:  Rawles  Janet,  Ortly,  Yellow  Bellfiower,  Winesap, 
Rome  Beauty,  Newtown  Pippin,  Ben  Davis,  Pryor's  Red, 
White  Pippin,  Jonathan,  Bullock's  Pippin. 

Select  list  for  Virginia  and  adjacent  regions.  Carolina  Red 
June,  Gravenstein,  Belmont,  Fall  Pippin,  Yellow  Bellflower, 
Smokehouse,  Rambo,  Smith's  Cider,  Maiden's  Blush,  Loudon 
Pippin,  Limber  Twig,  Fallawater,  Pryor's  Red. 

Select  list  for  Georgia  and  adjacent  regions.  Early  Harvest, 
Red  June,  Horse,  Bachelor,  Meigs,  Disharvon,  Gree«i  Crank, 
Mangum,  Kentucky  Streak,  Nickajack,  Shockley,  Stevenson's 
Winter.  There  are  many  valuable  varieties  left  out  from  the 
above  lists,  the  aim  having  been  to  give  such  list  as  should  give 
a  succession  of  marketable  fruit,  and  productive  and  hardy  trees. 

This  omits  the  Coggswell,  highly  prized  in  Maine;  the  Spitzen- 
burgh,  grown  extensively  on  the  line  of  Rhode  Island,  Con- 
necticut, and  Southern  New  York  the  Early  Strawberry,  mod. 
erately  good  in  all  localities ;  the  Late  Strawberry,  a  very  pro- 
ductive early  autumn  apple  of  the  West;  the  Broadwell,  a  fine 
winter  sweet  apple  in  Ohio;  the  Pomme  Grise,  a  Canada  apple  ; 
and  a  thousand  others  that  are  favorites  in  small  localities.  The 
above  lists  will  however  answer  the  practical  purpose  of  the 
farmer. 


APPLES,    PEARS,   AND    QUINCES. 


541 


It  onlj  remains  to  speak  here  of  gathering  and  prescrviuor 
the  fruit.  The  more  care  that  is  expended  upon  these  two  opera- 
tions the  better  the  prices  that  will  be  obtained.  The  fruit  that  is 
picked  bj  hand  should  be  kept  separate  from  that  shaken  from 
the  trees.     If  the  tree  lias  been  cut  back  and  not  allowed  to 


Note. — The  subjoined  table  gives  the  leaihng  varieties  of  apples,  their 
season,  the  special  use  to  which  they  are  best  adapted,  the  localities  where 
their  cultivation  has  been  tried  and  proved  successful,  and  the  localities 
for  which  they  have  been  especially  recommended.  While  the  list  of 
profitable  varieties  is  by  no  means  complete,  eacli  of  the  varieties  is,  beyond 
question,  safe  in  the  localities  for  which  it  is  designated. 


Name  of  Variety. 


Am.  ^nninier  Pearmain.. 

Astnicliiiu  lied 

Baldwin 

Belmont 

Bellefleur  Yellow 

Binioiii 

Bullock's  fippin 

C:iroliiia  Red  June 

Dominie 

Duchess  i.f  Oldenburg.... 

Kaily  Harvest 

Karly  Joe.. 

iOarl y  S t ra wberry 

Fall  a  water 

(■•all  Pippin 

Faniense 

Gulden  Sweet 

(Jravensteiu 

II  nbbardston  Nonesuch.. 

.Icrs('y  Sweeting 

Jonathan 

i\\u'^  of  Tompkins  Co 

l/ii-^e  Yellow  Bough 

Alaiden's   IV.n-'h 

Monnionlli  I'ippin  

New  York  I'ippin 

Newtown    I'ippin 

Northet  n  Spy 

reek's  Pleasant 

Porter 

Piambo 

Kawles'  J  a  not 

It.  I.  Greening 

Hibston  Pippin 

Koxbnry  Rnssot 

Sniifli's'Cider 

Spitzenbnrg  Ksopus 

Summer  R.ise.. 

Tolman'.s  Sweeting 

Vanilervereof  New  York. 

\Vestfi,ld 

AVino  Sap 

Williams'  Favorite 


S. 

E.  S. 
W. 
E.  W 
AV. 
S. 

w. 

E.  S. 

w. 

E.  A, 
E.  S. 

S. 
S. 

w. 

L.  A. 

E.W. 

E.  A. 

E.A. 

E.  W. 

E.A. 

W. 

E.W. 

S. 

A. 

L.W. 

L.W. 

L.W. 

L.  W. 

W. 

A. 

W. 

L.  W. 

^^^. 

E.W. 

r,.w. 

w. 

w. 

S. 

w. 
w. 
w. 

L.W. 

S. 


T. 

K.M. 

M. 

M. 

M. 

T. 

T. 

T. 

T. 

K.M. 

M. 

T. 

T. 

T. 

.M. 

JI. 

K.M. 

T. 

M. 

K. 

M. 

M. 

K.M. 

K.M. 

M. 

M. 

T. 

M. 

T. 

M. 

T. 

M. 

M. 

t. 

M. 

K.M. 

M. 

T. 

K.M. 

M. 

M. 

M. 

T.. 


0 


■"  E.  S. — Early  Summer.  S.- 
Early Winter.  W._Winter.  L. 
X — 'rried  and  proved  successful. 


-Summer.     E.  .4.— Early  Autnmn.     L.  A.— Late  Autumn.     E.  W.— 
W.— Late  Winter.     T.— Table  Variety.     K.— Kitchen.    M.— Market. 
0 — Especially  recommeuded  in  the  locality  named. 


542  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

throw  out  long,  slender  branches,  the  gathering  will  be  much 
easier.  Do  not  use  the  common  ladder,  placing  it  against  the 
branches,  but  have  a  folding  ladder,  [Fig.  131 ;)  also  a  long 
bandied  picker  with  a  bag  attached.  [See  Fig,  130.)  Fruit 
carefullv  gathered,  and  packed  without  bruising,  will  keep  in 
a  dry  place  until  spring,  when  it  will  bring  the  largest  price. 
"Whereas,  if  it  is  shaken  fj'om  the  tree  and  bruised,  it  must  be 
sold  at  once  when  prices  are  usually  at  the  lowest.  We  have 
known  this  very  thing  make  a  difference  of  twelve  hundred 
dollars  in  the  price  obtained  for  the  apples  from  an  orchard  of  a 
little  short  of  one  acre. 

Pears  axd  Quinces.  Pears  require  nearly  the  same  soils 
and  situations  as  the  apple,  but  more  poi'ous.  Different  varie- 
ties require  different  soils.  All  require  lime,  and  if  it  is  not 
naturally  in  the  soil,  it  should  be  supplied.  The  following 
table  shows  the  soils  in  whicli  a  few  of  the  standard  varieties  do 
the  best.    In  clayey  soils : 

Andrews,         ^  Ho^vell, 

Bartlett,  Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey, 

Beurre  d'Anjou,  Lawrence, 

Beurre  Superfin,  Merriam, 

Beukre  Langelier,  Onondaga, 

Brandywine,  Rostieser, 

Belle  Lucrative,  Seckel, 

■^^'^^^^^>  Vicar  of  "Winkfield, 

Doynne  Bussock,  Winter  Nelis. 

All  the  above  varieties,  except  the  latter.  Winter  Nelis,  are 
benefited  by  a  large  admixture  of  sand  in  the  soil.  The  follow- 
ing varieties  grow  best  in  a  sandy  soil  without  clay: 

Beurre  d'Atjemburg,  Duchess  d'Angouleme, 

Beurre  Bosc,  Flemish  Beauty, 

Beurre  Diel,  qlout  Morceu, 

Dearborn's  Seedling,  Urbaniste. 


APPLES,    PEARS,   AND   QUINCES.  548 

"Whatever  the  soil,  it  should  be  thoroughly  and  well  cultiva- 
ted. The  pear  on  its  own  roots  will  not  well  bear  transplanting 
after  three  or  four  years  of  age,  unless  it  is  root-pruned  every 
year,  or  at  least  the  year  before  transplanting ;  but  on  the  quince 
it  may  be  transplanted  at  almost  any  age.  But  though  in 
gardens  and  in  market  culture  the  pear  is  usually  grown  on  the 
quince  as  a  dwarf  tree,  for  the  purposes  of  the  ordinary  farmer, 
to  whom  we  speak,  we  advise  budding  on  pear  stocks.  At  three 
years  from  the  bud  they  should  be  removed  to  the  orchard.  The 
early  autumn  is  the  best  time  for  this,  and  if  done  before  the  fall 
of  the  leaf,  the  leaves  should  be  stripped  off.  When  transplanted, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  retain  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
small  fibrous  rootlets,  as  these  furnish  life  to  the  tree.  The 
same  directions  given  for  transplanting  the  apple  apply  to  the 
pear,  except  that  the  trees  should  not  be  more  than  twelve  feet 
apart,  which  will  allow  Hve  hundred  trees  to  an  acre.  Every 
farmer  can  find  at  least  one  fourth  of  an  acre  to  devote  to  the 
culture  of  the  pear,  which  will  allow  for  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  trees,  and  will  be  a  source  of  enjoyment  and  profit. 
One  need  not  now  wait  a  lifetime  to  obtain  the  fruit,  for  six 
years  from  planting  the  seed  is  ample  time  for  the  first  crops  of 
this  delicious  fruit,  and  we  know  of  thousands  of  pear  trees  that 
have  borne  for  over  fifty  years.  "VYe  once  knew  a  tree  three 
years  from  the  bud  to  set  over  four  hundred  pears;  all  bui 
about  twenty-five  were  picked  ofi",  but  this  shows  how  quick  1}^ 
the  fruit  will  mature,  if  treated  properly.  Pear  trees  set  twelve 
feet  apart  and  pruned  to  the  pyramid  form,  will  have  plenty 
of  room  for  a  number  of  years,  and  as  they  become  too  thick 
the  poorest  trees  can  be  thinned  out.  The  pyramid  form  is 
very  easily  obtained  if  the  trees  are  kept  down,  as  the  pear 
should  be,  to  within  twelve  feet  in  height.  In  the  pear  orchard 
no  calculation  should  be  made  for  horse  cultivation,  and  the 


544  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

lowest  brandies  should  not  be  over  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
cround.  Dwarf  pears  on  quince  stocks  are  cultivated  much 
lower.  All  agree  that  the  pyramid  is  the  best  shape  for  the 
pear  and  each  pruning  should  have  reference  to  this  shape. 
No  grass  or  grain  should  ever  be  allowed  in  the  pear  orchard, 
but  all  root  crops  are  beneficial  as  for  the  apple.  A  small  strip 
can  be  flowed  by*the  use  of  the  short  whiffletree,  but  most  of 
the  cultivation  must  be  done  with  the  spade,  digging  fork,  and 
hoe.  The  pear  must  not  be  allowed  to  bear  too  early  or  too 
profusely.  It  requires  a  great  deal  of  courage  to  pick  off  half 
the  young  fruit  from  a  tree,  but  that  which  matures  will  be  the 
larger  and  finer,  and  the  exhaustion  to  the  tree  not  so  great, 
even  if  the  weight  of  fruit  is  the  same.  The  tree  is  exhausted 
not  by  the  amount  in  weight  of  fruit  that  it  bears,  but  by  the 
number  of  specimens  in  which  it  perfects  the  seeds.  Fruit 
growers  will  do  well  to  bear  this  in  mind.  For  market  or 
kitchen  gardens  the  pear  should  usually  be  cultivated  ON" 
QuixcE  Stocks.  The  quince  is  a  valuable  tree  of  itself,  but  as 
a  stock  for  the  pear,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  is 
usually  propagated  by  layers  when  cultivated  for  its  fruit.  {See 
purje  521.)  The  soil  for  the  quince  should  be  deep,  and  rich,  and 
well  cultivated.  The  common  method  of  setting  the  bush  and 
letting  it  take  care  of  itself  hjusi  as  ridiculous  as  for  the  farmer 
to  leave  his  corn  in  the  same  way.  They  should  be  pruned 
aimually,  and  never  allowed  to  grow  bushy.  As  they  are 
usually  near  the  house,  they  should  be  treated  to  frequent 
doses  of  soapsuds,  and  the  soil  about  their  roots  kept  mellow. 
Quince  trees  treated  in  this  way  will  yield  enormous  crops  i^ 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  tree.  The  Orange  Quince,  of 
which  we  have  a  beautiful  illustration  in  the  colored  plate,  is 
the  favorite  for  the  garden.  For  stocks  for  the  pear  a  different 
mode  of  propagation  is  practised,  as  described  and  illustrated  on 
1  previous  page. 


APPLES,    PEARS,  AND    QUINCES,  545 

The  stocks  thus  obtained  are  budded  just  above  the  collar. 

Pears  on  quince  stocks  will  usually  have  to  be  obtained  from 

the  nursery,  and  we  advise  purchasing  only  of  reliable  nuisery- 

men,  and  obtaining  assurances  that  they  are  not  on  the  common 

quince,  which  is  worthless  for  stocks,  but  on  the  Angers  Quince. 

Buy  the  best  that  are  to  be  bad;  a  few  cents  makes  but  little  dif 

ference  here,  but  v/ill  make  a  vast  difference  in  the  final  results. 

If,  however,  the  attempt  is  made  to  grow  your  own  stocks, 

select  to  bud  on  the  quince  only  such  as  have  proved  successful 

when  thus  grown.     Many  pears  will  not  grow  on  the  quince. 

The  standard  varieties  that  are  best  adapted  for  the  quince  are: 

Bergamotte,  Easter  Beurre, 

Beurre  d'Anjou,  Flemish  Beauty, 

Beurre  Superfin,  Glout  Morceau, 

Beurre  Diel,  Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey, 

Beurre  Giffard,  Kostiezer, 

Brandywine,  Urbaniste, 

Belle  Lucrative,  Vicar  of  Winkfield. 

DucHESsE  d'Angouleme, 

In    the    Southern   States    the    Madeleine,    Julienne,    ^-V  hue 

Doynne,   Lawrence,   Seckel,  and  Tyson  can  be  added  to  the 

above  list;  and  for  the  Western  States,  the  Tyson,  Seckel,  Kirc- 

land,  Noveau  Poiteau,  Doynne  Ette,  and  Bloodgood. 

The  pear  on  the  quince  should  be  planted  with  the  collar 

from  two  to  four  inches  beneath  the  surface,  for  the  quince 

serves  as  a  root,  never  as  a  stem.     Here  has  been  the  cause  of 

the  failure  of  tens  of  thousands  of  dwarf  pears.     If  the  quince 

stock  is  above  the  ground  it  is  more  liable  to  be  attacked  by 

insects ;  it  is  liable  to  be  broken  off  by  high  winds,  at  the  joint, 

and  the  pear,  growing  more  vigorously,  produces  a  deformity ; 

while  if  placed  from  two  to  four  inches  below  the  surfixce,  it  is 

strong,  healthy  and  free  from  borers,  while  the  pear  itself  will 
3.^ 


5-16  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE   FARJI   PAY. 

ia  time  take  root  beneath  the  surface  and  grow  upon  its  own 
roots.  Under  the  proper  treatment  it  comes  into  bearing  on  the 
(luince  in  one-half  the  time  needed  on  its  own  roots,  can  be  more 
readily  trained  to  a  pyramid  form,  so  desirable  in  the  pear,  and 
we  think  is  just  as  long  lived.  We  at  least  know  of  trees  on 
quince  stocks  that  have  been  in  bearing  over  forty  years. 
Twelve  feet  apart  is  ample  space  for  planting  these  trees ;  and 
where  ground  is  scarce,  if  it  is  sure  to  be  thoroughly  cultivated, 
annually  manured,  properly  pruned,  and  the  young  trees  thinned 
of  their  first  crops,  six  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  and  rows  twelve 
feet  apart,  will  answer. 

Summer  pinching  of  the  terminal  buds  is  the  best  method  of 
pruning  these  trees.  If  the  leader  shoots  up  too  vigorously, 
pinch  it  off;  if  any  of  the  upper  shoots  get  as  long  as  the  lower 
ones,  pinch  them  off;  if  buds  appear  where  you  do  not  want 
limbs  to  grow,  pinch  them.  This  is  much  better  than  to  wait 
until  the  wood  is  matured  and  pruning  must  be  done  with  a 
knife;  but  if  you  leave  it  until  then,  be  sure  your  knife  is  like 
a  razor.  Cut  just  above  a  bud.  Prune  in  the  spring  those 
branches  you  wish  to  have  grow  vigorously,  and  in  the  summer 
those  whose  growth  you  wish  to  check.  Where  trees  are  slow 
to  come  into  bearing,  prune  in  the  spring,  pinch  through  the 
summer,  and  root  prune  early  in  the  autumn. 

The  pear,  unlike  other  fruits,  bears  from  a  permanent  spur ; 
after  the  fruit  has  been  picked,  if  this  spur  is  cut  back  new  fruit 
buds  will  start  at  its  base.  The  germs  of  these  buds  can  be  seen 
at  the  time  of  gathering  the  fruit.  The  wood  buds  are  readily 
distinguished  from  the  fruit  buds,  as  the  latter  are  full  and 
I'lump,  while  the  former  are  usually  pointed.  Wood  buds  can 
be  converted  into  fruit  buds  by  bending  down  or  breaking  off 
the  shoot  just  above  the  bud.  This  distinction  between  wood 
and  fruit  buds  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  when  pruning 


APPLES,    PEARS,    AND    QUINCES.  547 

the  tree.  Old  pear  trees  are  reinvigorated  by  the  same  process 
of  grafting  the  tops,  already  described,  for  the  apple. 

Thinning  the  fruit,  as  we  have  hinted,  is  often  necessary. 
Says  Thomas  W.  Field,  a  successful  cultivator  of  the  pear: 
"  Good  soils,  fine  cultivation,  healthy  and  vigorous  trees,  and  all 
the  other  requisites  of  pear  growing  will  often  fail  of  producing 
fine  fruit,  if  all  that  sets  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  tree.  The 
fruit  of  the  Bartlett,  Dearborn's  Seedling,  Louise  Bonne  de 
Jersey,  and  many  other  varieties  will  set  in  such  quantities 
that,  if  thinning  is  neglected,  not  one-half  will  reach  the-  full 
size  or  acquire  their  best  flavor.  Besides,  these  varieties  yield 
fruit  so  early  that  the  trees  would  be  ruined  by  this  precocious 
fruitfulness.  Two  years  after  planting,  these  varieties  will  com- 
mence bearing,  and  not  more  than  a  dozen  specimens  should  be 
allowed  to  ripen  annually  the  first  two  years  of  bearing.  The 
period  for  thinning  is  when  the  pears  are  from  a  half  to  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  for,  as  many  fall  soon  aftei 
forming,  it  is  not  until  then  the  healthy  and  perfect  ones  can  be 
distinguished.  Not  more  than  one-half  the  thinning  should  be 
done  at  once,  and  the  others  may  be  allowed  to  remain  until  wo 
can  ascertain  the  imperfect  fruit  to  be  removed. 

There  are  but  few  of  the  finer  varieties  that  are  not  improved 
by  gathering  before  they  are  fully  ripe.  Not  a  few  have  been 
discarded  as  unworthy  of  cultivation,  which  by  early  picking 
improve  so  as  to  rank  among  the  first  in  excellence.  Several 
varieties  rot  at  the  core  when  left  upon  the  tree  until  fullj^  ripe, 
whicli  will  keep  for  weeks  if  picked  earlier.  Among  these  are 
the  Flemish  Beauty,  BeurreDiel,  and  Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey. 
The  true  test  of  the  proper  condition  for  gathering  is,  the  cleav- 
ing of  the  stem  from  the  spur  when  slightly  raised.  Some 
varieties  indeed  should  not  be  left  even  so  long  as  this.  The 
fruit  should  never  be  picked  early  in  the  morning  while  the 


54S  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

dew  is  on,  nor  in  a  wet  or  cloudy  day.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
pick  it  in  sucli  weather,  it  should  be  exposed  to  light  and  air 
until  completely  ,dry.  Pears  picked  in  the  middle  of  a  sunny 
day  are  superior  in  flavor  and  keep  better.  Early  gathering 
ai>plies  only  to  the  summer  and  autumn  varieties ;  late  keeping 
winter  kinds  should  be  allowed  to  hang  as  long  as  the  frosts 
will  permit.  A  dry,  cool  room  should  be  used  for  the  storage 
and  ripening  of  fruits,  and  there  should  be  nothing  in  the  room 
from  which  the  fruit  can  absorb  flavor.  The  two  beautiful  spe- 
cimens in  our  colored  plate  are  the  Bartlett  and  Louise  Bonne  de 
Jersey. 

The  following  table  gives  the  varieties  of  the  pear  best 
adapted  to  the  different  sections  of  the  country.  The  abbre- 
viations are  the  same  as  in  the  table  for  apples,  page  541,  with 
the  addition  of  Q,  which  denotes  those  proved  to  be  most  valu- 
able on  quince  stocks,  and  therefore  adapted  to  the  home 
garden. 


Name  of  Variety. 


Dartlott 

UoUe  Lucrative 

Beiirro  Bi>so 

Bourie  D'Aijjou 

Beurre  Diel 

lieurre  Easter 

I  Beurre  GifTard 

I  Beurre  Superfin 

BloodgoiKl 

Brandy  wioe 

Buffum 

Dearborn's  Seedling 

Doynnc  Bmissock 

Doynue  D'Ete 

Doyrine  White 

Duchess  D'AiiKoulenie...., 

Flemish  Beauty , 

•  llout  Morccau 

Lawrence 

liouise  Bonne  de  Jersey.. 

.Madelaine 

Oiiondnga 

Roatieser 

Sockel 

Tyson 

Urbauiste 

Vicar  of  Wiukfiuld 

Winter  Nc4i3 


E.  A. 

E.  A. 

A. 

L.  A. 

A. 

W. 

E.  S. 

A. 

S. 

E.A. 

A. 

S. 

E.A. 

E.  S. 

A. 

L.  A, 

A. 

K.W. 

E.  \V. 

E.A. 

E.  S. 

A. 

S. 

A. 

S. 

A. 

E.W 

E.W 


X|X 
XjX 


X!X 

xx,x 

X 
X 
X 
X 

XIX 

X 

X 


i 


CHAPTER    XV. 

PEACi   £S,    PLUMS,    CHERRIES,    AND    APRICOTS. 

|LL  these  fruits  are  within  the  reach  of,  and  may  be  profi- 
tably cultivated  by  the  farmer.  Especially  should 
{^Qiy^  farmers'  boys,  not  yet  fit  for  the  heavy  work  of  the  farm, 

^  devote  much  time  and  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
these  delightful  fruits.  We  will  try  to  make  the  directions 
for  their  cultivation  and  care  so  plain  that  any  bright  boy  can 
understand  it. 

The  Stocks  for  these  fruits  are  easily  raised  from  seeds. 
Plump,  fair,  and  healthy  fruit  should  be  selected,  and  after  the 
flesh  has  been  used  for  the  table  the  stones  should  be  washed 
clean,  spread  out,  and  thoroughly  dried.  "When  dry,  pack  them 
in  sand,  in  boxes,  a  layer  of  sand,  then  a  layer  of  stones ;  this 
box  should  then  be  buried  on  the  north  or  west  side  of  a  wall 
or  building,  just  below  the  surface,  and  a  mound  made  over  the 
top  that  will  shed  the  rain.  Here  they  will  be  subjected  to  the 
frosts  of  winter  and  will  germinate.  Just  before  the  ground 
is  ready  for  planting  in  the  spring  take  them  up,  and  carefully 
'3racking  with  a  wooden  mallet  on  a  wooden  block  such  as  have 
QOt  opened,  put  them  back  in  the  ground  for  a  couple  of  weeks, 
3ut  not  so  deep  as  before,  and  without  the  mound,  as  the 
ivarmth  and  moisture  will  now  assist  them  to  sprout.  In  two 
veeks,  or  as  soon  after  as  the  ground  will  admit  of  planting,  take 

549 


550  IIO^V   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

them  uu  rmd  plant  in  ground  prepared  according  to  the  direc- 
tions given  for  preparing  the  nursery. 

The  Peach  grows  best  on  its  own  stocks,  but  hardy,  late 
o-rowing  varieties,  like  the  Gorgas,  Crawford's  Late,  Late  Eare- 
ripe,  and  otlier  sorts  of  late  varieties  make  the  best  stocks,  and 
the  stones  (or  seeds)  should  be  selected  from  these  late  varieties. 

When  opened  the  second  time,  those  that  have  sprouted 
should  Be  immediately  planted  in  drills  from  one  to  three  inches 
deep ;  a  light  thin  soil  requiring  greater  depth.  The  balance 
unsprouted  should  be  moistened,  and  put  back  for  another  two 
weeks. 

As  these  trees  are  to  remain  where  planted  for  two  years  they 
should  be  at  least  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the 
rows  three  feet  apart,  to  permit  cultivation.  If  cultivated,  that 
is  the  ground  kept  mellow,  the  weeds  kept  out,  and  an  occa- 
sional top  dressing  of  liquid  manure  given,  sixteen  months*  from 
planting  the  seed  you  will  have  strong,  healthy,  vigorous  young 
stocks  on  which  you  can  bud  whatever  variety  you  choose  of 
this  most  delicious  fruit  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

The  time  for  budding,  if  on  some  late  growing  stock,  as  re- 
commended, is  in  September.  The  process  of  budding  is  de- 
scribed on  a  previous  page. 

In  the  spring  succeeding  the  budding,  the  trees  should  be 
transplanted  to  the  orchard  or  garden,  the  same  directions  given 
for  transplanting  the  apple  and  pear  applying  to  this  and  all 
fruits.  From  eighteen  to  twenty-four  feet  apart  is  the  proper 
distance  for  peach  trees.     The  same  careful  after  culture,  of  the 


*  Some  cultivators  have  recommended  budding  the  same  season  the  seed 
i«=  planted,  but  the  stocks  are  then  so  small  that  it  is  a  more  difficult  ope- 
ration  for  the  inexperienced.  We  prefer  to  cut  back  the  head  of  the  tree 
'he  6rst  season,  and  thus  induce  the  growth  of  a  vigorous  stem  before 
baddinof. 


11 


PEACHES,    PLUMS,    CHERRIES,   AND   APRICOTS.  551 

soil  with  root  crops  and  top  dressings  is  necessary  to  the  per- 
fection of  all  fruits^  and  to  the  fruitfulness,  health,  and  longer 
life  of  all  fruit  trees. 

The  peach  requires  a  light,  sandy,  warm  soil.  If  too  sandy 
an  occasional  top  dressing  of  peat,  clay,  muck,  or  loam  will 
amend  it. 

The  pruning  of  the  peach  is,  after  the  preparation  of  the  soil, 
the  most  important  part  of  its  culture. 

The  sap  tends  more  strongl)''  to  the  extremities  of  the  shoots 
than  in  any  other  fruit,  so  that  left  to  itself  the  peach  forms  a 
long  stem  and  long  scraggy  branches ;  while  north  of  Virginia 
it  should  never  be  more  than  twelve  feet  high,  (eight  feet  is  still 
better,)  with  its  lower  limbs  not  more  than  three  feet  from  the 
ground. 

This  height  and  shape  is  easily  secured  by  what  is  termed, 
shortening  in,  pruning.  For  this  purpose  pruning  shears  are 
much  better  than  the  knife.  The  fruit  is  borne  only  on  wood 
of  the  last  year's  growth,  and  consequently  another  great  object 
always  to  be  kept  in  view,  in  pruning  the  peach,  is  to  keep  each 
part  of  the  tree  furnished  with  an  equally  distributed  number 
of  bearing  shoots.  Take  a  yearling  tree  in  the  spring,  and  cut 
it  back  to  within  two  or  three  feet  of  the  ground.  Below  this 
cut  a  number  of  shoots  will  spring,  of  which  three  (or  at 
the  most  four)  are  to  be  allowed  to  grow  to  form  the  main 
branches.  All  other  shoots  appearing  during  the  season  mzisi  he 
rubbed  off.  The  next  spring  these  three  shoots  should  be  cat 
back  about  half  their  length.  From  the  shoots  that  will  soo.u 
appear  upon  these  shoots  select  two  or  three,  and  rub  off  all 
others  from  both  stem  and  branches.  This  process  is  to  be  con- 
tinued every  year,  by  cutting  off  at  least  half  tne  growth  of  the 
preceding  year.  Prune  just  beyond  a  bud  as  directed  on  page 
532.    The  fourth  year,  and  often  the  third,  trees  thus  treated  will 


5:,2  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

begin  to  bear.  They  should,  liowever,  be  allowed  to  ripen  only 
a  few  specimens  the  first  year  the  fruit  sets,  and  at  least  one- 
half  the  fruit  should  be  thinned  from  even  moderately  bearing 
trees.  If  a  tree  Avill  ripen  two  hundred  peaches  it  will  surely 
PERFECT  one  hundred.  One  hundred  large  perfect  peaches  will 
briufT  in  the  market  double  the  price  of  two  hundred  small  ones. 

A  cultivator  of  eight  acres  of  peaches  employs  ten  to  fifteen 
men  from  eight  to  ten  days  picking  off  the  fruit,  when  about 
the  size  of  a  filbert,  and  gets  two  dollars  a  bushel  for  his 
peaches,  more  readily  than  his  neighbors  get  fifty  cents  for 
the  same  varieties. 

Fig.  122  shows  the  proper  shape  for  the  peach ;  and  it  is  as 
tonishing  what  a  hardy,  thrifty,  productive,  and  longlived  fruit 
it  becomes  under  this  system  of  pruning,  which  is  accomplished 
with  great  rapidity  with  sharp  shears  and  a  little  fruit  ladder  on 
the  principle  oi  Fig.  131.  We  have  thoroughly  pruned  a  dozen 
large  six  years  old  trees  in  less  than  an  hour,  and  are  sure  that 
we  could  prune  a  hundred  average  trees  a  day.  Can  any  intel- 
ligent man  hesitate  to  adopt  such  a  system,  when  so  much  can 
be  gained  by  so  small  yearly  outlay. 

Old  trees  whose  vigor  has  been  checked  by  borers  at  the* 
roots  should  be  searched  in  the  spring,  and  the  worms  de- 
stroyed. 

Says  the  author  of  "Ten  Acres  Enough:''  "Ten  well  grown 
bearing  trees  which  I  found  in  the  garden  were  harboring  one 
hundred  and  ninety  worms  among  them  when  I  undertook  the 
work  of  extermination.  I  bared  the  collar  and  roots  of  each  tree 
as  far  as  I  could  track  a  worm,  and  cut  him  out.  I  then  scrubbed 
the  whole  exposed  part  with  soapsuds  and  a  regular  scrubbing- 
brush;  after  which  I  let  them  remain  exposed  for  a  week.  If 
any  worms  had  been  overlooked  the  chips  thrown  out  by  their 
operations  would  be  plainly  visible  on  the  clean  surface  at  the 


PEACHES,    PLUMS,    CHERRIES,    AND   APRICOTS. 


;53 


week's  end.  Having  tracked  and  cut  them  out  also,  I  felt  sure 
the  enemy  was  exterminated,  and  covered  up  the  roots,  but  first 
using  a  swab  of  common  tar,  applying  it  all  around  the  collar, 
and  some  distance  up." 

These  trees  were  also  trimmed,  and  for  years  have  produced 
generous  crops  of  luscious  fruit.  The  same  operation  on  nur- 
sery trees,  when  transplanted,  will  deter  the  worms  from  taking 
possession  of  the  tree.  Swab  the  stem  from  where  the  roots 
branch  out  for  about  twelve  inches  up  the  stem. 

Prevent  the  borers  from  getting  in,  and  if  they  are  already  in, 
make  all  haste  to  get  them  out. 

Varieties  of  Peaches  adapted  to  the  latitude  of  the  Northern 
New  England  States,  Northern  New  York,  etc. :  * 
Bergen's  Yellow F.  Y.  M.     George  I\^ F.  TV.  E. 


Cambridge  Belle F.  W.  M. 

Cooledge's  Favorite.. F.  W.  E. 

Crawford's  Early F.  Y.  E. 

Crawford's  Late F.  Y.  L. 

Early  York F.  W.  Y.  E. 


Grosse  Mignonne F.  W.  E. 

Large  Early  York....F.  W.  P]. 

Morris  White F.  W.  M. 

Old  Mixon  Free F.  W.  L. 

Old  Mixon  Cling! C.  W.  L. 


Varieties  of  the  Peach  adapted  to  Southern  New  England 
States,  Southern  New  York,  New  Jersey,  etc. : 


Barrington F.  W.  E. 

Bellegrade F.  W.  M. 

Cole's  Early  Red F.  W.  E. 

Cooledge's  Favorite... F.  W.  E. 

Crawford's  Early F.  Y.  E. 

Crawford's  Late F.  Y.  L. 


Druid  Hill F.  W.  L. 

Early  Newington F.  W.  E. 

Earl^  York F.W.  V.  E. 

George  IV F.  W.  E. 

Gross  Mignonne F.W.  E. 

Heath  Cling C.  W.  L. 


*  Abbreviations.  F.  Freestone.  C.  Clingstone.  V.  E.  Very  early. 
E.  Early,  or  previous  to  September.  M.  Medium,  or  previous  to  Septem- 
ber 15th.  L.  Late.  V.  L.  Very  late.  W.  White  Oe.^h.  Y.  Yellow  or 
yellowish. 


654 


HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAT. 


Large  Eauly  yoRK....F.  W.  E.  Old  Mixon  Free F.  W.  L. 

Morris  Wuite F.  W.  M.  Rodman's  Cling C.  W.  Y.  L. 

NODLESSE F.  W.  M.  Royal  George F.  W.  E. 

For  Pennsylvania  add : 

Troth's  Early  Ked....F.  W.  E.  Ward's  Late  Free..F.  W.  V.  L. 

MoLDE.v  White F.  W.  L.  Red  Rareripe F.  W.  M. 


For  Kentucky,  Vir 

Cole's  Early  Red.... 
Crawford's  Early.... 

Druid  Hill 

Cooledoe's  Favorite. 

Crawford's  Late 

Early  Tillottson...F. 

Early  York F. 

Grand  Admirable 

Haines'  Early 

Heatii  Cling 

Large  Early  York... 
Late  Red  Rareripe.. 
Old  Mixon  Free 


ginia,  Maryland,  Delaware,  etc. : 

,F.  W.  E.  Rodman's  Cling C. 

..F.  Y.  E.  Scott's  Nonpareil  — 

.F.  W.  E.  Troth's  Early 

..F.  W.  E.  George  IY 

..F.  Y.  E.  Grosse  Mignonne 

W.  V.  E.  Hale's  Early 

W.  Y.  E.  Kenrick's  Heath. ..F. 

.C.  W.  L.  Large  White  ClIxNG.. 

..F.  W.  E.  Morris  White 

.C.  W.  L.  Old  Mixon  Cling 

.F.  W.  E.  Royal  George 

.F,  W.  M.  Smock  Freestone 

•  F.  W.  L.  Yellow  Rareripe 


For  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 

Barnard F.  Y.  M 

Cooledoe's  Favorite...F.  W.  E 

Crawford's  Late F.  Y.  L 

Early  York F.  W.  Y.  E 

Grand  Admirable C.  W.  L 

Heath  Cling C.  W.  L 

Lemon  Clingstone C.  Y.  L 

Malta F.  W.  M 

Cole's  Early  Red F.  W.  E 


etc.: 

.  Crawford's  Early.... 

.  Early  Tillottson...F. 

.  George  IY 

.  Grosse  Mignonne 

.  Large  Early  York... 

.  Leopold  Clingstone.. 

.  Morris  White , 

.  Old  Mixon  Free 

.  Rodman's  Cling C. 


W.  Y.  L. 
.F.  Y.  L. 
.  F.  Y.  E. 
F.  W.  E. 
F.  W.  E. 
F.  W.  E 
W.  Y.  L 
,C.  W.  M. 
F.  W.  M. 
.C.  W.  L. 
.F.  W.  E. 
..F.  Y.  L 
F.  Y.  M. 


,.F.  Y.  E 
W.  Y.  E. 

•  F.  W.  E. 

•  E.  W.  E 
.F.  W.  E. 

F.  W.  M. 
F.  W.  L. 
W.  Y.  L 


PEACHES,    PLUMS,    CHERRIES,    AND   APRICOTS. 


555 


Troth's  Early F.  W.  E. 

Yellow  Rareripe F.  Y.  M, 

Old  Mixon  Cling C.  W,  L., 

For  the  Soutliera  States : 


Smock  Freestone F.  Y.  L. 

Ward's  Late  Free..F.  M.  V.  L. 


BEST  EIOHT  VARIETIES. 


Chinese  Cling F.  ^Y.  Y.  E. 

Early  Tillottson...F,  W.  V.  E, 

La  Grange F.  W.  V.  L. 

Stump  the  World F.  W.  L. 


Bough F.  W.  1u 

Heath  Cling C.  W.  L. 

Large  Early  York....F.  W.  E. 
Serrate  Ispahan 


SECOND  BEST. 

Early  Chelmspord....F.  W.  E.  Crawford's  Early F.  Y.  B. 

Crawford's  Late F.  Y.  L.  Harker's  Seedling 

Pvoyal  George F.  W.  E.  Georgia  Cling 

Horton's  Delicious C.  W.  L.  Large  White  Cling... C.  W.  M. 

Late  Admirable F.  W.  L.  Montgomery  Late F.  W.  E. 

Fay's  Early  Ann...F.  W.  Y.  E. 

The  American  Pomological  Society  have  approved  the  fol 
iowinor  varieties,  in  the  order  named: 


Crawford's  Early, 
Crawford's  Late, 
Old  Mixon  Free, 
Large  Early  York, 
Morris  White, 
George  IY., 
Cooledge's  Favorite, 
Early  York, 
Heath  Cling, 
Grosse  Mignonne, 
Old  Mixon  Cling, 
Troth's  Early, 
Sturtevant, 
Ward's  Late. 


Smock  Freestone, 
Cole's  Early  Red, 
Haines'  Early  Red, 
Lemon  Cling, 
Barnard, 
Jacques, 
Rodman's  Cling, 
Stump  the  World, 
Yellow  Rareripe, 
Bergen's  Yellow, 
Columbia, 
Druid  Hill, 
Grand  Admirable, 
Hall's  Early, 


556  '  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

Kenrick's  Heath,  Bellegaede, 

Late  Red  Rareripe,  Early  Tillottson, 

Scott's  Nonpareil,  Hill's  Madeira, 

Tippecanoe  Cling,  Large  White  Cling, 

Yellow  Alberge,  Malta, 

Van  Zandt's  Perfect,  Royal  George. 

(We  give  representations  of  Crawford's  Earlj  and  Early  York 
in  our  colored  Fruit  Plate.) 

Surely,  from  such  a  list  as  the  above,  every  mouth  should  be 
supplied  with  this  delicious  fruit. 

The  Plum  is  propagated  by  budding  the  choice  varieties  on 
the  common  wild  Canada  Plum  or  the  blue  Horse  Plum.  Two 
French  plums,  the  St.  Julien  and  Myroholan^  are  also  used  for 
stocks.  A  strong,  rich,  clayey  loam  is  the  best  soil  for  the 
plum, — a  porous  or  sandy  soil  harboring  so  many  insect  ene- 
mies. The  same  rules  of  careful  planting  and  after  cultivation 
apply  to  the  plum  as  to  the  pear.  The  plum  should  be  budded 
in  August  or  September.  It  is  a  vigorous  grower,  and  each 
year's  shoots  should  be  cut  back  one-half  at  the  spring  pruning, 
or  else  should  be  pinched  back  through  the  summer.  It  bears 
its  fruit  on  spurs  on  wood  two  years  old  or  more,  which  spurs 
fihould  be  cut  back,  after  the  fruit  is  gathered. 

The  best  plums  for  general  cultivation  are:  Washington, 
Coe's  Golden  Drop,  Green  Gage,  Imperial  Gage,  Lombard, 
Smith's  Orleans,  Prince's  Yellow  Gage,  Jefferson,  Bradshaw, 
Lawrence  Gage,  and  McLaughlin.  Several  other  varieties  are 
successfully  grown  in  New  York  State,  as  the  Columbia,  Dam- 
son, Duane's  Purple,  (also  successful  in  New  Jersey  and  Ohio,) 
Huling's  Superb,  Monroe,  Peach  Plum,  and  White  Magnum 
I^onum  or  Egg  Plum. 

The  Imperial  Gage  Plum  is  represented  in  our  colored  plate. 


PEACHES,   PLUMS,    CHERRIES,    AND   APRICOTS.  557 

The  Cherry  is  budded  on  tlie  Mazzard  Cherry  for  a  stock, 
for  about  two  weeks  after  midsummer,  and  is  a  doubtful  opera- 
tion, if  performed  at  any  other  time.  The  fruit  grows  on  spurs, 
like  the  plum,  and  the  tree  requires  no  pruning,  save  to  shape 
the  head.  The  following  is  a  select  list  of  cherries,  in  the 
order  of  their  ripening,  the  first  being  about  the  tenth  of  June, 
and  the  last  about  the  first  of  August : 

Early  Purple  Guigne,  Early  Eichmond, 

Belle  d'Orleaxs,  Elton, 

Governor  Wood,  Black  Eagle, 

Coe's  Transparent,  Yellow  Spanish, 

Black  Tartarian,  Dormer's  Late, 

Mayduke,  Belle  Magnifique. 

rockport. 
The  Apricot  is  budded  on  its  own  and  on  peach  and  plum 
.stocks.  The  plum  is  preferred,  and  is  best  adapted  to  heavy 
soils.  The  soil  should  be  deep  and  dry ;  the  situation  should 
be  on  the  north  or  west  side  of  a  wall  fence  or  building.  It  is 
a  delicious  fruit,  that  ripens  at  least  a  month  earlier  than  the 
best  early  peaches,  and  deserves  to  be  much  more  generally 
cultivated.  All  directions  given  for  planting  and  pruning  the 
peach  apply  to  this  fruit.  The  best  are,  the  Breda,  Early 
Golden,  Moore  Park,  Peach,  Large  Early,  Eed  Masculine,  (the 
latter  valuable  only  for  its  earliness,)  and  the  Golden  Nectarine, 
represented  in  our  colored  fruit  plate. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

DISEASES    AND    INSECTS    INJURIOUS    TO     FRUIT. 

^?HE  DISEASES  OF  FEUIT  TREES  are  mostly  the 
"■^ijl  result  of  either  neglect  in  cultivation  or  the  ravages 
J^^  of  insects.     A  thrifty,  strong,  growing  tree  is  but  little 

^^  liable  to  disease.  Thorough  drainage,  deep  cultivation, 
and  such  manuring  as  is  given  to  other  crops  will  prevent  nine- 
tenths  of  the  diseases  of  the  fruit  tree. 

The  Blight  of  the  pear,  apple,  and  quince  has  not  been 
traced  to  its  cause ;  but  the  remedy  is  to  cut  off  at  once  all  dis- 
eased parts  and  burn  them.  This  blight  spreads  rapidly,  and  it 
is  economy  even  to  cut  off  the  whole  head  of  several  valuable 
trees,  rather  than  incur  the  loss  of  the  whole  orchard.  Stag- 
nation OF  THE  Sap  is  mostly  caused  by  barrenness  of  the  soil 
and  water  at  the  roots ;  the  remedies  are  therefore  underdrain- 
ing  and  manuring.  Winter  Killing  is  the  result  of  the  expo- 
sure of  the  stem  to  the  sun.  A  few  warm  days  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  winter  starts  the  sap  and  the  buds,  and  the  succeed- 
mg  cold  weather  freezes  both.  A  northern  exposure  is  therefore 
the  best  for  such  fruits.  The  shorter  the  stem  the  less  liable  is 
the  tree  to  this  mishap.  Warts  on  the  plum  and  cherry 
should  be  cut  off  and  burned  as  soon  as  they  are  discovered,  ■ 
and  the  wound  covered  with  the  preparation  of  shellac  before  .■; 
recommended.     The  Mildew  will  not  appear  on  the  peach  in  a 

deep  dry  soil,  if  they  are  well  mulched,  manured,  and  cultivated 
558 


I 


DISEASES    AND   INSECTS    INJURIOUS    TO    FRUIT.  559 

as  recommended.  Stone  fruits  are  liable  to  become  gummed, 
vvhicli  is  a  troublesome  and  destructive  complaint.  "When  any 
large  limbs  are  pruned  from  these  trees  the  wound  should  be 
covered  with  shellac.  In  the  cherry  it  is  often  the  result  of 
tight  bark,  and  a  longitudinal  cut  in  the  smooth  bark  will 
remedy  it.  All  the  diseased  parts  should  be  scraped  off  and 
the  place  covered  with  shellac.  The  Yellows  in  the  Peach 
is  usually  the  result  of  neglect  in  cultivation.  Trees  affected 
with  it  should  be  immediately  destroyed,  and  the  balance  ma- 
nured and  cultivated. 

Nearly  all  other  diseases  of  fruit  trees  are  caused  by  insects, 
the  study  of  whose  characters  and  habits  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  in  which  we  have  ever  engaged.  The  limits  of  this 
book  will  only  allow  us  to  describe  those  most  destructive,  and 
give  plain  practical  directions  for  their  destruction.  "Wado  not 
give  the  hard  scientific  names,  which,  though  of  utmost  import- 
ance to  the  naturalist,  only  confuse  the  practical  farmer. 

The  Borer  is  common  to  most  varieties  of  fruit.  The  eggs 
from  which  they  are  hatched  are  laid  by  a  moth  or  beetle,*  in 
the  tender  bark  just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  commen- 
cing about  the  last  of  June.  The  eggs  speedily  hatch,  and  the 
worm  remains  for  a  long  time  just  under  the  surface  of  the 
bark,  and  then  eats  its  way  through  ana  through  the  wood. 
The  remedies  are  three  in  number,  and  should  a^T  he  used,  if 
complete  success  is  desired.  It  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  to 
destroy  as  many  as  possible  of  the  original  insect  that  lays  the 
egg.  This  is  done  by  building  fires  in  the  orchard  in  the  early 
evenings  in  June.  These  insects,  as  also  the  caterpillar,  moth, 
and  many  others  injurious  to  vegetation,  fly  abroad  at  this  time, 

*  The  apple  tree  borer  by  a  striped  beetle  and  the  peach  borer  by  a 
wasp-like  moth. 


5(30  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

:ire  attracted  by  the  blaze,  and  fall  easy  victims.  The  old  bark 
should  be  scraped  off  in  the  spring  for  twelve  inches  above  the 
ground  and  two  inches  under,  and  if  there  are  borers  in  the  tree 
their  holes  will  be  discernible.  Eun  a  needle  or  a  wire  into 
these  holes  and  destroy  their  occupant.  Swab  this  portion  of 
the  stem  with  tar,  or  wash  it  thoroughly  with  strong  soapsuds. 
Burn  the  old  bark  scraped  off.  Put  a  peck  or  two  of  lime  or 
ashes  around  the  stem  of  the  tree  in  May,  and  keep  it  there 
until  October,  when  it  should  be  distributed  under  the  tree. 

The  Tent  Caterpillar  is  a  terrible  foe  to  our  apple  or- 
chards. The  eggs  from  which  they  are  hatched  are  laid  in 
rings  around  small  branches,  mostly  in  July,  by  a  reddish  brown 
moth.  Each  ring  consists  of  three  or  four  hundred  eggs.  They 
are  hatched  with  the  unfolding  of  the  leaf  the  next  spring 
They  immediately  begin  to  form  a  web  or  tent  (whence  their 
name)  and  to  forage  on  the  young  leaves.  They  do  not  leave 
their  nests  until  about  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  again  at 
noon,  and  just  before  night.  They  increase  rapidly  in  size,  and 
if  neglected  devour  every  green  thing  within  their  reach.  The 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  have  every  wild  cherry  tree  cut  down 
and  burned ;  as  this  is  the  original  chosen  home  and  breeding 
place  of  this  caterpillar.  Then  this  little  circle  of  eggs  should 
be  sought  for  at  the  time  of  fall  or  spring  pruning,  scraped  off', 
and  burned.  If  any  escape  this  cleaning,  as  soon  as  their  webs 
begin  to  show  upon  the  tree,  if  where  they  can  be  reached,  strip 
them  off  at  once  with  the  gloved  hand,  and  crush  them  under 
foot  or  burn  them.  With  a  long  handled  mop  soaked  in  strong 
soapsuds  wet  the  nests  that  are  out  of  reach  of  the  hand. 

The  mop  should  be  thrust  into  the  nest,  breaking  it  open 
the  soapsuds  will  kill  every  worm  it  touches.     This  operation 
is  best  performed  in  the  morning,  before  the  caterpillars  leave 
their  nest,  and  should  be  repeated  every  few  days  until  no  more 


I 


DISEASES   AN'D   INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO    FRUIT.  561 

appear.  Lastly,  thousands  of  tlie  moths,  and  thus  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  eggs,  can  be  destroyed  by  building  fires  in  the  or- 
chards as  before  recommended.  Not  only  use  these  preventive 
means  yourself,  but  urge  the  same  upon  all  your  neighbors. 

The  Canker  WoR:sr  is  by  many  confounded  with  the  tent 
caterpillar,  but  is  of  a  different  habit,  and  requires  different  pre- 
ventive measures.  The  female  moth  of  this  species  is  wingless. 
They  begin  to  come  out  of  the  ground  early  in  the  spring,  and 
crawling  to  the  nearest  tree  deposit  their  eggs  upon  the  branches, 
and  then  die.  The  eggs  hatch  about  May  first  to  fiheenth,  and 
the  worm  immediately  commences  its  ravages,  which  are  often 
fearful.  Vv'lien  they  attain  their  full  growth  they  are  about 
an  inch  in  length,  from  whence  they  are  often  called  inch 
worms.  They  attain  their  growth  in  about  four  weeks,  when 
they  drop  or  crawl  to  the  ground  and  descend  into  it  until 
another  season.  To  prevent  these  operations  is  more  difficult 
than  with  the  caterpillar,  but  an  application  of  melted  rubber 
around  the  trunk  will  prevent  most  of  the  females  from  ascend- 
ing the  tree.  A  band  of  grafting  clay  about  the  trunk  and 
covered  with  tar  will  answer  the  same  purpose.  The  orchard 
infested  with  canker  worms  should  be  plowed  up  in  the  fall, 
and  the  pigs  and  poultry  turned  into  it.  Bark  Lice  are  often 
found  on  young  trees  in  great  quantities;  they  should  be 
washed  off  with  a  strong  solution  of  soapsuds.  If  found  on 
old  trees,  the  old  dead  bark  shoula  be  all  scraped  off  and 
soapsuds  scrubbed  into  every  crack  and  crevice  with  a  brush, 
as  high  up  as  you  can  reach. 

The  Apple  Worm  is  hatched  by  a  small  gray- winged  moth, 
which  appears  in  great  numbers  the  first  warm  evenings  in  June, 
and  lays  its  eggs  in  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit,  where  soon 
hatches  the  little  grub  which  eats  its  way  into  and  spoils  the 
apple,  causing  it  to  fall  prematurely  to  the  ground.     Soon  after 


5(32  now  TO  make  the  farm  pay. 

it  falls  the  worm  makes  its  escape,  either  into  the  ground  or 
under  the  bark  of  the  tree,  until  the  following  spring,  when  the 
young  moth  again  emerges.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  destroy  as  many  as  possible  of  these 
moths,  by  building  fires  in  the  orchard  at  the  time  of  their  ap- 
pearance. When  convenient,  turn  the  pigs  and  poultry  into  the 
orchard  as  soon  as  the  apples  begin  to  fall,  or  pick  up  the  fallen 
fruit  every  'day,  and  feed  it  to  the  hogs,  or  burn  it.  Thus  the 
worms  are  destroyed  before  they  leave  the  fruit.  An  old  cloth 
placed  in  the  crotch  of  the  tree  when  the  fruit  is  falling  will 
attract  many  of  the  worms,  and  they  can  be  readily  destroyed. 

The  old  bark  should  be  scraped  off  every  spring,  until  yor 
are  rid  of  all  worms  at  least.  Pear  trees  are  subject  to  severs' 
insects  of  the  bark,  Avhich  must  be  removed  by  scrubbing  with 
a  stiff  brush  and  a  solution  of  potash,  one  pound  to  two  gallons 
of  water,  or  whale-oil  soap,  one  pound  to  three  gallons  of  water  , 
these  washes  should  not  be  applied  so  strong  when  the  tree  is  in 
full  foliage,  and  may  be  made  stronger  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf. 

The  Slug  is  another  enemy  of  both  the  pear  and  cherry 
It  resembles  the  snail,  and  eats  the  leaf.     Soapsuds  or  strong 
tobaccco  water  will  destroy  him. 

The  CuiiCULio  is  the  great  enemy  of  the  plum  species,  and 
often  attacks  other  fruits.  It  is  a  small  brown  insect,  which 
makes  a  crescent  shaped  incision  in  the  fruit,  and  in  it  deposits 
its  eggs.  This  is  done  mostly  in  May  and  June.  The  grub  is 
.soon  hatched,  and  eats  its  way  to  the  stone,  when  the  fruit  drops 
from  the  tree,  and  the  grub  escapes  into  the  ground.  These 
troublesome  little  insects  appropriate  to  themselves  whole  or- 
chards of  fruit,  first  the  apricot,  plum  and  cherry,  then  the 
apple,  pear,  poach,  and  other  fruits.  The  apricot  and  plum 
being  first  attacked,  the  work  of  destruction  must  commence 
Mere.     When    the   Curculio    first    makes    its    appearance   in 


DISEASES   AND    IXSECT3   INJURIOUS    TO    FRUIT.  563 

numbers,  place  a  sheet  on  the  ground  under  the  tree,  aud  strike 
the  trunk  with  a  wooden  mallet,  (cover  the  head  with  cloth  so 
as  not  to  bruise  the  bark,)  and  thej  will  fall,  all  curled  up,  and 
apparently  lifeless,  when  they  can  easily  be  collected  and  de- 
stroyed. Repeat  this  every  morning  for  a  week.  When  the 
fruit  begins  to  fall  gather  it  up  .every  day  and  destroy  it,  or  let 
the  pigs  do  it  for  you*  On  account  of  the  curculio,  the  soil  for 
the  plum  should  be  heavy  clay,  and  never  cultivated ;  the 
harder  the  ground  under  the  tree  the  less  chance  is  there  for  the 
burrowing  and  hatching  of  the  grub.  Paving  under  the  trees 
or  a  coating  of  mortar  prevents  this. 

In  all  this  work  of  destroying  our  insect  enemies  we  are 
aided  by  the  numerous  birds  of  the  orchard  and  the  garden. 
They  should  therefore  be  encouraged  in  every  possible  way  to 
take  up  their  abodes  with  us.  The  English  Sparrows  are  to 
be  especially  recommended  for  this  purpose.  If  every  farmer 
would  place  one  or  more  pairs  of  these  little  friends  in  his 
orchard,  they  and  their  rapidly  increasing  progeny  would  soon 
save  many  dollars  worth  of  fruit  from  the  insect  destroyer. 
Their  wanton  destruction  by  thoughtless  men  or  boys  is  not 
only  cruel,  but  costly. 

*A  careful  fruit  grower  informs  us  that  ho  drives  a  spike  into  the  tree 
just  under  the  largest  branch,  and  strilies  the  spike  when  he  wishes  to  jar 
the  tree. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

CRAPE    CULTURE    AND    WINE    MAKING. 

^THE  CORNER  STONES  OF  GRAPE  CULTURE  are 
";  l|!  underdraining,  deep  and  thorough  preparation  of  the 
y^^.  soil,  horizontal  training,  and  renewal  pruning.  Under- 
^(s  draining  has  been  already  fully  described.  The  subse- 
quent operations  are  treated  of  in  this  Chapter. 

Vineyard  Culture.  The  soil  in  which  the  grape  will  not 
grow  is  hardly  to  be  found.  Limestone  soils  are  best,  as  they 
need  the  least  preparation.  A  loose,  friable  soil,  whether  it  be 
sand,  gravel,  or  loam,  is  rather  to  be  chosen,  than  clay  or  muck, 
although  even  these  may  be  reclaimed.  The  situation  should 
be  one  protected  from  the  north  winds.  This  may  be  secured 
by  planting  on  the  southern,  eastern,  or  southeastern  slope  of  a 
hill ;  or,  if  this  cannot  be  secured,  a  belt  of  woods  at  the  north 
will  answer  the  purpose;  but  where  neither  of  these  can  be 
had,  a  belt  of  evergreens  should  be  planted  across  the  northern 
end  of  the  vineyard,  at  least  thirty  feet  from  where  the  vines 
are  to  stand.  The  valley  of  a  small  stream  is  unfavorable, 
•while  the  valley  of  a  large  stream,  or  the  vicinity  of  a  large 
body  of  water,  is  desirable.  Whatever  the  situation,  the  soil 
must  be  made  perfectly  dry  and  open  by  underdraining. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Soil  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost 
importance,  and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  is  not  an 

ordinary  crop,  and  does  not  require  an  annual  preparation,  but 
504 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE  MAKING.         565 

it  is  one  that  requires  but  one  planting  in  a  lifetime,  while  it 
will  reward  us  with  annual  harvests.  Many  of  the  new  soils  in 
our  Western  States  need  no  manures ;  but  a  soil  not  naturally 
adapted  to  the  grape,  or  partially  exhausted,  will  need  various 
additions.  If  the  soil  is  not  surcharged  with  lime  a  liberal 
dressing  of  it  will  always  be  beneficial.  When  the  soil  is 
sandy  or  gravelly,  it  will  require  an  abundant  dressing  of  barn- 
yard manure,  muck,  leaf  mould,  or  the  plowing  under  of  green 
crops.  Muck  and  leaf  mould  are  especially  valuable  on  such, 
soils,  and  thousands  of  acres  of  almost  barren,  sandy  soils, 
in  the  Eastern  States,  by  the  application  of  leaf  mould  from 
the  adjoining  forest  or  muck  from  the  neighboring  swamp, 
might  be  made  to  bear  most  luxuriant  and  profitable  crops  of 
the  grape.  Such  soils,  thus  amended,  are  easily  worked,  are 
already  underdrained,  and  produce  the  richest  quality  of  fruit. 
Whatever  the  soil,  it  should  be  plowed  and  subsoiled  to  the 
depth  of  twenty  inches,  and  manured  with  a  compost  of  peat 
or  muck  and  leaf  nlould,  with  old  well  rotted  stable  manure. 
This  compost  should  be  made  several  months  before  it  is 
applied,  and  thoroughly  forked  over  frequently  before  using. 
Ashes,  lime,  bones,  or  charcoal  will  always  prove  a  valuable 
addition.  A  few  soils  will  do  without  any  application  but  a 
top  dressing  of  lime,  harrowed  in ;  others  will  require  a  light 
dressing  of  fifty  loads  to  the  acre,  and  from  this  up  to  two  or 
ihree  hundred  loads.  Where  the  barnyard  manure  cannot  be 
obtained,  the  compost  may  be  made  without  it,  adding  lime 
ashes  and  a  bushel  of  salt  to  every  ten  loads.  This  compost 
should  stand  at  least  six  months,  and  be  frequently  forked  over. 
Whichever  compost  is  used,  it  should  be  applied  after  the  plow- 
ing and  subsoiling,  and  cross  plowed  in,  then  harrowed  and 
cross  harrowed,  as  complete  pulverization  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance  to  the  young  vines.      "Will   all   this   pay?"      We 


56t;  ^o^Y  to  make  the  farm  pay. 

answer  that  tliere  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it  will  pay  mist 
abundantly.  After  the  preparation  of  tlie  soil  and  planting  of 
the  vine,  the  expense  of  culture  is  small,  while  the  crops  con- 
tinue and  increase. 

Propagation'  from  Seeds  and  Layers,  but  principally 
KiJOM  Cuttings.  The  seeds  are  cleaned  and  sown  exactly  as 
described  for  the  pear.  This  process  is  not  common,  but  is 
both  interesting  and  profitable.  Grape  Vines  are  usually 
bought  of  the  nurseryman,  but  for  several  reasons  we  recon-i- 
mend  the  raising  each  man  of  his  own.  Of  course,  the  first 
vines  must  be  procured  from  some  other  source.  Select  two  or 
three  varieties  which  you  wish  to  cultivate,  and  order  two  or 
tliree  vines  of  each  kind.  Prepare  a  border  three  feet  deep 
will!  leaf  mould,  etc.  Set  the  vines  as  described  elsewhere. 
{See  Fig.  123.)  Only  one  shoot  should  be  allowed  to  grow  the 
first  season ;  all  others  must  be  rubbed  off.  Train  this  cane  to 
an  upright  stake  six  or  eight  feet  high.  It  is  not  best  to  let 
it  grow  higher  than  this ;  pinch  off  the  top  if  it  does.  In  the 
autumn  cut  it  down  to  four  buds,  and  in  the  extreme  north 
protect  the  vine  with  straw  thiough  the  winter.  Two  of  the 
buds  only  should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  spring.  If  any 
fruit  clusters  appear,  pinch  them  off;  also  all  laterals  above  the 
first  leaf  and  all  tendrils:  the  object  is  strong  wood.  Pinch 
the  tops  as  before,  if  they  grow  above  the  stake.  In  the  au- 
tumn one  of  these  canes  should  be  again  cut  down  to  two  buds, 
and  the  other  about  one-third  its  length  ;  if  the  cane  is  six  feet 
this  will  leave  four  feet.  If  it  is  desirable  to  protect  the  vine, 
it  can  be  bent  down  and  covered  with  straw  or  earth.  These 
four  feet  canes  wc  intend  for  layering,  and  the  wood  cut  off  for 
cuUirigs.  The  length  of  wood  cut  from  these  ten  vines,  sup- 
posing the  canes  to  have  been  only  six  feet  long,  will  be  forty 
feet,  whicfi  will  make  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 


GRAPE   CULTUEE    AND   WINE   MAKING.  5G7 

twenty  cuttings.  Eacli  cutting  should  have  at  least  two  Luds. 
{See  Fig.  123.)  The  cuttings  will  be  from  four  to  six  inches  in 
length.  These  cuttings  should  be  packed  in  boxes  in  moist 
sand  or  damp  moss,  and  buried  out  of  reach  of  frost,  or  put  in 
the  cellar.  In  the  South  thej  may  be  set  out  in  the  fall,  and 
wc  have  set  them  out  in  Massachusetts  in  the  fall,  and  protected 
them  until  spring  with  heavy  coatings  of  manure  and  mulch; 
but  the  safest  way,  as  far  north  as  this,  is  to  pack  them  away 
until  spring.  The  cutting  bed  sliould  be  prepared  early  in  the 
fall.  Supposing  we  have  one  hundred  cuttings,  we  want  a  bed 
two  rods  long  and  four  feet  wide.  This  should  be  trenched  two 
feet  deep  and  the  compost  worked  in  to  the  depth  of  eighteen, 
inches.  Six  inches  of  the  compost  with  two  pecks  of  ashes 
will  make  a  good  bed.  In  all  these  applications  leaf  mould  is 
especially  valuable.  The  trenches  for  the  cuttings  should  be  a 
little  deeper  than  the  length  of  the  cutting  and  nearly  perpen- 
dicular on  one  side.  {See  Fig.  123.)  The  cuttings  should  be 
placed  from  three  to  four  inches  apart  in  the  trench,  and  the 
trenches  two  feet  apart.  Fig.  123  shows  the  position  of  the 
cutting  when  set.  The  top  of  the  bud,  however,  should  be 
about  one  inch  below  the  level  of  the  surface.  The  earth 
should  be  pressed  carefully,  but  closely,  about  the  cuiting  at 
the  bottom,  and  more  loosely  about  the  upper  bud,  which 
should  be  just  covered.  This  will  leave  the  trench  an  inch 
lower  than  the  surface.  After  the  bud  has  made  a  shoot  of  two 
or  three  inches  the  trench  may  be  filled,  covering  the  bml  one 
inch  and  mulching  the  ground  on  each  side  the  rows.  These 
cuttings  will  make  a  growth  of  from  three  to  six  feet,  and 
should  be  kept  tied  to  stakes  to  help  the  ripening  of  the  wood. 
In  the  autumn  they  should  be  transplanted,  but  not  yet  to  the 
vineyard.  [See  Transplanting) 

The  third  method  of  propagation  is  by  layers.    We  left  a  cane 


5o8  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PA^. 

four  feet  long  on  each  of  our  original  ten  vines,  for  Layering. 
This  ia  the  most  certain  method  in  use,  although  the  nuniLer 
of  pkntJ  obtained  is  not  so  large.  We  would  say  here  that  un- 
lc58  the  vine  makes  a  very  vigorous  growth,  it  is  better  to  delay 
layering  until  the  third  season,  cutting  hoih  canes  back  to  two 
buds  instead  of  one,  as  recommended  above.  When,  however,  it 
is  decided  to  layer  the  vine,  uncover  it,  if  coyered,  as  soon  as  the 
fn)sts  are  passed,  and^when  the  buds  j^et  well  started  dig  a 
trench  from  the  vine  six  inches  wide,  from  four  to  six  inches 
deep,  and  long  enough  to  receive  the  cane,  wliich  should  be 
bent  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and  fastened  there  by 
hooked  pegs  or  fiat  stones.  The  vine  should  lie  flat  in  the 
bottom  of  the  t,rench.  {Fig.  124.)  Let  it  remain  until  the 
shoots  have  grov/n  three  or  four  inches,  then  rub  off  those  not 
wanted.  Four  shoots  for  a  four  feet  vine  is  a  good  rule  to 
follow  in  this  selection.  Drive  down  a  stake  by  the  side  of  each 
and  draw  an  inch  of  soil  into  the  trench.  In  ten  days  or  a  fort- 
night a  little  more  dirt  can  be  drawn  in,  and  so  on,  until  the 
whole  trench  is  filled.  Never  fill  the  trench  when  the  vine  is 
layered  in  the  spring,  v.&  it  will  be  likely  to  cause  rot.  Each 
of  the  shoots  should  be  trained  to  a  stake,  and  no  one  cane  al- 
lowed to  take  too  much  of  the  sap.  If  one  shoot  gets  the  start 
of  the  others  it  must  be  pinched  off.  Hoe  the  ground  frequently 
through  the  summer,  or  else  mulch  it  to  keep  down  the  weeds, 
and  absorb  the  moisture.  The  other  cane  that  was  cut  down  to 
two  buds  .should  be  allowed  to  produce  two  or  three  shoots  only, 
and  all  laterals,  tendrils,  and  fruit  clusters  taken  off',  unless  you 
wish  to  perfect  a  few  bunches  to  test  their  quality,  when  only 
two  shoots  should  be  allowed  to  grow,  and  a  single  bunch  of 
fruit  allowed  to  m;iturc  on  each  one.  It  is  not  best  to  make 
layers  and  take  fruit  from  the  same  plant. 
Layers  can  be  taken  from  the  parent  vine  in  the  fall  or  the 


GRAPE    CULTURE   AND  WINE    MAKING.  569 

following  spring.  Eemember  in  taking  up  and  cutting  the 
layers  that  the  roots  should  be  towards  the  parent  vine,  so  that 
•  the  sap  will  not  have  to  go  backwards.  The  further  treatment 
of  these  layers  will  be  treated  in  remarks  on  transplanting 
This  same  process  of  cutting  down  one  cane  and  layering 
another  can  be  carried  on  so  long  as  vines  are  wanted,  provided 
that  every  year  the  plant  makes  a  vigorous  growth  of  wood, 
but  if  it  does  not  it  should  have  a  year  of  rest.  It  is  now  three 
years  since  we  planted  the  original  ten  vines,  and  we  have  at 
least  one  hundred  and  fifty  vines  ready  for  transplanting.  Not 
only  will  you  have  better  plants,  and  at  a  less  cost,  than  when 
procured  from  a  nursery,  but  you  will  have  practical  experience 
of  the  habits  of  the  vine  that  will  be  of  value  to  you  in  future 
cultivation. 

Transplanting  should  be  done  in  the  autumn,  after  the  fall 
of  the  leaf,  except  with  tender  varieties  and  extreme  northern 
latitudes. 

The  vines,  whether  layers  or  cuttings,  should  be  taken  up  very 
carefully  with  a  spading  fork,  preserving  all  the  roots  if  possi- 
ble. These  roots  can  then  be  cut  carefully  and  evenly.  A 
small  portion  of  the  roots,  if  well  covered  with  fine  fibrous  root- 
lets, will  answer  the  purposes  of  the  plant.  If  transplanted  in 
the  spring  the  stem  cane  should  be  cut  down  to  two  buds,  if  in 
the  fall  four  should  be  left  from  which  to  select  two  in  the 
spring.  Whether  to  be  planted  in  the  fall  or  no,  it  is  better  to 
take  up  the  plants,  and  cut  back  the  head  and  roots  in  the  fall, 
which  is  also  much  the  best  time  to  get  plants  from  the  nursery. 
These  plants  should  be  heeled  in  for  the  winter,  which  consists 
in  covering  the  roots  and  most  of  the  stem  with  mellow  earth 
and  straw  to  protect  from  frost.  In  transplanting,  the  roots 
should  be  left  exposed  to  the  air  as  little  as  possible. 

The  trench  should   be  dug  before  the  vines  are  taken  up. 


570  now  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

This  trench  should  be  eighteen  inches  wide,  three  deep  on  one 
Bide  and  five  on  the  other,  and  tlie  vines  set  in  it,  as  in  Fig.  125, 
three  feet  apart.  The  benefit  of  this  transphanting  to  the  nur- 
sery a  year  before  the  final  transplanting  to  tne  vineyard  will 
be  [?reat  and  lasting.  The  soil  in  the  nursery  should  be  pre- 
pared just  as  directed  for  the  cutting  bed.  Well  grown  layers 
mav  sometimes  be  transplanted  at  once  to  the  vineyard,  but  will 
be  permanently  benefited  by  a  second  transplanting.  They 
should  daring  this  season  in  the  nursery  be  trained  to  upright 
stakes,  and  all  laterals  and  tendrils  pinched  oft'.  And  as  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  speak  often  of  laterals  and  tendrils  we 
will  explain  what  we  mean.  A  lateral  is  a  small  branch  which 
grows  from  the  axel  or  arm  pit  of  the  leaf,  close  between  the  leaf 
and  the  stem  of  the  vine.  It  will  not  do  to  take  it  out  wholly, 
but  when  it  has  made  two  or  three  leaves  pinch  off  all  but  one  ; 
if  it  starts  again,  pinch  again,  leaving  one  more  leaf.  A  tendril 
is  a  curling  stem  which  grows  opposite  a  bud  or  leaf,  without 
fruiting,  and  should  be  cut  off. 

After  standing  one  season  in  the  nursery  comes  their  final 
transplanting  to  the  vineyard.  We  speak  of  the  cutting  bed 
nursery  and  vineyard,  as  of  three  separate  places,  but  the  two 
former  may  well  bo  in  a  corner  of  the  latter.  The  holes  for  the 
plants  should  be  dug  before  they  are  removed.  The  rows 
should  run  east  and  west  six  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  four  feet 
apart  in  the  rows.  If  in  after  years  these  should  be  found  too 
close,  an  arm  can  be  cut  off  to  give  the  desired  room.  If  the 
roots  upon  the  vines  when  taken  from  the  nursery  are  circular, 
as  is  usually  the  case  with  cuttings,  the  holes  should  be  circular, 
SIX  inches  deep  at  the  edges,  and  two  or  three  deep  in  the 
centre.  If  the  roots  are  all  on  one  side,  as  is  often  the  case  with 
layers,  the  square  hole  will  accommodate  them,  the  tips  of  the 
roots  being  placed  lower  than  the  base.     {Figs.  125  and  126.) 


GRAPE   CULTURE   AND   WINE    MAKING.  571 

The  same  rules  for  cutting  back  roots  and  cane  apply  liere 
as  before.  The  soil  should  be  pressed  closely  about  the  roots 
and  protected  from  the  frost  by  straw.  Unless  the  trellis  is  set 
before  planting,  a  stout  stake  eight  feet  long  should  be  driven 
firmly  into  each  hole  before  the  vines  are  set.  The  roots  should 
be  carefully  spread  out  before  covering  them.  In  fall  planting 
a  little  mound  should  be  raised  about  the  stem  to  protect  tho 
lower  buds ;  in  spring  planting  this  is  reversed,  and  a  hollow  left 
about  the  stem,  to  collect  the  rains,  which  shoukl  be  filled,  and 
the  ground  mulched  as  soon  as  the  vine  gets  well  started  into 
growth. 

Five  years  have  now  passed  since  the  purchase  of  the  first 
vines.  Let  us  review  them.  The  first  year  we  grew  a  single 
cane  on  each  vine,  which  when  cat  afforded  us  say  thirty  cut- 
tings. The  second  we  grew  these  thirty  cuttings,  also  twenty 
canes  on  the  ten  vines,  which  made  us  say  one  hundred  cuttings. 
The  third  year  we  transplanted  the  thirty  cuttings  to  the  nur- 
sery, grew  one  hundred  more  cuttings  and  forty  plants  by  layer- 
ing, and  made,  if  we  saved  the  wood  cut  from  all  the  vines  at 
transplanting,  over  six  hundred  cuttings;  the  fourth  year  we 
transplanted  one  hundred  and  forty  plants  to  the  nursery,  and 
grew  the  six  hundred  cuttings.  At  the  end  of  tho  fifth  year  we 
have  eight  hundred  plants  in  the  vineyard,  (one  hundred  and 
seventy  of  them  having  been  there  a  year,  and  borne  a  sample 
cluster  of  fruit  each,)  an  indefinite  number  of  plants  in  the  nur- 
sery, and  several  thousands  in  the  cutting  bed,  if  we  made  all 
the  pruned  wood  into  cuttings.  It  may  be  well  to  do  this,  for 
grape  growing  is  contagious,  and  some  of  your  neighbors  will 
by  this  time  have  the  fever,  and  you  can  supply  them  with 
better  plants  at  a  less  price  than  the  nurseryman.  Encourage 
all  your  neighbors  to  go  into  it  and  give  them  such  advice  as 
you  can,  for  the  business  cannot  be  overdone,  and  the  more 


572  110\V   TO    MAKE   THE   FAEM    PAY. 

there  nre  raised  in  a  given  locality  the  more  readily  will  you 
find  a  market  for  them.     Parchasers  M'ill  come  where  the  goods 

ftrc. 

Pi;iMN"i  AXD  Traixixg.  Pruning  commences  as  soon  as 
the  vine  begins  to  grow,  for  the  pinching  off  of  the  laterals,  tops, 
tendril.s,  buds,  or  shoots  is  pruning.  But  pruning  for  the  pur- 
poses of  training,  only  commences  with  the  second  year  of  the 
vine  in  the  vineyard.  We  shall  give  three  methods  of  pruning 
and  training  the  vine,  in  the  order  in  which  we  value  them. 
The  best  system  we  have  ever  seen  is  the  horizontal  arm  train- 
ing. Tlie/r5^  year  in  the  vineyard  the  vine  is  only  allowed  to 
grow  one  upright  cane,  which  is  cut  back  in  the  foil  to  four 
buds,  two  of  which  are  allowed  to  gvovr  the  second  year.  In 
both  cases  they  should  be  kept  tied  to  a  stake  and  all  laterals, 
tendrils,  etc.,  pinched  as  before  directed.  A  single  cluster  of 
fruit  may  be  allowed  to  grow  on  each  strong  cane  the  second 
year,  as  a  sample  of  Avhat  may  be  expected  in  abundance  by 
and  by.  If  the  cane  makes  a  strong,  vigorous  growth  of  from 
si.K  to  ten  feet,  cut  each  cane  back  to  four  feet,  and  bend  the 
ends  down  to  the  ground  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stock  and 
fasten  thoni  with  hooked  pegs.  The  Teellis  should  now  be 
built,  if  not  already  done.  If  done  before  planting  the  vines,  it 
obviates  the  use  of  the  stake  and  is  ready  whenever  wanted. 
The  best  Ibrni  of  trellis  is  that  with  upright  instead  of  horizon- 
tal wires.  A  ten  or  twelve  foot  post  is  set  in  the  ground 
between  the  vines,  which  for  this  purpose  should  be  eight  feet 
apart  in  the  rows.  Cross  bars  are  nailed  across,  one  twelve  to 
fourteen  inches  from  the  ground  and  the  other  at  the  top,  say  six 
to  eight  feet  from  the  ground.  When  the  vine  is  taken  up  in 
tlie  spring,  stretch  the  arras  along  the  lower  bar  and  make  a 
mark  on  the  bar  where  each  shoot  is  to  grow;  drive  a  nail  into 
^  the  bar  at  the  mark  and  one  into  the  upper  bar  directlv  above 


GRAPli   CULTURE   AND   WIXE   MAKING.  573 

it,  and  stretch  number  sixteen  galvanized  wire  between  the  two 
points.  Tliis  trellis  is  cheaper  and  bette^^  than  the  horizontal 
wire  trellis  commonly  used.  Cheaper,  because  number  sixteen 
wire  can  be  used  instead  of  number  ten,  which  gives  one 
hundred  feet  to  the  pound,  while  number  ten  gives  only 
twenty  feet  lo  the  pound.  Better,  because  the  wires  are  just 
where  you  want  them  to  train  the  shoots  to.  When  the  vine  is 
taken  up  in  the  spring,  fasten  the  two  arms  along  the  lower  bar 
and  select  three  or  four  buds  on  the  upper  side  of  each  arm. 
If  the  vines  have  grown  strong,  the  buds  will  be  from  four  to 
six  inches  apart,  in  which  case  nearly  all  the  buds  on  the  upper 
side  will  be  left ;  all  others  should  be  rubbed  off.  AVhere  there 
is  a  bud  missing  on  the  upper  side  an  under  bud  may  be 
trained  up  to  fill  its  place.  As  soon  as  these  shoots  get  long 
enough  they  should  be  tied  to  the  wires.  Each  one  of  these 
upright  canes  will  usually  set  a  few  bunches  of  fruit.  If  the  vine 
is  very  strong  and  vigorous,  each  may  be  allowed  to"  bear  three 
or  four  bunches.  When  these  upright  canes  have  grown  about 
two  feet,  they  should  be  stopped,  by  pinching  off  their  ends, 
say  from  two  to  four  leaves  beyond  the  last  bunch  of  fruit;  they 
will  soon  start  again,  and  after  a  few  inches  growth  should  be 
stopped  again.  All  the  laterals  should  be  pinched  the  same  aa 
on  young  vines.  At  the  winter  pruning,  these  canes  are  to  be 
cut  down  to  three  buds,  two  of  which  are  to  be  allowed  to 
grow  the  next  season.  This  is  the  sixth  year  from  the  cutting, 
and  the  fourth  year  of  the  vine  in  the  vineyard,  and  one  of  the 
canes  from  each  spur  may  be  allowed  to  ripen  all  the  fruit  it 
will.  The  principle  of  pruning  now  is  to  let  one-half  the  vine 
bear  one  year  and  the  other  the  next.  From  each  spur  on 
horizontal  arms  let  two  canes  grow  every  year,  and  rub  off  all 
others  aa  soon  as  they  appear.  The  cane  that  bears  this  year 
should  be  cut  clear  away,  and  the  other  cut  down  to  two  buds. 


574  now  TO  make  tite  taum  pay. 

Never  let  the  same  cane  bear  twice,  nor  let  one  cane  grow 
taller  than  the  others  and  rob  them  of  their  nourishment.  {Fig. 
183  explained  on  page  60-i,)  represents  this  system  of  horizontal 
ftrm  tniining  and  alternate  renewal 

The  Objections  urged  against  grape  culiure  are,  that  the 
preparation  of  the  ground  is  toe  expensive ;  the  cost  of  the  vines 
too  great;  the  trellis  too  expensive;  pruning  too  complicated; 
the  life  of 'the  vines  too  urtcertain;  the  time  before  the  returns 
come  in  too  long ;  and  the  market  too  uncertain.  Every  one 
of  these  objections  arises  from  an  entire  misapprehension.  The 
grape  does  not  require  large  quantities  of  barnyard  manure  oi 
fertilizers ;  if  it  did  it  would  pay  to  give  it  all  it  required  to 
the  amount  of  one  thousand  dollars  per  acre  ;  but  its  wants  are 
very  simple,  being  confined  to  a  little  lime,  and  plenty  of  leaf 
mould  and  muck,  which  can  usually  be  had  for  the  drawmg. 
Can  it  possibly  cost  over  one  dollar  per  load  ?  Allow  one 
hundred  loads  to  the  acre,  and  you  have  a  cost  of  one  hundred 
dollars.  Add  to  tliis  the  cost  of  plowing,  subsoiling,  cross- 
plowing  after  the  manure  is  put  on,  harrowing  and  cross- 
harrowing,  and  you  have  an  acre  prepared  for  a  crop  that  will 
bear  for  fifty  years. 

We  say  nothing  about  underdraining,  because  a  soil  that  is 
too  wet  should  be  underdrained,  whatever  crop  you  put  on  it. 
Again,  tens  of  thousands  of  acres  in  every  Eastern  State  which 
arc  almost  worthless  for  any  other  crop,  if  prepared  in  this  way 
will  at  once  increase  in  value  tenfold,  and  will  make  returns 
in  grapes  that  will  astonish  their  owners. 

The  cost  of  plants  is  a  heavy  item  when  they  are  bought  at 
the  nursery,  but,  by  the  plan  we  have  recommended,  from  ten 
vines  you  can  in  four  years  raise  all  the  plants  you  will  want 
for  an  acre,  and  sell  cuttings  enough  to  pay  the  whole  expense 
The  demand  for  plants  is  immense  and  increasing,  and  must 


GRAPE    CULTURE    AXD    WIXE    MAKIXG.  07o 

increase  for  years  to  come.  The  grape  fever  is  on  the  country, 
and  nurserymen,  to  supply  the  demand,  are  using  everything  hi 
the  shape  of  grape  wood  to  make  phints  from.  They  are  no 
doubt  doing  the  best  they  can  under  the  circumstances,  but 
even  by  their  forcing  they  cannot  begin  to  supply  the  demand, 
and  we  cannot  blame  them  if  they  get  theii  own  prices.  They 
can  make  better  plants,  and  cheaper  than  you  can,  but  they  icill 
not  do  it  as  long  as  they  can  get  full  prices  for  everything  that 
has  a  root  to  it.  You  can  manage  to  raise  all  the  plants  you 
need  and  make  the  cuttings  pay  the  expense. 

The  trellis  will  be  the  next  item  of  expense,  but  by  the  plan 
we  have  recommended  you  get  a  much  better  trellis  for  your 
money,  than  by  the  old  plan  of  horizontal  wires,  which  neces- 
sitated the  use  of  number  ten  wire. 

Six  hundred  posts  to  the  acre  will  be  the  largest  number  3'ou 
can  possibly  need,  even  for  the  moderate  growing  varieties,  and 
ought  to  be  had  for  sixty  dollars.  If  the  ends  are  tarred  or 
charred  before  they  are  set,  they  will  last  a  long  time.  Cedar 
posts  are  considered  the  best  when  they  are  to  be  obtained. 
Tins  will  necessitate  twelve  hundred  cross  bars  an  inch  thick 
by  two  and  a  half  or  three  inches  wide,  and  eiglit  feet  long.  In 
the  Eastern  States,  where  everv  farmer  owns  timber  land,  these 
can  be  got  out  with  but  little  actual  outlay.  An  acre  trained 
and  trellised  as  we  have  recommended  will  require  three 
hundred  pounds  of  wire,  which  at  twenty  cents  per  pound  (the 
highest  price  we  have  ever  paid)  will  cost  sixty  dollars.  Use 
galvanized  wire,  as  it  lasts  much  longer  than  the  common 
annealed  wire. 

Pruning  is  not  complicated  nor  dif&cult,  but  as  simple  as  the 
alphabet,  and  a  boy  may  do  the  fall  pruning  of  one  hundred 
full  grown  vines  in  a  day.  Take,  for  example,  a  vine  Avith  two 
arras  of  five  feet  each,  and   five  spurs  on  each  arm,  and  two 


576  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

canes  to  each  spur,  just  twenty  cuts  with  the  pruning  shears 
are  required  to  prune  this  vine.  We  allow  two  minutes  to 
each  vine  of  this  size,  or  thirty  an  hour.  Cut  away  the  cane 
that  has  borne  the  previous  season,  and  cut  the  other  down 
to  throe  or  four  buds.  The  vines  are  free  from  leaves. 
niul  the  place  to  cut  is  easily  discerned.  It  is  the  summer 
pinching  of  the  laterals,  tendrils,  and  tops  that  requires  the 
most  trouble,  but  this  is  exceedingly  simple,  as  we  have  already 

pliown. 

In  a  mild  climate,  pruning  can  be  done  at  any  time  between 
the  foil  of  the  leaf  and  the  starting  of  the  sap ;  in  the  Middle 
State.-?,  either  in  the  fall  or  spring,  and  only  in  the  extreme 
Northern  States  must  be  delayed  until  February  or  March. 
Neither  is  the  life  of  the  vine  uncertain,  unless  abused.  There 
are  many  cases  of  vines  on  record  that  have  borne  for  over 
one  hundred  years,  and  some  that  have  borne  for  upwards 
of  four  hundred  years.  A  selection  of  hardy  varieties  and 
winter  protection,  while  young  and  tender,  will  secure  fine 
crops  of  grapes,  in  our  extreme  Northern  States,  and  nothing 
but  the  utmost  negligence  will  produce  the  death  of  the  vine, 
south  of  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and  Iowa.  Excessive  bear- 
ing while  young  will  so  weaken  the  vine  that  it  will  be  winter 
killed,  north  of  these  boundaries,  and  winter  protection  is  a 
decided  benefit  south  of  them.  A  very  simple  method  of  pro- 
tecting the  vines,  is  to  bend  down  the  arms  after  the  fall 
pruning,  and  shovel  on  earth  enough  to  hold  them  down,  then 
run  the  plow  through  and  throw  a  furrow  slice  over  them, 
going  through  again,  and  covering  any  tliat  the  plow  has  failed 
to  cover.  This  is  all  work,  but  all  crops  require  work,  and 
this  one  will  pay  more  abundantly  for  every  care  than  almost 
any  other.  The  time  before  the  returns  from  actual  sales  of 
grapes  come  in,  is  longer  than  for  ordinary  crops,  but  the  salei 


GEAPE   CULTURE    AND   WINE   MAKING.  57? 

of  cuttings,  if  properly  managed,  will  usually  more  than  pay  the 
expenses  of  cultivation,  and  the  first  full  crop  of  grapes  often 

pays  the  whole  cost  of  preparation,  trellises  and  all.  We  give 
below  the  yield  of  a  vineyard  within  our  knowledge,  for  ten 
years  after  planting. 

1857.  2|  acres  cuttings  sold $240 

1858.  Cuttings  planted  for  an  additional  2  J  acres,  but  valued  at  400 

1859.  Cuttings  planted  to  grow  plants  for  sale.  Grapes  sold  468 
.     1860.  Plants  sold 600 

Grapes    "     870 

Wine      "     344 

1861.  Plants     "     500 

Grapes    "     1,120 

1862.  Plants     "     660 

Grapes    "     704 

Wine       "     980 

1863.  Plants     "     840 

Grapes    "    1,512 

Wine    *"    730 

1864.  Plants     "     300 

Grapes    "    412^ 

1865.  Plants    "    5  acres  in  bearing 1,1(^6 

Grapes    "     5,120 

Wine'    " .  3,500 

1866.  Plants     "     1,100 

Grapes    "     600 

Wine      " 7,400 

For  the  ten  years ^29,506 

or  an  average  of  nearly  three  thousand  dollars  per  year,  and 

fourteen    thousand    two    hundred,    or    over    seven  thousand 

dollars  per  year,  for  the  last  two  years,  which  yield  may  be 

safely  calculated  upon  for  years  to  come. 

Mr.  George   Hussman,    a   large   grape  grower   at  Herman, 
35 


57S  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

Missouri  has  realized  from  two  and  a  half  acres  the  first  five 

years  after  planting $23,305.80 

The  plants  and  trellis  for  the  2J  acres  cost     ....    1,277.00 

Five  years  labor  at  $500  per  year 2,500.00 

Interest  on  capital 600.00 

Leaving  a  clear  profit  of $19,028,80 

for  the  first  five  years.  This  is  a  profit  of  over  fifteen  hmadred 
dollars  per  year  per  acre.  This  is  large,  but  we  think,  with 
the  information  we  have  given,  any  farmer  can  clear  an  average 
profit  of  one  thousand  dollars  per  acre  from  his  grape  crop. 

The  last  objection,  if  a  real  one,  would  be  fatal  to  the  whole  [ 
scheme.  But  it  is  the  most  absurd  of  the  whole.  There  is 
market  for  one  hundred  pounds  of  grapes  to  every  pound  that 
is  grown.  Even  the  poorest  varieties,  picked  before  they  are 
ripe,  bring  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents  per  pound,  and  no 
one  gets  enough.  As  grapes  are  improved  in  quality,  by  the 
better  systems  of  cultivation,  and  the  introduction  of  better 
varieties,  the  old  customers  will  increase  their  demands,  and 
thousands  of  new  ones  will  spring  up  on  every  side.  Ten  years 
ago,  the  acres  of  grapes  in  this  country  were  not  over  four 
thousand,  now  they  are  as  many  million  ;  but  the  demand  has 
increased  faster  than  the  supply,  and  never  was  there  such  a 
pressure  as  now.  At  the  same  ratio  of  increase,  ten  years  from 
to-day  there  will  be  four  billion  acres  of  grapes.  If  such  an 
increase  were  possible  or  probable,  we  say  that  ten  years  from 
now  the  product  of  that  number  of  acres  would  be  as  surely  in 
demand  as  the  present  product;  for  if  every  citizen  were 
glutted  with  fruit,  we  have  still  the  wine  to  fall  back  upon, 
wliich  we  can  make  for  home  consumption,  and  even  for  export 
at  immense  profits.  The  amount  paid  for  imported  wines  is 
enormous,  and  we  can  make  a  much  better  article  at  home 


II 


GEAPE    C¥LTURE    AND   WINE    MAKING.  679 

Our  opinion  is,  that  if  pure  grape  wine  could  be  made  as  plenty 
as  whiskey,  men  would  drink  it  instead,  and  thus  the  terrible 
evil  of  intemperance  be  very  much  lessened.  We  say  to  every 
one  who  has  a  square  rod  of  ground,  plant  a  vine. 

A  second  system  of  training  we  will  call  the  "Lakeview" 
system,  as  it  is  practised  at  "  Lakeview,"  Ohio.  The  post  is  set 
before  the  vine  is  planted,  and  for  the  first  two  years  the  vine 
is  trained  to  the  post.  Four  canes  are  grown  each  year,  after 
the  first,  only  two  being  allowed  to  bear.  The  third  year,  slats 
are  nailed  from  the  top  of  each  post  to  near  the  bottom  of  the 
next,  say  one  foot  from  the  ground,  and  the  two  canes  not 
allowed  to  bear  are  trained  on  these,  wliile  the  bearing  canes 
are  trained  to  the  post.  The  cutting  back  is  the  same  as  in  the 
other  system ;  the  two  canes  that  have  borne  being  cut  out,  and 
the  two  that  are  to  be  the  bearing  canes  next  year  cut  back  to 
three  or  four  buds.  The  advantages  of  this  system  are  that 
vines  are  saved,  and  also  the  stakes  on  which  in  the  other  sys- 
tem the  vines  are  trained  the  first  two  years.  But  we  consider 
that  it  has  too  many  disadvantages  to  come  into  common  use, 
except  as  an  expedient  where  capital  is  scarce.  Still  another, 
and  the  most  slovenly  and  wasteful  sj'-stem  that  can  well  be 
contrived,  is  that  of  simply  training  each  vine  to  a  cedar  stake. 
It  involves  the  purchase  or  growing  of  three  times  as  many 
vines,  without  a  corresponding  increase  of  fruit.  The  system 
of  pruning  is  the  same ;  two  canes  bearing  each  year.  There 
may  be  an  endless  number  of  modifications  of  the  first  system, 
of  some  of  which  we  shall  speak  in  Garden  Culture. 

The  cultivation  of  the  grape  in  the  vineyard  consists  in  keep 
ing  the  ground  mellow  and  the  weeds  down.  A  cultivator 
shduld  be  run  through  the  rows  as  often  as  once  a  fortnight, 
and  the  hoe  used  freely  in  stirring  the  earth  and  killing  the 
weeds,  where  the  cultivator  will  not  reach.     The  soil  should 


. 


5^0  HOW   TO    MAKE    THP]    FA»M   PAY. 

nol  bo  worked  when  wet,  nor  so  deeply  near  the  vines  as  to 
cut  the  main  roots.  The  best  implement  we  have  ever  seen  for 
killin^^  the  weeds  is  a  hoe  known  as  Allen's  Weed  Killer.  (See 
cut  elsewhere.)  For  stirring  the  soil  about  the  stems,  a  pronged 
hoe  is  used.  A  good  plan  for  plowing,  and  at  the  same  time 
covering  the  vines,  is  to  prune  soon  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf, 
and  then,  lay  down  the  vines  lengthwise  of  the  trellis,  and  fas- 
ten them  with  a  peg  or  stone.  Pass  down  with  the  plow  as 
near  the  vine  as  you  can  without  cutting  the  roots,  and  throw 
a  furrow  slice  over  the  vine,  come  back  on  the  other  side  of  the 
row,  and  cover  the  othfer  vine ;  continue  this  until  all  tne 
ground  between  the  rows  is  plowed,  leaving  a  trench  in  the 
middle.  Go  through  and  see  that  the  vines  were  well  covered. 
In  the  spring,  begin  at  the  trench,  and  turn  the  earth  back  and 
away  from  the  vines.  Manures  should  not  be  applied  so  long 
as  the  growth  is  vigorous,  but  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  decline 
apply  more  manure.  A  compost,  such  as  we  have  previously 
discribed,  should  be  on  hand  for  use,  and  should  be  applied 
after  the  fall  plowing.  Ashes  and  lime  in  moderate  quantities 
are  always  beneficial.  If  you  once  let  your  vines  run  down  for 
lack  of  food,  you  can  never  recover  your  loss.  The  food  they 
ask  for  is  plenty  and  cheap,  but  they  must  have  it.  Bone  dust, 
guano,  etc.,  applied  as  a  top  dressing,  will  soonest  reach  the 
plant,  but  will  not  make  good  the  lack  of  the  compost.  In  an 
exceedingly  poor  soil,  where  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  at  first, 
the  requisite  amount  of  compost  at  once,  two  quarts  of  bone 
dust  and  a  shovel  full  of  manure  may  be  put  at  the  root  of 
each  plant,  and  one  cane  allowed  to  grow ;  in  the  fall  cut  it 
back  to  two  buds,  and  again  allow  only  one  cane  to  grow.  If 
It  makes  a  growth  of  ten  feet,  cut  it  back  to  four,  and  layer  it 
as  before  described.  When  the  young  plants  are  a  foot  hig 
'Iraw  in  an  inch  or  two  of  soil,  with  a  little  more  bone  dusd 


I 


GRAPE   CULTURE   AND   WINE   MAKING.  581 

Four  canes  are  allowed  to  grow  from*tliis  four  foot  layer ;  they 
should  be  staked,  and  pinched  as  described  for  other  plants,  and 
no  fruit  allowed  to  grow  the  first  year.  Cut  these  canes  back 
to  three  buds,  and  allow  two  canes  to  grow  the  next  year,  one 
of  which  may  bear  a  few  bunches  of  fruit ;  subsequent  pruning 
is  the  same  as  described  for  horizontal  arms.  The  reader  will 
see  that  the  object  of  this  treatment  is  to  get  strong  roots 
before  allowing  the  plant  to  bear.  More  time,  and  double  the 
number  of  plants  are  required  to  obtain  the  same  amount  of 
fruit,  which  will  not  be  so  good ;  it  is  only  recommended  there- 
fore for  very  poor  soils,  where  the  compost  cannot  be  secured 
to  begin  with.  \ 

Gathering,  packing,  marketing,  and  keeping  are  important 
matters  in  grape  culture.  The  grape  will  only  ripen  on  the 
vine ;  and  as  the  public  taste  becomes  educated  on  this  subject, 
they  will  insist  on  having  ripe  fruit.  When  ripe,  the  stem  will 
shrivel,  and  soon  the  grape  will  begin  to  shrivel  about  the  stem. 
The  bloom  on  the  grape  is  a  token  of  its  ripeness.  In  the  de- 
scriptions of  varieties  we  shall  give  the  tokens  of  each  variety. 
The  grape  will  increase  in  weight,  beauty,  and  flavor  by  being 
allowed  to  ripen  perfectly  on  the  vine,  and,  even  if  one  or  two 
weeks  later  in  the  market,  will  bring  a  higher  price  than  the 
unripe  grape.  For  wine,  they  should  be  left  on  as  long  as  the 
frosts  will  permit.  Nearly  all  the  grapes  now  in  cultivation 
color  at  least  two  weeks  before  they  ripen. 

When  gathered  it  should  be  done  as  carefully  as  possible. 
They  can  be  gathered  quickest  and  best  by  means  of  scissors 
which  hold  them  after  they  are  cut.  Cut  the  stems  as  long  as 
possible  and  lay  them  in  a  shallow  basket.  They  are  packed 
for  market  in  shallow  boxes;  the  method  being  to  cut  out  with 
small  sharp  scissors  imperfect  grapes,  and  spread  the  bunches 
out  on  a  table.     Turn  the  box  bottom  upwards,  take  off  the 


582  now  TO  make  the  x^'arm  pay.  ' 

bottom,  put  in  a  sheet  oil  thin  white  paper  or  a  lajer  of  grape 
leaves ;  pack  iu  whole  bunches  of  grapes,  as  closely  as  possible 
without  jamming  them  or  rubbing  off  the  bloom ;  fill  up  the 
vacant  places  with  parts  of  bunches,  and,  lastly,  with  single 
grapes,  until  the  whole  space  is  filled  ;  then  put  on  another 
layer  of  paper  or  leaves,  and  continue  the  layers  until  the  box 
is  filled. 

The  art  of  keeping  grapes  is  just  beginning  to  be  understood 
in  this  countr}'-,  and  we  are  just  learning  what  varieties  will 
keep.  For  this  purpose  they  must  be  thoroughly  ripe,  care- 
fully gathered,  all  unripe,  imperfect,  or  decayed  berries  picked 
out,  spread  out  on  a  dry  floor  or  shelves  for  a  few  days,  and 
then  packed  in  boxes,  with  paper  between  the  layers.  The 
bunches  should  not  be  allowed  to  touch  each  other.  They 
should  be  put  away  in  a  cool  room.  The  lids  of  the  boxes  may 
be  left  up  a  little,  until  it  gets  too  cool.  In  this  way  some  of 
our  grapes  may  be  kept  until  spring,  when  their  greatly  in- 
creased price  will  repay  the  trouble  of  preservation.  A  warm, 
damp  atmosphere  will  spoil  the  grape,  however  carefully 
packed. 

The  Garden  Culture  of  the  grape  requires  some  modifica- 
tions of  the  foregoing  rules,  but  in  all  its  essential  principles  is 
the  same.     There  are  but  few  gardens  in  either  city  or  country 
where  there  may  not  be  found  a  sunny  spot  large  enough  to 
accommodate  a  few  vines ;  and  when  the  owner  gets  a  grape : 
that  suits  him,  he  can  reproduce,  modify,  and  cultivate  to  suit! 
himself.     The  first  requisite  here,  as  before,  is  drainage.     If  it 
cannot  be  obtained  by  draining  the  garden  or  yard  into  a  sewer,] 
dig  a  trench  with  one  end  two  feet  deep  and  a  gradual  descent] 
to  the  other  end,  into  which  should  be  thrown  broken  bricks,! 
rrockery,  or  stones,  to  facilitate  the  drainage.     Fill  this  trench 
with  a  mixture  of  the  original  soil,  old  manure,  leaves  if  poa- 


GRAPE   CULTURE   AND   WINE   MAKING.  583 

sible,  and  charcoal.  Often  the  only  gunnj  spot  is  covered  with 
a  pavement;  this  is  just  ths  place  for  the  vine.  Dig  your 
trench  along  the  side  of  the  walk,  or  even  partly  under  it,  plant 
your  vines  outside  the  walk,  grow  one  good  strong  cane  the 
first  year,  and  in  the  fall  carry  it  under  the  pavement  to  where 
it  is  wanted.  The  pavement  will  absorb  quantities  of  heat,  and 
also  retain  the  moisture  of  the  soil.  A  southern  or  eastern 
exposure  is  best  here  also ;  but  a  northern  exposure,  if  at  the 
side  of  a  building  which  has  the  sun  half  the  day,  will  answer 
well.  Do  not  place  the  roots  at  any  less  distance  than  two  feet 
from  the  building  in  any  case ;  neither  train  the  vine  directly 
against  the  building,  as  it  will  injure  both;  there  should  be  at 
least  a  foot  of  space  between  the  trellis  and  the  building,  to 
allow  a  free  circulation  of  air.  The  pruning  is  the  same  here 
as  in  the  vineyard,  one  cane  bearing  this  year  and  another  next. 
The  training  may  be  done  in  a  thousand  forms,  to  suit  the  taste 
of  the  owner.  The  horizontal  arms  are  to  be  preserved.  In 
the  vineyard  we  commence  these  arms  at  one  foot  from  the 
ground ;  but  they  may  be  commenced  at  ten  feet  as  well,  only 
the  process  must  be  more  gradual.  The  upright  cane  may  be 
extended  to  ten  feet  in  two  years,  and  the  two  canes  for  arms 
grown  the  third  year,  the  vine  meanwhile  being  allowed  to  beai 
moderately,  and  all  summer  pinching  to  be  faithfully  attended 
to ;  or  a  single  arm  may  be  used,  if  the  vine  grows  at  a  corner 
of  the  building  or  trellis,  only  observing  that  when  the  bearing 
canes  are  established  the  alternate  pruning  must  be  done,  and 
no  fruit  allowed  to  grow  below  the  arms.  If  fruit  is  wanted 
all  the  way  from  the  ground  to  sixty  feet  high,  it  may  be  had, 
but  a  number  of  vines  will  be  necessary.  These  can  be  planted, 
at  least  four  feet  apart,  in  different  parts  of  the  garden  or  yard, 
and  the  canes  brought  under  ground,  or  under  a  pavement,  to  the 
point  where  they  are  wanted.     Let  the  arms  of  one  vine  cover 


5S4  now  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  TAV. 

th«  6r«t  tbrtHJ  foct,  another  the  second  three,  and  so  ou  until  the 

•M.  rod.    ki.  Fig.  133  illustrates  our  meaning.     These 

m  nn  planted  four  feet  apart.     Two  are  not  allowed 

,  '        hea  until  they  reach  the  second  trellis;  then 

vith  horizontal  arms  as  before.    For  the  third, 

,!th  trellis,  if  it  is  desirable  to  have  vines  so  high 

>hould  be  set  four  and  eight  feet  from  the  trellis  and 

brvugbi  underground  to  the  point  on  the  trellis  where  they  are 

It  is  better  to  run  them  through  tile  pipe,  to  pro- 

V   .r  taking  root  all  the  way.     If  they  should  do  so,  the 

growth  would  be  likely  to  be  so  vigorous  as  to  defy  all  attempts 

ai  mining.     By  this   nicthotl   four  vines,  covering  a   space 

tvelvc  by  sixteen  feet,  have  borne  an  average  of  eight  hundred 

.ally.    Tlie  same  method  applies  to  arbor  culture. 

•  »..  .-..v.-r  tlio  top  and  sides  of  a  grape  arbor  from 

Whore  there  is  room  for  neither  trellis  nor  arbor,  there  may 

-om  to  put  down  one  or  more  stakes,  to  each  of  which 

a  ^■"'•'  •        '  '      1,  and  good  results  secured.     Either  the 

*''■•*  "' '         ■  '.o  grow  two  canes  the  first  year,  and  com- 

Ijcaring  the  second  year,  or  the  stem  gradually 

•^1  to  eight  or  ten  feet  and  side  canes  grown  for  fruit. 

-  caac,  when  the  cane  bears  the  second  year,  at  the 

"    '.  8ca»on  one  of  the  canes  is  cut  to  two  buds 

'  •'  -•  y^^i  and  the  other  cane  cut  entirely  away, 

«>d  -a  the  next  year.     In  the  other  case,  the  single 

can.  ;he  first  season   is  cut  back  to   say  three   feet, 

{Fxj.  182.)  and  the  topmost  bud  allowed  to  grow  the  second 

»ea*on,  all  others  being  rubbed  off;  this  cane  is  then  cut  back 

I- •  -^  :•'::.  three  feet  of  the  former  cut.     We  have  now  a  cane 

high:   the  two  lowest  buds,  one  on   each  side,  are 

Wiowed  to  grow  the  third  season,  and  one  to  bear  fruit;  these 


w 


GRAPE   CULTURE   AND   WIXE   MAKING.  587 

are  cut  back  according  to  the  alternate  system  we  have  so  fully 
described,  and  the  main  cane  is  only  allowed  to  lengthen  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches.  The  top  should  be  kept  pinched  oft' 
all  summer.  The  fourth  season  two  more  side  branches  may  be 
started  about  one  foot  above  the  others,  and  treated  in  the  same 
way.  Fig.  132  shows  this  vine  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  season, 
as  it  is  to  remain,  and  the  cross  marks  (2,  2)  show  where  it  is  to 
be  pruned.  Another  method  of  pruning  and  training  is  shown 
at  Fig.  134.  By  some  of  these  methods  every  one  can  have  at 
least  one  vine,  and  most  can  have  more.  An  occasional  wash 
of  strong  soapsuds  will  be  beneficial,  if  the  soil  is  kept  stirred 
and  mellow. 

Fourteen  Cautions,  Before  treating  of  varieties,  diseases,  etc., 
we  wish  to  caution  our  readers:  1,  Against  using  green  manure, 
either  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  or  after  culture.  2.  Against 
working  the  soil  when  wet,  either  in  preparation  or  after  culture 
3,  Against  planting  vines  too  shallow  in  light  or  gravelly  soils, 
or  too  deep  in  heavy  ones.  (Let  the  base  of  the  roots  be  four 
inches  beneath  the  heavy,  clayey  soil,  and  twice  that  depth  in 
porous,  gravelly  soils.  Allowance  must  be  made  for  the  settling 
of  the  earth,  the  natural  spring  of  the  earth,  and  the  natural 
spring  of  the  plant.  If  in  a  border,  it  should  be  higher  than 
the  surrounding  level,  to  which  it  will  sink.)  4.  Against 
allowing  secondary  roots  to  grow  from  the  stem  above  the 
original  roots.  (The  earth  should  be  drawn  away  from  about 
the  stem  during  the  second  season,  and  if  any  of  these  roots  are 
discovered  they  must  be  cut  off.)  5.  Against  cutting  any  of  the 
main  roots  in  any  of  the  operations  of  culture.  6.  Against 
covering  vines  in  the  winter  wholly  with  straw  or  barnyard 
litter.  (The  vines  should  first  be  covered  with  earth,  as  the 
straw  furnishes  a  shelter  for  mice.)  7.  Against  too  late  spring 
pruning  after  the  sap  has  started.     8.  Against  putting  down 


6$8  UOW  TO  MAKE  TUE  FARM  TAY. 

loo  long  horiiontal  nrms  where  the  plants  arc  not  vigorous. 
^Rxtend  ihein  grailimlly.)  9.  Against  allowing  young  vines  to 
bmr  beyond  thoir  ability.  10.  Against  allowing  laterals  to 
grow  loo  long  before  pinching.  (Pinch  when  the  first  leaf 
..„  t'.  ..  !  itoral  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter.)  11.  Against 
.«}  canes  from  the  horizontal  arms  to  grow  too  long, 
(two  or  thre«  feet  is  liigh  enough,  two  being  the  better. 
\\  :his  height,  pinch  out  the  top;    it  will   soon  start 

a^'a;..,  :iu-l  when  grown  another  six  inches,  pinch  out  the  top 
of  iho  new  growth.)  12.  Against  allowing  one  cane  to  grow 
higher  than  another  unless  the  growth  of  wood  is  too  rank, 
when  one  or  two  canes  may  be  allowed  near  the  main  stem 
M  safety  valves.  13.  Against  tying  the  vines  too  tightly. 
14,  Against  applying  manures,  except  in  the  fall.  If  applied 
in  tlic  spring  or  summer,  it  \vill  produce  a  rank  growth  of 
wood  which  will  not  ripen  before  winter. 

Selection  of  Varieties.  We  have  now  much  better  vari- 
eties, and  more  numerous  than  ever  before,  but  great  caution 
an«t  be  exercised  in  selecting.  We  advise  every  cultivator 
to  try  every  new  variety  that  is  slronr/hj  recommended,  by 
the  planting  of  one  or  two  vines,  but  never  invest  any  large 
amount  of  money  in  planting  any  new  variety,  no  matter  who 
i-  it.  After  a  grape  has  been  fruited  for  five  or  six 
v«--ir-.  \u  .iijT<.T._Mit  parts  of  the  country,  with  nearly  uniform 
■ncecaH,  and  has  also  succeeded  well  on  a  small  scale  in  your 
own  hMd^  the  investment  will  be  safe.  We  hope  and  believe 
that  the  next  ten  years  will  give  us  double  the  number  of  ex- 


1 . . ■< I  'tf  \ 


AKIETIE8  that  are  excellent  in  the  localities  named. 
AUr^yruiac,  coIor  dark  purple,  with  a  light  bloom ;  flesh  ten- 
der, jnice  8wee^  skin  thin.  If  held  up.  to  to  the  light  when 
npc,  the  color  will  be  uniformly  deep ;  if  tinged  with  red,  they 


GRAPE   CULTURE   AND   WIXE   MAKING.  5^9 

are  not  ripe.  V  iiie  hardy  and  vigorous  as  far  north  as  Lake 
Champlain,  where  it  originated.  Eipens  very  early.  AUen^s  Hy- 
brid; color  amber  green,  with  pearly  bloom,  and  spots  of  claret 
when  fully  ripe;  flesh  tender;  juice  sweet,  spirited  and  vinous; 
vine  too  tender  for  general  cultivation,  but  worthy  of  much 
care  as  a  garden  and  table  variety.  Eipens  September.  Alvey, 
color  black,  with  a  heavy  blue  bloom  when  ripe;  flesh  tender, 
without  pulp;  juice  sweet  and  vinous;  vine  not  hardy  enough 
foi  open  air  culture  at  the  North,  but  good  at  the  South  ;  ripens 
in  September,  and  makes  a  delicious  red  wine. 

Concord,  black  with  heavy  blue  bloom.  (,Sc'e  Colored  Fruit 
Plate.)  Flesh  tender;  acid  at  centre;  flavv.rfoxy;  vine  hardy 
and  vigorous  over  a  larger  extent  of  territory  than  any  oiher 
grape ;  ripens  middle  of  September.  Not  a  grape  of  the  best 
quality,  but  its  beautiful  appearance,  hardy  growth,  and  pro- 
ductiveness render  it  the  most  popular  and  widely  cultivated 
of  all  our  grapes,  and  the  most  profitable  market  variety  grown  ; 
better  further  West  and  South  than  in  New  England;  "grown 
in  Missouri ;  it  makes  a  fine  light  red  wine."*  Cultivators 
should  try  to  secure  a  better  grajpe,  with  the  same  good  qualities 
in  the  vine.  Clinton^  dark  purple  with  pale  blue  bloom  ;  flesh 
juicy,  acid  until  after  frost,  it  then  has  a  spirited  vinous  flavor ; 
a  very  strong  grower,  hardy  and  productive ;  makes  dark  red 
•wine  of  fair  quality.  If  kept  late,  makes  a  good  table  grape 
Do  not  plant  in  a  rich  soil.  Cassady,  greenish  white,  with 
white  bloom ;  skin  thick ;  flesh  pulpy ;  sweet,  of  fine  flavor ; 
vine  hardy,  but  so  late  a  ripeuer  that  it  is  not  very  valuable  in 
the  northeast;  in  the  southwest  very  productive;  makes  a 
good  white  wine.  Creveling,  dark  purple,  with  but  little  bloom  ; 
flesh  tender;  juice  sweet,  except  at  centre;  vine  hardy,  healthy, 

*  Eussmaiis  "  Grapes  and  Wines." 


•.,,  now   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

•live  A  fjiir  wine  ;,'rape.  Early.  Catawba,  dee^p  Tcd, 
:n;  flesh  pulpy;  juice  sweet,  vinous;  vine  vigorous 
Aud  productive,  but  not  hardy ;  late.  This  grape  has  been  more 
cxtcnwvelv  used  for  wine  than  any  other  American  grape,  and 
•jII  do  well  in  favorable  localities  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
r.-:--.  ('Ut  in  the  interior  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  cultiva- 
tion. DrhuYtrf,  beautiful  dark  red  when  fully  ripe ;  skin  thin  : 
flesih  tender;  juicy,  sweet,  brisk,  vinous;  vine  very  hardy  and 
n^odcrately  productive  ripens  first  of  September.  Wherever 
the  soil  is  light  and  warm,  it  is  the  best  grape  for  extensive  culti- 
vation. It  is  delightful  for  the  table,  and  makes  a  superior 
white  wine,  which  sells  for  from  five  to  eight  dollars  per  gallon. 
Diana,  pale  red,  with  but  little  bloom  ;  skin  thick ;  flesh  tender, 
meaty;  juice,  sweet,  rich  vinous;  vine  hardy  and  productive 
when  properly  cultivated ;  ripens  last  of  September.  This  is 
one  of  our  best  grapes,  and  deserves  careful  cultivation  for  a 
t.nblc  and  market  grape.  It  requires  a  deep,  dry  soil,  not  rich. 
but  occasionally  dressed  with  lime.  It  should  not  bear  until 
the  fourth  year,  and  must  be  covered  north  of  New  York  City, 
and  protected  somewhat  in  all  the  Northern  States.  It  is  the 
I—.  V.,-cpeT  of  all  our  grapes,  and  therefore  is  valuable;  it  will 
:i  good  raisin,  and  also  a  good  wine.  Elsinburg,  black, 
bluixh  white  bloom;  flesh  tender  and  melting;  juice  sweet  and 
▼incus;  vine  hardy  and  healthy;  last  of  September.  This  is  a 
very  nice  little  grape,  the  only  objection  to  it  being  its  small 
■iie.  Hartfonl  Prolific,  black  or  dark  purple,  with  blue  bloom ; 
»kin  thick ;  flesh  tough :  juice  sweet  and  somewhat  sprightly 
and  vinous;  vine  hardy,  vigorous  and  productive;  first  of 
September.  This  is  the  best  market  grape  of  the  early  varieties 
on  account  of  its  earliness  and  large  yield ;  makes  a  ftiir  wine 
Vines  must  be  kept  pinched  back  through  the  summer.  Her- 
V»w^,  blue  black,  with  light  bloom ;  skin  thin ;  flesh  tender  and 


mim^'' 


Fiy  13(3. 


GRAPE   CULTURE   AND   WINE   MAKING.  593 

melting  ;  juice  sweet,  refined,  sprightly,  vinous;  vino  not  hardy 
at  the  North,  but  does  well  in  Southern  Ohio  and  farther  south, 
being  healthy  and  productive ;  ripens  late.  One  of  the  finest  of 
Southern  varieties,  both  for  table,  market,  and  wine.  7ona, 
pale  red,  small,  deep  red  veins  at  first,  but  growing  dark  red 
when  fully  ripe  {see  Colored  Fruit  Plate) ;  skin  thin  ;  flesh  tender, 
with  but  little  pulp;  juice  and  flavor  all  that  could  be  asked 
for  in  a  grape.  Not  fully  tried,  but  promises  well.  This  is  a 
seedling  by  that  indefatigable  cultivator,  Dr.  C.  W.  Grant,  who 
claims  for  it  superior  hardiness,  productiveness,  and  earliness.  It 
is  a  fine  table  grape,  makes  delightful  wine,  has  the  qualities  of 
a  long  keeper  and  good  raisin  grape.  We  hope  for  the  sake  of 
its  worthy  cultivator  and  for  the  sake  of  American  grape  culture 
that  it  will  prove  all  that  is  claimed  for  it;  but  we  would  caution 
cultivators  against  investing  largely  in  it  until  they  give  it  a  trial 
It  has  been  condemned  on  short  acquaintance  by  Missouri  culti 
vators.  Israella,  dark  purple,  light  bloom;  skin  thin;  flesh 
tender ;  juice,  sweet  with  pleasant  flavor ;  vine  hardy,  vigorous, 
and  productive ;  ripens  early.  We  do  not  consider  this  grape 
quite  as  good  in  any  particular  as  the  Hartford  Prolific.  Isabella, 
dark  purple,  light  bloom  ;  skin  thick  ;  flesh  tough,  acid  at  the 
centre ;  juice  sweet  and  sprightly  what  there  is  of  it ;  vine  un- 
certain. Not  a  good  grape,  but  for  a  long  time  was  almost  the 
only  market  grape.  Where  they  can  be  grown  to  advantage,  it 
is  a  profitable  market  grape.  We  advise  you  .leither  to  destroy 
or  to  plant  a  vineyard  of  Isabellas.  Martha,  pale  yellow,  white 
bloom ;  pulpy,  but  sweet ;  vine  hardy,  healthy,  vigorous,  and 
productive;  early.  The  best  of  the  white  grapes  for  general 
cultivation.  Makes  a  fine  white  wine.  N'orton^s  Virginia,  black, 
thick  light  bloom ;  skin  thin ;  flesh  tender  and  melting  to  the 
centre;  juice  sweet,  rich,  spirited,  vinous.  Ilardy,  healthy,  and 
very  productive,  south  of  Ohio,  but  not  adapted  to  Northern 


594  HOW   TO  MAKE  TJIE   FARM   PAY. 

cuUivaliou.     Makes  a  fine,  dark   red  wine.     Will   not   grow 

rc.idily   from   cuttings.    Emphatically   a   wine   grape.     Union 

Wlajf,  dark  purple,  blue  bloom ;  flesh  pulpy,  juicy,  sweet,  but 

•iot  sprightly;    vine  tender   v/hen  young,   but    grows   hardy, 

.  and  productive;  ripens  October.     Not  a  first  quality 

.  ii   very  large  and   handsome,  and,  therefore,  a  very 

able  "marjcet  grape. 

The  following  are  Southern  wine  grapes: — Taylor,  or  Bullitt, 
I  '^n;  Lenoir;  Blaml;  Wilmington;  Scuppernong ;  Cunningham, 
'  '.     None  of  them  are  suitable  for  Northern  cultivation 

1..  :..  .  -n  air.  Tlie  following  are  well  worthy  of  further  trial, 
and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  several  of  them  will  yet  prove 
fxcellent. 

Walter,  lyes'  Seedling,  Rebecca,  York  Madeira,  To  Kallon, 
(liable  to  mildew  and  rot,)  Miles,  Anna,  Rogers  Hybrids,  numbers 
"'"  four,  fifteen,  ami  nineteen;  Alexander,  Diana  Hamburgh, 
.  •  lan,  Maxtawney,  Rulander,  (makes  a  most  delicate  and 
Yaluable  wine,)  Bho'J^s  Black,  (one  of  the  most  productive,) 
Arnold t  number  one,  Black  Hawk,  Dana,  Detroit,  Hyde's  Eliza, 
M  '^rr  $  Hybrids.  There  are  many  new  varieties  constantly  intro- 
duc«l,  which  should  be  purchased  with  great  caution. 

Insects  injurious  to  the  Vine  are  not  so  numerous  or  de- 
■tractive  as  those  attacking  some  other  fruits,  but  they  are  still, 
more  than  plenty,  and  on  the  increase.   They  consist  of  caterpil- 

■  "8,  lice,  etc.    The  first  object  to  be  kept  in  view  is  the 
•  ..  'U  of  the  moths  and  other  egg-laying  insects,  before 

-  '*y  ^^^^^  «gg8;  by  fires  in  the  vineyard,  orchard,  or  garden 
about  twilight,  at  the  time  of  their  appearance,  which  is  mostly 
from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle  of  July.     Vast  numbers 

■  be  destroyed,  and  with  every  female  are  destroyed 

'•   V  lo  two  hundred  eggs.     The  second  main  point  is  to 

•arefully  pick  off  at  the  early  summer  pruning,  all  nests,  webs, 


GRAPE   CULTURE   AND  WINE   MAKING.  595 

etc,  and  destroy  them  by  scalding  or  fire.  The  third  is  the 
dusting  with  sulphur,  lime,  etc.,  throughout  the  season.  For 
this  purpose  every  one  who  has  any  considerable  number  of 
vines  should  have  a  pair  of  bellows.  The  rose  bug,  or  "rose- 
chafer^''  is  the  worst  enemy  of  the  vine,  because  it  can  be  de- 
stroyed by  neither  of  these  three  contrivances.  They  show 
themselves  as  soon  as  the  blossoms,  which  they  soon  destroy, 
unless  checked.  The  only  way  with  these  and  several  other 
beetles  we  shall  name,  is  to  have  a  large  cloth  stretched  on  a 
frame,  set  it  under  the  vine,  and  shake  it  briskly ;  they  will  fall 
and  can  be  scraped  up  and  scalded  or  burned.  Mead,  in  his 
work  on  the  Grape,  says :  "  They  are  too  stuptd  to  know  when 
they  are  dead ;"  therefore  the  work  must  be  done  thoroughly. 
If  repeated  daily  for  a  week,  this  operation  will  greatly  mitigate 
the  pest. 

The  May  Beetle,  or  Cockchafer,  must  be  destroyed  in  the 
same  way.  Where  they  are  very  numerous,  a  flock  of  poultry 
should  be  permitted  to  follow  the  plow  and  cultivator,  and  they 
will  devour  numbers  of  the  larvoe  which  are  turned  up  from  the 
ground.  About  daylight  is  the  best  time  for  rapping  them  from 
the  vines.  The  vinechafer  and  steel  blue  beetle ;  threaten  to  be- 
come very  destructive  to  the  vine,  and  a  determined  effort  should 
then  be  made  to  exterminate  them ;  this  can  be  done,  both  by 
twilight  fires  and  by  rapping  them  off  the  vines  into  the  sheet. 
The  Vine  IIopper,  or  ihnps,  appear  in  June,  and  if  numerou.s 
aie  very  destructive,  sucking  the- juice  from  the  leaves  and 
causing  them  to  turn  yellow ;  the  remedy  is  to  dust  the  leaves 
with  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  sulphur  and  one  of  caustic  lime. 
[f  done  early  on  a  still  morning  it  will  nearly  all  adhere  to  the 
leaves  and  kill  the  insects.  Two  persons  going  through  the 
vineyard  at  night,  one  with  a  torch  and  the  other  beating  the 

vines,  will  destroy  vast  numbers.     The  Red  Spider,  which 
36 


606  now   TO    MAKK  THE   FARM   PAY. 

AppMra  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and  the  Aphis,  or  louse, 
which  appears  on  the  ends  of  the  young  shoots  and  tender 
l<mve«,  must  bo  treated  to  freijuent  applications  of  sulphur  and 
Ij^      .  :  ;t    .1  .  ,]^^y  jg  Q,i  the  vine. 

iiiLARS  are  the  children  of  the  moth,  which  can 
\y  1  by  the  twilight  fires.    The  large  queen  caterpillars 

of  the  tphingts,  the  2irocrt\'!  Americana,  which  feeds  in  companies 
'Vi  the  leaf,  /AV  ydlow  bear,  and   other   large  caterpillars   are 
.•-.    '  -  '■'  -ivcrcd,  picked  off,  and  destroyed  by  the  careful  culti- 
yy     ,  t  lie  little  ^m/"  ro^^tT5  are  more  difficult  to  find.     We 

recommend  the  lime  and  siilphur  for  all  these  pests. 
The  birds  are  the  fast  friends  of  the  vine  grower,  for  they 
.•  moth  eggs,  larvaj,  and  grubs.     They  war  upon  the 
nis-'i;s  at  every  stage,  and  the  more  of  them  you  can  encourage 
to  take  up  their  abode  upon  your  premises,  the  lighter  will  be 
your  own  lalx)r,  and  the  heavier  your  crops.     Every  effort 
should  be  made  to  destroy  insects,  as  their  rapid  increase  would 
be  destructive  of  all  the  interests  of  husbandry.     Diseases  of  ilu^ 
v'  'i  a  remarkable  degree  under  the  control  of  the  culti- 

va:  ......:,  by  selecting  proper  varieties ;  second,  by  selecting 

only  dry  soil  and  thirdly,  by  proper  attention  to  summer 
pruning.  At  the  lowest  calculation  three-fourtlis  of  the  failures 
of  the  vine  are  owing  to  over-growth  and  over-bearing  when 
y-  1  sujnmer  pinching  and  thinning  are  the  remedies; 

^^      T  to  sudden  changes  in  the  atmosphere,  which  lessen 

the  vigor  of  the  leaves,  they  are  attacked  by  a  parasitic  fungus, 
which  produces,  or  rather  is,  the  disease  known  as  mildew.  Its 
firrt  appearance  is  a  single  small  white  speck,  Avhich  soon  ex- 
tends over  the  whole  plant.  When  first  discovered  the  vine 
should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  the  lime  and  sulpbur  before 
recommended.  The  Black  Rot  is  a  much  more  dangerous 
•liseaue,  as  it  attacks  the  fruit,  a  small  black   or  brown  spot 


GRAPE    CULTURE    AXD  WI>'I-:    MAKIXG.  507 

appearing  on  the  green  berries.  As  soon  as  His  discovered, 
dust  with  lime,  which  will  in  some  measure  stay  its  progress. 

Wine  Making  in  this  country,  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  is 
destined  to  become  an  extensive  and  profitable  branch  of  pro- 
duction. Grapes  for  wine  should  be  fully  ripe.  Grapes  that 
can  well  be  gathered  for  market  the  middle  or  last  of  August 
should  be  left  a  month  longer  for  wine.  A  little  frost  will  not 
injure  them.  Those  that  are  fully  ripe  the  last  of  September 
can  be  gathered  and  made  up  then,  and  those  bunches  not  ripe 
will  ripen  the  sooner  if  the  others  are  picked  off.  All  unripe 
berries  and  all  that  have  begun  to  decay  should  be  cut  out. 
The  grape  scissors  before  described,  which  both  cut  and  hold 
the  bunches,  are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  The  utmost  clean- 
liness must  be  observed  in  gathering  and  assorting  the  grr.pea 
and  in  every  operation  connected  with  wine  , making,  as  the 
chief  value  of  the  wine  is  flavor,  and  a  very  little  negligence 
will  spoil  the  flavor  of  a  batch.  Before  giving  the  process  of 
making  wine  we  will  explain  the  terms  used.  Bottles  should 
be  of  very  tough  glass,  and  thoroughly  cleaned  with  coarse 
sand;  oleaning  with  shot  is  very  objectionable.  Casks  for 
fermenting  wine,  should  be  large,  say  four  hundred  gallons,  but 
the  vintner  must  have  all  sizes.  The  large  casks  should  be  of 
well  seasoned  oak  staves,  about  five  feet  long  and  one  and  a 
half  or  two  inches  thick,  bound  with  iron  bands,  perfectly 
smooth  inside,  with  a  door  on  one  end  large  enough  to  let  in 
a  boy  to  wash  it  out.  When  new  they  should  first  be  washed 
in  lime  water.  After  the  cask  is  emptied,  let  in  a  boy  to  scrub 
the  side  thoroughly  before  filling  again. 

Cellar.  Any  good  cellar,  kept  free  from  frost,  will  keep 
the  wine  the  first  winter,  and  if  it.  clears  well,  it  can  be  sold 
before  warm  weather ;  but  a  good  cellar  is  a  great  convenience 
where  any  large  quantity  is  to  be  made.     Three  considerations 


1U)\V    TO    MAKK    THE    FARM    PAY. 

RTO  imporlanl  in  building  a  wiuo  cellar :  it  sliould  be  in'a  dry 
ip.  'uld  be  sunk  in  the  ground  and  the  walls  built 

hoUuu-,  lo  bccure  the  utmost  evenness  of  temperature  ;  and  it 
•liould  bo  provided  with  means  of  thorough  ventilation.     A 
9ln\'r  in  it  is  sometimes  desirable  during  fermentation.     A  side- 
.  ruble 'location,  so  that  a  team  may  be  driven  into 

Cj..  .-siiiNij  may  be  done  in  any  manner  that  will  not  break 
.;,..  ...,.,1.  Where  a  quantity  is  to  be  crushed,  two  wooden 
set  in  a  square  frame  and  turned  with  a  crank;  and  cog 
wheel,  is  the  simplest  contrivance.  A  very  good  mill  with 
«lono  rollers,  screws,  etc.,  can  be  purchased  for  about  fifty 
dollars,  but  not  large  enough  for  the  largest  vintners.  The 
crushing  and  prcssihg  room  is  usually  built  directly  over  the 
ocllar,  and  holes  left  in  the  floors  over  each  cask  for  drawing 
off  the  must  to  the  cellar.  This  is  a  much  more  convenient 
trraogement  than  to  carry  it  in  buckets. 

CrvAGE,  is  fermentation  on  the  skins. 

!       "'   v;\TioN',  Vmor(3   and  Acetous.     Vinous   fermentation 

is  ■  and  natural   fermentation  which   produces  wine; 

ftoetoua  fermentation  commences  after  vinous  fermentation  is 

and  produces  vinegar ;  it  is  sometimes  caused  by  the 

'^'  '    '*f  foreign  substances  into  the  must ;  great  care 

•^  "fore  be  exercised   in    picking   and   crushing   the 

fru 

FCRMKNTINQ  V.vTS.  These  should  be  proportioned  to  the  size 
of  your  casks.  When  the  must  is  to  ferment  long  on  the  husks, 
«  false  bottom  should  be  provided  to  keep  down  the  husks.  It 
•hould  be  perforated  with  holes  and  fastened  in  its  place. 
There  should  be  an  inch  tube  in  the  cover  of  the  vat  for  the 
9Mcape  of  gas. 

Flvin-o,  or  Clarifying.     When  the  wines  are  not  clear  it 


GRAPE    CULTURE    AND  WINE    MAKING.  599 

may  be  done  by  adding  the  whites  of  a  half  dozen  eggs  beaten 
to  a  foam  with  a  little  of  the  wine,  to  each  forty  gallons.  Stir 
up  well,  and  close  tight  for  a  week. 

Gallizing,  so  named  from  Doctor  Gall,  who  first  reduced  it 
to  a  science,  is  adding  the  proper  proportions  of  sugar  and  water 
to  grapes  that  from  any  cause  are  too  acid.  See  page  601  for 
a  description  of  tiae  process. 

Grape  Mill.     {See  Crushing.) 

Husks  ;  the  skins. 

Lees  ;  the  sediment  after  fermentation,  adhering  to  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  casks.  The  crust  or  salt  that  collects  on  ihe 
side  of  the  cask  is  cream  of  tartar  in  a  crude  state,  and  is  of 
value. 

Must;  the  juice  of  the  grape  before  fermentation. 

Marc  ;  the  mixture  of  crushed  grapes,  skins,  seeds,  and  stems 
before  pressing. 

Eacking;  the  transferring  of  wine  from  one  cask  to  anoiher, 
leaving  the  lee^    See  description  of  process,  on  next  page. 

Saccharometer  ;  an  instrument  for  determinino;  the  amount 
of  sugar  in  the  must. 

Stemming  ;  the  stems  of  the  grape  contain  a  large  amount 
of  acid,  and  it  is  often  desirable  to  remove  the  larger  portions 
of  them  before  crushing.  This  is  done  by  drawing  the  bunches 
through  teeth  attached  to  boards,  with  grooves  for  conveying 
the  juice  flowing  during  the  operation. 

To  make  light  colored  wine,  the  grapes  gathered  can  be 
pressed  and  put  into  the  casks  the  following  evening. 

Place  the  crusher  above  one  of  the  fermenting  vats,  and 
crush  them  as  fast  as  they  come  in  from  the  vineyard.  When 
not  crushing,  cover  the  vat  with  a  stout  crash  cloth,  and  par- 
ticularly as  evening  comes  on,  to  exclude  all  insects.  In  the 
evening  the  free  juice  is  drawn  off  into  the  cask,  and  the  maro 


I'.iVl  \U,W    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

J.  ^    nressed  and  the  juice   added  to   it.      The   press 

•  largo  enough  to  accommodate  the  day's  gathering. 

Mjd  press,  with  grooves,  hopper,  etc.,  can  be  purchased  for 

about  fifty  dollars.     While  pressing,  the  edges  of  tlie  cheese 

I  be  cut  and  put  on  top,  in  order  that  the  whole  may  be 

'  ;!ly  dry. 

i-k:s  should  be  filled  and  refilled,  as^a  portion  evapo- 

rales  during  fermentation.     The  must  from  the  press  is  usually 

allowed  to  run  into  a  large  funnel  filled  with  oat  straw  and  pass 

ill  a  hose  to  the  casks  in  the  cellar. 

I «)  make  dark  wines  the  must  is  fermented  on  the  busks. 

The  crushed  grapes  are  in  this  case  put  into  the  fermenting  vat 

with  false  bottom.     After  the  vat  is  three-fourths  filled,  the  false 

l»<^jttom  is  put  in,  pressed  down  so  as  to  be  covered  about  eight 

-.  and  the  cover  put  on.     Two  or  three  days'  fermentation 

;a  ,',  temperature  of  about  sixty  degrees  is  usually  sufficient. 

But  here  the  judgment  must  be  exercised.     If  a   very  dark 

wiuo  is  desired  the  grapes  .should  be  stemmed,  find  can  tl:ien  be 

allowed  to  ferment  eight  or  ten  days,  when  they  are  pressed  and 

ruo  into  the  casks  as  before.    .If  the  casks  are  kept  filled  during 

f  *  'i-m  the  yeasty  part  will  flow  out  at  the   bung.      In 

.uled,  under  fermentation,  a  vacant  place  is  left,  and  a 

:'  sand  put  over  the  bunghole,  the  husks  sinking  to  the 

Iwttom  when  fermentation  ceases.     The  wine  is  then  racked. 

■  ■••  cask  being  set  lower  than  the  full  one,  a  siphon  with 

1  a  short  arm  is  inserted,  the  finger  being  held  over 

■'  '^<^  long  ami  until  it  is  inserted  in  the  cask.     There 

arc  also  various  apparatus  sold  for  the  purpose,  which  large 
vintners  will  do  well  to  purchase.  The  lees  will,  if  distilled, 
make  good  brandy.  The  first  racking  is  usually  done,  not  later 
than  January,  and  a  second  racking  after  the  second  fermenta- 
'.ion.  -vl,;,.)!  often  goes  on  all  summer. 


GEAPE    CULTURE   AND   WINE    MAKING.  601 

It  sometimes  occurs,  owing  to  a  short  "or  wet  season,  that  the 
grapes  contain  too  Jarge  a  proportion  of  acids,  the  saccharine 
matter  not  having  been  fully  developed;  this  deficiency  is 
remedied  by  Gallizing.  "When  fully  ripened  and  perfected  on 
the  vine,  the  must  contains,  in  five  hundred  pounds :  sugar,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  pounds;  acids,  three  pounds;  water,  three 
hundred  and  seventy -seven  pounds;  in  all,  five  hundred  pounds. 
But  in  an  inferior  season  five  hundred  pounds  will  contain: 
sugar,  seventy-five  pounds;  acids,  four  and  a  half  pounds  ;  ^/ater, 
four  hundred  and  twenty  and  a  half  pounds ;  in  all  five  hundred 
pounds.  To  bring  this  inferior  must  up  to  the  proper  standard, 
there  is  to  be  added  one  hundred  and  five  pounds  of  sugar  and 
one  hundred  and  forty-five  pounds  of  water.  The  amount  of  sugar 
in  the  must  is  determined  by  the  saccharometer,  which  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  vintner,  and  can  be  obtained  in  any  of  our  large 
cities.  The  amount  of  acids  is  determined  by  the  acidmeter 
but  as  this  is  not  yet  common  in  this  country,  we  here  transribe 
the  process  of  Mr.  George  Ilussman,  of  Herman,  !Missouri^  one 
of  the  largest  vintners  of  the  country  : — 

"  Last  year  was  one  of  the  most  unfavorable  season:)  foi  the 
ripening  of  grapes  we  have  ever  had  here,  and  especially  the 
Catawba  lost  almost  nine-tenths  of  its  crop  by  mildew  and  rot ;  it 
also  lost  its  leaves,  and  the  result  was  that  the  grapes  did  not  ripen 
well.  When  gathering  my  grapes,  upon  weighing  the  must  I 
found  that  it  ranged  from  fifty-two  to  seventy  degrees,  whereas, 
in  good  seasons,  Catawba  must  weighs  from  eighty  to  ninety 
five  degrees,  I  now  calculated  thus  :  if  normal  must  of  Catawba 
should  weigh  at  least  eighty  degrees,  and  the  must  I  have  to 
deal  with  this  season  will  weigh  on  an  average  only  sixty 
degrees,  I  should  add  to  this  must  about  one  half  a  pound  of 
sugar  {1.0  the  gallon)  to  bring  it  up  to  eight}^  degrees.  But  now 
I  had  the  surplus  acid  to  neutralize  yet.     To  do  this  I  calcu' 


,;,,'^  HOW    TO    MAKK    THE    FARil    PAY. 

.. :   n   .  %.ii  in  a  normal  must  of  Catawba,  or  a  must  of 

•  .1  jtcasons,  l)iere  is  yet  an  excess  of  acid,  I  can  safely 

•.  on  there  being  at  least  one-third  too  much  acid  in  a  must 

UuU  weighs  but  sixty  degrees.     I  therefore  added  to  every  one 

V  ..,:?  of  must  forty  gallons  of  soft  water,  in  which  I 

:  ved  eighty  pounds  of  crushed  sugar,  (half  pound 

,;  which  brought  the  water,  when  weighed  after 

.    _•  the  sugar  in  it,  up  to  eighty  degrees.     Now  I  had 

yet  to  add  twenty  pounds,  or  one  half  pound  to  each  gallon  of 

•:al  mwtl,  to  bring  this  up  to  eighty  degrees.     I  thus 

j  r.«-'-i  iii.stcad  of  one  hundred  gallons,  one  hundred  and  fifty 

gallons  from  the  same  quantity  of  grapes ;  and  the  result  was  a 

wine  which  every  one  who  has  tasted  it  declares  it  to  be  ex- 

coUent  Catawba. 

"  Dr.  Gall  recommends  grape  sugar,  but  I  have  found  crushed 
!     "'         :■  answers  every  purpose.     I  think  this  sugar  has  the 

:. -. _:   over   grape   sugar  that   it   dissolves   more  readily, 

and   in  cold  water.    It  will   take   about   two    pounds  to   the 

gallon  of  water  to  bring  this  up  to  eighty  degrees,  which  will 

make  a  wine  of  suflicient  body.     The  average  price  of  sugar 

:t  twenty -two  cents  per  pound,  and  the  cost  of  thus 

'   an  additional   gallon  of  wine,  counting   in    labor, 

!i  capital,  etc.  will  be  about  sixty  cents.     When  the 

wine  can  be  sold  at  from  two  to  three  dollars  per  gallon,  the 

•r  will  easily  perceive  of  what  immense  advantage  this 

<  to  the  grape  grower,  if  he  can  thereby  not  only  im- 

.  .    ■      ...;;  quality,  but  also  increase  the  quantity  of  the  yield. 

But  tills  is  only  the  first  step ;  •  after  the  most  powerful  pressure 

xiaks  still  retain  all-  the  ingredients  of  wine,  except  sugar 

and  water,  which  being  added,  a  ^ood  quality  of  wine  is  pro- 

>    -  Mr.  Ilussman :  "I  have  also  practised  this  method 

-   - ■*-•-•'  *^i'e  la.st  season,  and  the  result  is  that  I  have  fully 


GRAPE    CULTURE    AND    WIXE    MAKIXG.  603 

doubled  the  amount  of  wine  of  the  iSTorton's  Virginia,  and 
Concord.  I  have  thus  made  twenty-five  hundred  gallons  of 
Concord,  where  I  had  but  one  thousand  and  thirty  gallons  of 
original  must;  and  twenty -six  hundred  gallons  of  Norton's 
Virginia,  where  I  had  but  thirteen  hundred  gallons  of  must; 
and  the  result  is  that  many  of  them  are  better,  and  none  inferior 
to  the  original  must.  My  method  in  making  such  wines  was 
very  simple.  I  generally  took  the  same  quantity  of  water, 
eighty  gallons  of  water  to  husks  that  had  produced  one  hundred 
gallons  of  juice,  and  added  two  pounds  of  sugar  to  the  gallon. 
The  husks  after  the  first  pressing  were  put  at  once  into  the  vat 
and  pulled  apart  and  broken,  and  the  water  added.  Fermenta- 
tion commenced  at  once,  and  was  allowed  to  go  on  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  when  they  were  pressed  again  as  dry  as  possible. 
The  must  was  then  treated  the  same  as  the  original.  But  let 
us  glance  a  moment  at  the  probable  influence  this  discovery 
will  have  on  American  grape  culture.  It  caiMiot  be  otherwise 
than  in  the  highest  degree  beneficial,  for  when  wo  simply  look  at 
grape  culture  as  it  was  ten  years  ago,  with  the  simple  product 
of  the  Catawba  as  its  basis,  yielding  an  average  of  two  hundred 
gallons  to  the  acre,  of  inferior  wine,  and  look  at  it  to-day,  with 
such  varieties  as  the  Concord,  yielding  an  average  of  one  thou- 
sand to  fifteen  hundred  gallons  to  the  acre,  and,  by  gallizing, 
two  thousand  five  hundred  gallons  of  uniformly  good  wine, 
can  we  be  surprised  if  every  body  thinks  and  talks  of  raising 
grapes."  Mr.  Hussman's  experiments  have  proved  very  success- 
ful, and  we  hope  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  good  wines 
will  take  the  place  of  bad  brandy  and  whiskey,  and  the  evils  of 
intemperance  be  mitigated. 

Gallized  wines  are  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  other  wines 
After  the  second  fermentation  is  fully  over,  it  can  be  bottled, 
for  which  purpose  is  needed  a  small  funnel,  a  small  faucet,  a 


004  HOW    Tt)    MAKE   TlIK    FARM    PAY. 

cork  proRs,  and  a  mallet.  The  corks  should  be  scalded,  and 
afterwards  soake<l  in  cold  water,  and  one  end  compressed  to  fit 
the  botlle.  Fill  the  bottles  so  as  to  leave  about  an  inch  of 
«pnco  between  the  cork  and  the  wine.  Drive  in  the  corks  with 
the  mallet,  and  lay  the  bottles  so  that  the  wine  will  cover  the 
corks.  It  is  not  necessary  to  bottle  the  wine ;  it  will  keep  as 
well  or  better  in  the  casks,  if  they  are  kept  filled.  All  vacancies 
made  by  drawing  off  wine  should  be  filled  within  a  da}^  or  two, 
or  a  sulphur  match  burned  in  the  space.  If  there  is  mould  on 
llic  wine,  run  a  tube  through  the  mould,  and  when  full  remove 
the  mould.  The  husks  are  often  made  into  brandy  or  vinegar, 
the  former  by  distillation,  the  latter  by  adding  water  and  allow- 
ing it  to  ferment.  Afterwards  the  husks  should  be  returned 
to  the  soil  of  the  vineyard.  As  we  have  said  before,  grape 
culture  is  contagious,  and  it  is  wise  policy  for  the  grape  grower 
to  encourage  all  about  him  to  enter  into  the  business.  When  a 
large  pre.ss-hou.se  and  cellar  are  established,  small  cultivators 
can  there  find  a  market  for  tlicir  crops.  Each  can  learn  of  the 
other;  all  improvements  will  come  to  a  grape  colony,  as  v.'ell  as 
purchasers. 


NOTE. — EXPLANATION    OF   FIG.  133,  PAGE   585. 

aa.  Po.sts  eight  feet  apart,  and  eight  feet  high.  lb.  Cross- 
lars.  cc.  Wires,  dd.  Shows  where  the  arms  were  pruned  the 
second  year  after  transplanting,  eeee.  Canes  allowed  to  grow 
the  third  year.  ff.  Under  buds,  used  in  place  of  upper  buds. 
gg.  Shows  where  the  ten  canes  grown  the  third  year  were 
pruned  at  the  winter  pruning.  The  left  hand  canes  were  cut 
wholly  away,  and  the  right  hand  canes  cut  back  to  two  buds. 
hh.  Canes  grown  the  fourth  year.  kk.  Vines  grown  to  cover 
•he  higher  part  of  the  trellis.     {See  Garden  Training.) 


CHAPTER  XVIIl. 

SMALL      FRUIT      CULTURE. 

HE  STEAWBERRY  is  the  most  delicious  and  Av.dely 
,..  cultivated  of  the  small  fruits,  and  is  uot  only  desir- 
/^/■/j  able  in  every  garden,  but  can  be  profitably  raised  for 
^^  market  in  the  vicinity  of  every  village,  borough,  or 
city.  It  flourishes  naturally  on  a  sandy  loam,  but  any  soil  may 
be  made  suitable  for  it.  Muck  and  peat  mixed  with  a  clay  soil 
and  enriched  with  manure,  will  make  a  good  soil  for  most 
varieties.  The  soil,  whatever  it  is,  should  be  deeply  trenched 
and  manured  liberally.  The  roots  of  the  strawborr}'  are  fine, 
and  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  the  manure 
mingled  with  the  soil.  The  same  manures  and  composts, 
recommended  for  other  crops  are  required  for  this,  and  should 
be  applied  without  stint. 

North  of  New  York,  we  think  spring  planting  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, but  where  fall  planting  will  succeed,  it  is  better.  The 
time  to  plant  is  just  after  the  crop  is  gathered.  If  the  plants 
are  to  be  immediately  replanted,  and  a  portion  of  the  earth  re- 
moved with  them,  the  work  can  be  done  in  the  fall.  When 
plants  are  taken  up  in  the  spring,  the  dead  leaves  should  be  re- 
moved. Where  the  roots  are  bared,  it  is  well  to  clip  olT  one- 
half  their  length  with  the  shears  before  replanting.  It  is  also 
well  to  puddle  the  roots  in  such  cases.     This  is  done  by  mixing 

earth  and  water,  and  dipping  in  the  roots.     When  the  earth  is 

(ii).". 


60C  now    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    I'AY. 

•takcMi  up  Willi  ihc  jilants,  of  course  a  hole  must  be  niacle  large 
enough  to  receive  cartii  anJ  all ;  the  roots  arc  thus  left  in  their 
natural  position ;  but  when  the  roots  are  bare,  they  can  be 
forced  into  a  very  small  hole,  and  will  often  grow  in  it.  But 
a  much  more  certain  and  profitable  course  is  to  make  a  hole 
large  enough  to  spread  out  the  roots.  In  either  case  the  crown 
of  the  plant  should  never  be  set  below  the  level  of  the  surface. 
A  cloudy  day  is  the  best  for  planting.  The  systenjs  of  cultiva- 
tion and  renewal  are  various.  The  first  is  the  shiftless  system^ 
by  which  the  plants  are  set  out  and  allowed  to  grow  until  the 
ground  is  covered  with  vines,  weeds,  and  grass,  with  no  fruit. 

The  Alternate  Strip  System  is  on  some  accounts  the 
very  be.st.  Strike  out  rows  three  feet  apart  and  set  the  plants 
about  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.  Let  all  the  runners  on  one  side 
of  the  rows  grow  and  take  root,  while  all  on  the  other  side 
are  cut  off.  Thus  every  alternate  strip  of  three  feet  will  be 
covered  with  vines  which  will  give  a  crop  of  berries,  while  the 
bare  strip  will  serve  as  an  alley  for  the  pickers.  After  the 
crop  is  over,  dig  up  this  alley,  and  the  next  season  allow  the 
runners  to  cover  and  take  root  in  it.  After  this  season's  crop 
is  gathered,  dig  in  the  old  plants,  and  so  on,  digging  up  one  side 
each  year.  At  the  time  of  setting  the  plants,  and  at  each 
annual  digging,  a  liberal  coating  of  manure  should  be  dug  in. 

The  Biennial  System  has  of  late  years  been  popular,  and 
consists  in  planting  in  beds,  three  rows,  eighteen  inches  apart 
each  way,  and  paths  two  feet  wide.  Hoe  the  plants,  weed 
faithfully,  let  the  runners  grow,  and  after  the  bed  has  produced 
two  crops,  dig  or  plow  it  up  and  plant  in  a  new  place. 

The  Annual  System  is  the  same,  except  that  the  plants  are 
put  a  little  nearer  together,  cultivated  the  first  season,  bear  the 
second,  and  are  then  plowed  or  dug  under.     AVhcn  pistillate 


SMALL    FRUIT   CULTURE.  <307 

varieties*  are  planted,  some  other  varieties  must  be  planle.l  in 
alternate  rows,  to  fertilize  them.  One  row  of  staminate  to  four 
of  pistillate  is  sufficient.  In  most  parts  of  the  country  north  of 
New  York  city,  winter  protection  is  beneficial. 

The  most  successful  cultivators  cover  their  plants.  Straw, 
hay,  or  leaves  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  is  sufficient.  Spent 
hops,  pine  leaves,  and  salt  meadow  hay  are  still  better.  A 
portion  of  the  mulch  may  be  left  on  in  the  spring,  which  will 
shade  the  roots,  retain  the  moisture,  and  keep  the  fruit  clean. 

Mulching  of  some  sort  through  the  fruiting  season  is  a  great 
advantage. 

The  Yarteties  we  recommend  for  cultivation  are,  the  Ag- 
RiCULTURiST,t  Austin  or  Shaker,  Boston  Pine,  Brighton  Pine, 
Brooklyn  Scarlet,  Crimson  Cone,  JJuraml,  Doroner^s  Prolific, 
Diadem,  P.  Eclipse,  P.  Green  Prolific,  Hovey's  Seedling,  P. 
Hooker,  loioa,  Ladies'  Pine,  P.  Lady  Finger,  LongiuortKs, 
Lennig's  White,  McAvoy's  Superior,  Monitor,  New  Jersey 
Scarlet,  RusselVs  Prolific,  P.  Scarlet  Magnate,  P.  Wilson's 
Albany,  Triomphe  de  Gand,  The  Wilder.  {See  Colored  Fruit 
Plate  for  <Ae  AGRICULTURIST  and  Boston  Pine.) 

Easpberries  and  Blackberries  are  mostly  propagated  by 
suckers  or  shoots  growing  from  the  roots.  A  rich  moist  soil  is 
best ;  if  too  dry  or  sandy,  apply  swamp  muck ;  but  a  full  crop 
of  the  raspberry  every  season  cannot  be  expected  iVom  a  grav- 
elly or  sandy  soil.  If  the  soil  be  deeply  trenched  when  first 
planted,  a  plantation  of  cither  of  these  berries  will  continue  in 
bearing  five  or  six  years,  when  they  should  be  renewed,  if  the 
crop  begins  to  be  diminished.     Pruning  should  be  done  early  in 

*  Pistillate  varieties  are  those  having  imperfect  stamens,  and  therefore 
fail  to  accomplish  fertilization. 
t  P.     Pistillate.    Those  in  s.mall  cai-.s  are  especially  recommended. 


I 


608  now   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

the  spring,  or  in  the  Tall  immediately  after  fruiting.  It  consists 
in  cutting  out  all  the  old  wood,  leaving  only  last  season's  growth, 
and  cutting  that  back  to  three  or  four  feet,  and  fastening  to  stakes 
or  trellis.  The  suckers  should  all  be  taken  up,  whether  wanted 
for  planting  or  not.  When  the  vines  grow  vigorously  summer 
pruning  becomes  necessary.  The  terminal  shoots  should  be 
pinched  o'ff  about  the  last  of  August,  and  if  they  continue  to 
grow  should  be  pinched  off  again  when  they  have  grown 
twelve  inches  more.  Winter  protection  is  often  given  with 
great  advantage ;  the  method  is  the  same  as  that  described  for 
the  grape.  Bend  down  the  canes,  throw  on  enough  dirt  to  hold 
them,  then  go  through  witli  a  plow  on  each  side,  and  turn  a 
furrow  slice  over  them.  An  acre  can  be  covered,  at  an  expense 
of  not  more  than  sixteen  dollars.  The  PJiiladelphia^  Blade  Cajj^ 
American  Black,  American  White  Cap,  Surprise,  Colonel  Wilder, 
and  the  Antiverp  are  among  the  tried  varieties  of  the  raspberry ; 
and  the  Laicion,  Kittanning,  Dorchester,  New  Rochelle,  and  Wil- 
8on\<i  Early  are  hardy,  productive,  and  marketable  blackberries. 

The  cultivation  of  these  fruits  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities 
will  never  fail  to  be  profitable. 

The  Currant  and  Gooseberry  are  propagated  by  cuttings 
so  readily,  that  no  other  mode  will  be  described.  Cuttings 
should  be  of  rij)c  wood  of  recent  groAvth,  taken  off  in  the  fall. 
Make  the  cuttings  six  inches  long,  cutting  smooth  just  at  the 
ba.se  of  a  bud,  and  planting  as  described  for  grape  cuttings. 
The  currant  had  best  be  planted  in  the  fall,  and  the  gooseberry 
in  the  spring.  A  deep  rich  soil,  deeply  trenched  and  heavily 
manured,  is  necessary,  if  the  most  profitable  crop  is  desired. 
The  bushes  will  grow  almost  anywhere,  but  will  not  produce 
regular  and  abundant  crops  of  the  largest  and  best  fruit,  unless 
manured  and  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  the  ground  kept  mellow 


SMALL    FRL'IT    CULTURE.  609 

or  mulched  through  the  summer.  These  remarks  apply  cquallj' 
to  the  blackberry  and  raspberry. 

The  most  common  method  of  pruning  aud  training,  is  none 
at  all ;  but  a  more  profitable  method  is  to  cut  out  all  dead  wood, 
all  wood  that  has  borne  for  two  or  three  years,  and  all  shoots 
and  suckers  that  crowd  the  growth.  Six  large,  vigorous  shoots 
will  produce  more  and  larger  fruit  than  double  that  number  of 
weak  and  slender  ones.  The  Black  Currant  is  trained  as  an 
upright  with  an  open  head.  The  gooseberry  is  also  sometimes 
trained  in  this  manner ;  it  is  accomplished  by  rubbing  off  the 
lower  buds  on  the  stem.  The  most  successful  varieties  of  the 
currant  are,  the  Beseret,  American  Blach^  Buist^s,  Cherry,  Buna's 
While,  Bed  Butch,  Victoria,  White  Orape,  White  Butch,  and  White 
Florence.  The  Cluster,  Mountain  Seedling,  Bowning,  and  ir<>icgh- 
ton^s  Seedling  are  the  only  varieties  of  the  gooseberiy  proved  to 
be  worthy  of  cultivation.  [See  Colored  Plate) 

The  Craxberry  has  of  late  assumed  so  much  importance, 
and  its  cultivation  is  so  little  understood,  that  we  shall  give 
more  full  directions  for  it. 

LocATiox.  The  borders  of  ponds,  marshts,  and  the  sea- 
shore have  proved  the  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  cran- 
berry. In  fact  ninety-nine  one-hundredths  of  all  the  cranber- 
ries grown  in  the  country  are  in  such  locations.  There  are 
thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  of  low,  wet,  swampy,  and 
sandy  lands,  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  utterly  worthless  for 
general  cultivation,  that  are  admirably  suited  to  the  cianberry; 
and  when  we  remember  that  they  yield  from  one  hundred  to 
four  hundred  bushels  per  acre,  and  sell  for  from  two  dollars  to 
six  dollars  per  bushel,  it  is  no  wonder  that  ..any  owners  of  such 
worthless  tracts  are  putting  in  cranberries. 

Soil.  The  best  soil,  if  soil  it  can  be  called,  is  heach  sand; 
uext  to  this  is  common  satid,  and  then  j^cat  and  sand,  which  is  the 


(MO  now    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

common  soil  of  bogs  and  marshes.  They  will  run  wliollj  to 
vines  if  the  soil  is  rich. 

PuKi'AHATiox  OF  SoiL.  If  the  Site  selected  is  the  sea-shore, 
or  salt-marsh  subject  to  overflow,  a  dyke  must  be  built  to  pre- 
vent the  land  being  covered  with  salt  water.  This  can  be  done 
by  digging  a  trench  about  the  patch  and  using  the  earth  thrown 
out  for  embanking.  After  two  years'  standing  to  freshen  it,  it 
will  be  ready  for  planting.  If  it  has  not  been  overflowed  by 
&ilt  water,  neither  the  dyke  nor  the  freshening  will  be  neces- 
sary. If  on  the  shores  of  a  fresh  water  pond,  overflowed  in 
winter  and  uncovered  in  summer,  you  have  just  the  spot  needed, 
without  preparation.  If  on  the  shores  of  such  a  pond,  and  not 
overflowed,  bring  it  down  as  nearly  to  the  water  level  as  may 
be,  and  if  a  stream  runs  through  or  near  it,  that  may  be  used  to 
overflow  it.  Raise  an  embankment,  and  keep  it  covered  with 
water  through  the  winter.  (See  Flowing.)  If  the  place  selected 
is  a  swamp  or  marsh,  commence  by  digging  a  drain  all  around 
the  piece  when  it  is  driest,  using  the  earth  thrown  out  as  an 
embankment,  and  providing  an  outlet,  if  possible.  This  will 
drain  the  piece  so  that  the  top,  to  the  depth  of  one  foot  or  more, 
can  be  cut  ofl'.  This  is  most  valuable  manure,  and  well  worth 
removing  from  your  marshes,  even  if  you  do  not  purpose  a  cran- 
berry patch.  After  this  is  removed,  stop  up  your  outlet  and 
flow  your  patch,  if  possible.  If  there  is  any  sand  to  be  had 
within  hauling  distance,  haul  it  onto  the  ice  during  the  winter, 
and  in  the  spring  your  patch  will  be  ready  for  planting.  If  the 
sand  is  not  handy,  let  it  stand  a  year,  and  the  action  of  the 
weather  will  disintegrate  it;  otherwise  it  will  not  be  fit  for 
planting.     If  possible,  plow  and  harrow  it. 

Planting.  The  plants  can  be  set  either  in  the  fall  or  spring. 
If  the  ground  can  be  plowed  through  the  winter  we  prefer  fall 
planting,  otherwise  we  delay  until  spring;  for  if  not  plowed  the 


SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE.  611 

frost  will  throw  out  the  newly  planted  vines.  There  are  various 
methods  of  planting.  The  first  is  the  old  method  of  sod  planting, 
that  is,  the  planting  of  a  sod  with  grass,  weeds,  vines  and  all 
This  is  a  very  poor  method.  Another  and  much  better  method 
is  to  separate  the  vines  from  the  sod  and  plant  them  in  drills  or 
hills,  a  half  dozen  spears  in  a  place,  with  the  tips  just  above  the 
ground.  They  should  be  firmly  pressed  in.  Where  the  vines 
can  be  obtained  in  large  quantities  they  can  be  cut  about  two 
inches  long  by  a  common  hay  cutter,  sown  oi^the  surface,  and 
well  harrowed  in ;  or  they  may  be  sown  in  drills  two  feet  apart. 
All  these  operations  must  be  performed  in  spring  and  early 
summer,  unless  the  ground  can  be  plowed. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  get  fruitful  plants,  as  many  that  ap- 
pear vigorous  are  barren.  The  better  way  is  to  carefully  ex- 
amine the  beds  from  which  the  plants  are  to  be  taken  at  the  fruit- 
ing time,  and  observe  what  portion  bears  the  be.'5t  crop. 

After  Culture.  Where  the  plants  are  in  hills  or  iu  .trills 
they  can  be  hoed  the  first  season,  after  which  they  will  cover 
the  whole  ground  and  mat  together  so  that  hoeing  will  be  im- 
possible. If  the  weeds  and  grass  are  kept  down  the  first  year, 
all  that  will  be  necessary  in  after  years  will  be  to  go  over  the 
patch  two  or  three  times  during  the  growing  season  and  pull  up 
the  large  tufts  of  grass,  briers  and  weeds,  by  hand.  Nothing 
else  but  the  cranberry  will  grow  very  luxuriantly  .in  clear  sand, 
and  if  the  top  has  been  taken  off  the  marsh  as  recommended 
but  few  weeds  or  grasses  will  appear  which  cannot  be  eradicated 
by  the  first  season's  warfare,  and  the  vines  will  soon  take  pos- 
session of  the  whole. 

Flooding,  as  we  have  hinted,  is  the  great  aid  to  cranberry 

culture.      The  power  to  flood  or  drain  at  will  insures   most 

profitable  returns.     With  an  embankment  and  a  water  gate  at 

the  outlet  this  may  be  accomplished.     Flood  before  the  ground 
37 


612  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

freezes  hard  in  the  fall,  aud  leave  the  water  on  until  all  danger 
of  spring  frosts  is  past.  North  of  New  York  city  two  feet  of 
water  is  desirable,  south  of  there,  one  foot  is  sufficient.  The 
patch  that  is  flooded  is  not  likely  to  be  attacked  by  the  cran- 
berry worm;  the  danger  of  winter  freezing  is  avoided;  the 
danger  from  frost  after  vegetation  has  commenced  in  the  spring 
is  done  away.  In  a  season  of  extreme  drought  the  water  can  be 
set  back  onto  the  patch,  and  the  crop  saved.  If  there  are  indi- 
cations of  frost  Ijgfore  the  fruit  is  ripe  it  can.be  covered  with 
water  until  the  cold  snap  has  passed.  Almost  any  one  of  these 
advantages  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  ordinary  expenses  of  an 
embankment  and  a  water  gate.  If  the  fruit  rots,  it  is  probably 
too  wet,  and  should  be  raised  by  an  addition  of  sand  to  the  sur- 
face. It  can  be  applied  on  the  ice,  and  the  plants  will  soon 
grow  up  through  it. 

Gathering,  Packing,  and  Marketing  the  small  fruits  are 
important  items,  and  can  be  very  much  systematized.  Women 
aud  children  are  usually  employed  as  pickers,  and  if  a  succes- 
sion of  fruits  is  raised  a  better  class  of  help  can  be  secured,  as 
they  have  employment  for  three  months  instead  of  one.  For 
this  and  other  reasons  we  recommend  a  succession  of  small 
fruits,  rather  than  that  a  man's  whole  capital  should  be  staked 
on  one  kind.  A  good  succession  can  be  arranged  with  straw- 
berries, raspberries,  currants,  blackberries,  and  cranberries.  The 
fruit  should  be  gathered  in  dry  weather,  and  not  until  after  the 
dew  is  off  in  the  morning.  The  usual  course  of  large  growers 
is  to  erect  a  tent  or  shed  in  the  field,  to  which  each  picker 
brings  the  fruit  and  receives  a  ticket  for  the  number  of  baskets. 
Formerly  each  grower  must  provide  himself  with  a  large 
number  of  baskets,  in  which  to  send  his  fruit  to  market,  but  this 
is  obviated  by  the  Free  Fruit  Box  of  the  Burlington  Manufac- 
turing Company  of  Burlington,  New  Jersey.  {Fig.  187.) 


J 


Fig.  135.    Khode  Island  Greening. 


... 


X  in 

CO  o  5° 

u.  f-  < 

<  :3 

u.  ^ 


<J 


Fig.  137.    Free  Fruit  Box. 

613 


SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE,  615 

This  box  was  invented  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  fruic 
growers  of  one  of  the  most  annoying  incidents — of  sending  their 
fruit  a  long  distance  to  market — the  necessity  of  having  their 
orates  and  boxes  returned  to  them.  It  supplies  a  want  which 
has  always  existed  in  the  berry  trade,  and  will  be  sold  so  cheap 
that  it  can  be  given  away  with  the  fruit.  In  appearance  it  is 
remarkably  neat,  light,  but  substantial,  while  the  fruit  will  al- 
ways go  to  market  in  a  perfectly  clean  box.  Though  given  away 
it  will  save  the  grower  money,  enable  him  to  get  a  better  price 
for  his  fruit,  and  put  an  end  to  the  annual  loss  of  boxes,  besides 
saving  him  the  necessity  of  keeping  a  vast  quantity  of  the 
boxes  and  crates  on  hand  to  provide  for  the  de.ay  of  returning 
them. 

The  box  is  composed  of  two  pieces  of  veneer.  Figure  1 
represents  a  piece  which  is  folded  up  into  four  sides  uf  the  box. 
It  is  scored  or  cut  at  the  dotted  lines,  so  that  it  c^n  be  folded  up 
into  a  shell  as  readily  as  a  piece  of  pasteboard.  The  tongue  at 
the  left  hand  end  buckles  into  the  two  slots  at  the  right  hand 
end,  just  like  closing  a  pocket  book.  A  notch  on  the  end  of 
the  tongue  catches  so  effectually,  after  being  buckled  in,  as  to 
bold  the  shell  firmly  together. 

The  bottom  is  shown  at  Figure  2.  The  two  tongues  at  the 
end  are  also  scored  or  cut  at  the  dotted  lines,  and  being  readily 
turned  up,  are  buckled  into  the  two  sets  of  slots  shown  on  the 
lower  edge  of  Figure  1.  When  thus  buckled  together,  the  two 
pieces  form  a  perfect  box,  as  seen  in  Figure  3,  neither  nails  nor 
glue  being  required,  and  the  whole  constituting  a  strong  and 
beautiful  box.  The  bottom  being  inserted  from  above,  rests 
upon  the  strip  between  the  two  bottom  slots,  and  cannot  possibly 
fall  out.  The  prominent  advantages  secured  by  the  use  of  this 
box  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  great  desideratum  of  a  box  always  nice  and  clean. 


616  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

2,  The  commission  agent  being  relieved  from  the  great 
annoyance  of  hunting  up  and  returning  crates  and  boxes,  as  well 
as  escaping  the  loss  of  theip,  will  sell  the  fruit  for  much  less 
than  the  usual  commission. 

3.  The  return  freight  of  empty  boxes  is  saved. 

•i.  Another  saving  is  secured  in  sending  to  market,  as  one 
hundred  of  the  free  boxes,  quart  measure,  weigh  only  about 
twelve  pounds,  while  one  hundred  of  the  old  square  quarts 
weigh  fifty  pounds.  Any  one  can  readily  satisfy  himself  by  a 
calculation  of  what  is  thus  saved  in  freight  to  market,  commis- 
sion, and  return  of  empty  crate,  that  he  will  really  save  money 
by  using  a  box  that  he  can  give  away. 

5.  As  these  boxes  are  put  together  without  nails  or  glue,  they 
can  be  sent  to  distant  growers,  in  the  shape  of  flats,  to  be  made 
up  by  children  at  odd  times  during  the  winter.  The  flats  are 
scored  und  bent,  ready  for  folding  up,  and  as  the  wood  bends  at 
tile  joint  without  breaking,  a  small  girl  will  learn  in  five 
minutes  how  to  put  them  together.  Many  hundred  boxes  thus 
packed  as  flats  can  be  got  into  a  very  small  compass,  and  at  a 
trifling  cost  of  freight. 

The  prices  for  these  boxes  are : — 

Pints  made  up  per  1000 $8.00 

"      "   5000 37.50 

in  flats  per  1000 6.50 

"      "   5000 30.00 

Quarts  made  up  per  1000 9.00 

"      "   .5000 42.50 

ill  flats     "   1000 7.50 

•'     "   5000 35.00 

Other  fruit  baskets  are :  "  The  American,  by  the  American 
Basket  Company,  New  Britain,  Connecticut,  a  very  nice  basket, 
costing  thirty  dollars  for  one  thousand  quarts.  The  Hallock  fruit 
V>ox,  manufactured  by  N.  Hallock,  Queens,  Queens  County,  New 


SMALL  FRUIT  CtJLTURE.  617 

York  The  Gothic  free  fruit  box,  made  of  veneer,  is  sent  in  flats 
ready  to  be  put  together,  for  ten  dollars  per  thousand.  A  very 
common  basket  is  made  by  D.  Cook,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. 
J.  B.  Smith's  grape  box,  made  at  Ansonia,  Connecticut,  holding 
about  five  pounds  of 'grapes,  is  also  suitable  for  the  small  fruits ; 
price,  sixty  dollars  per  thousand.  All  these,  and  many  more, 
are  patented. 

Flower  Culture  will  be  confined  to  the  farmer's  wife  and 
family,  but  the  farmer,  if  he  be  a  true  lover  of  nature,  will  be 
always  ready  to  lend  a  patch  of  ground  and  an  occasional  hour 
with  the  hoe  or  spade  to  the  flower-garden;  himself  and  his 
family  will  be  better  for  the  sight  of  the  flowers,  and  they 
will  be  more  closely  attatched  to  the  home  thus  beautified. 
We  can  give  but  a  few  plain  brief  directions  for  flower 
culture. 

The  best  soil  for  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  is  a  mixture  of 
loam,  peat,  leaf  mould,  and  sand.  If  peat  cannot  be  had,  decayed 
turf  can  be  used  in  its  stead.  Leaf  mould  can  always  be  had  in 
the  country  by  covering  a  pile  of  leaves  with  earth  in  the  fall, 
and  letting  them  rot  for  a  year.  Prepare  a  pile  every  fall,  and 
you  will  have  a  constant  supply  of  the  most  valuable  manure 
for  your  flower-garden,  vineyard,  or  nursery.  The  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  gather  all  the  leaves  possible  in  the 
fall  for  these  purposes. 

So  small  a  space  as  is  occupied  by  the  flower-garden,  should 
be  spaded,  hoed,  and  raked  until  it  is  thoroughly  pulverized  to 
the  depth  of  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches.  Flower  seeds 
should  not  be  planted  until  the  earth  begins  to  be  warm.  If 
the  soil  tends  to  be  too  cold  and  heavy,  add  sand  to  it.  One 
great  mistake  in  planting  flower  seeds  is  to  plant  too  early  and 
too  deep,  so  that  the  seeds  never  feel  the  warmth  of  the  sun, 
and  decay  without  germinating.     No  definite  rule  can  be  given 


613  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM  PAT. 

in  regard  to  depth  of  planting  all  seeds,  but  the  very  small 
seeds  should  be  sown  on  the  surface,  and  a  little  finely  pulver- 
ized earth  sifted  over  them,  and  pressed  gently  with  a  board. 
Seeds  of  the  size  of  the  cockscomb  and  amaranth  should  be 
planted  a  little  deeper ;  balsams,  asters,  etc.,  from  one  quarter 
to  a  half  an  inch  in  depth  ;  sweet  peas,  four  o'clocks,  lupins, 
morning  glories,  etc.,  from  one  half  to  one  inch  deep.  The 
ground  should  be  kept  moist  by  light  sprinklings,  and  as  soon 
as  the  tender  plants  appear  they  should  be  shaded  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  midday  sun  until  they  are  well  rooted.  All 
plants  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  the  ground  frequently 
stirred  about  their  roots.  First  on  the  list  of  flowers  stands  the 
rose.  To  produce  the  most  perfect  roses  prepare  a  trench,  or, 
if  for  one  vine,  a  hole  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  filling  the 
bottom  with  broken  bricks,  crockery,  etc.,  for  drainage,  and  the 
balance  with  an  even  mixture  of  earth  and  manure.  Roses 
are  best  planted  in  the  fall,  but  as  far  north  as  the  New 
England  States  the  planting  of  all  tender  varieties  must  be 
delayed  until  spring.  New  plants  are  procured  by  layering,  as 
directed  for  the  grape,  or  by  cuttings ;  or,  as  in  many  cases,  b}' 
taking  up  and  dividing  the  roots  of  a  growing  plant.  In  plant 
ing  the  nicest  care  should  be  observed  in  placing  the  roots. 
When  planted  in  the  fall  they  will  usually  be  benefited  by  a 
winter  covering  of  leaves  or  stable  litt,er.  Cut  out  all  old  and 
decaying  wood  in  the  spring.  One  gardener  of  our  acquaintance 
recommends  two  hundred  different  varieties  of  the  rose  for 
general  cultivation.  The  only  remark  we  shall  make  in  regard 
to  selection,  is,  select  a  succession  of  varieties  that  will  bloom 
through  several  months,  and,  as  far  as  may  be,  select  different 
colors;  from  that  most  beautiful  of  all  roses,  the  white  rose,  to 
the  dark,  purple,  sometimes  called  the  black  rose.  The  flowering 
\lmond  i<3  a  Jiardy  shrub,  loaded  in  blossoming  time  with  pretty 


SMALL   FRUIT  CULTURE.  619 

pink  flowers ;  it  is  easily  cultivated  from  suckers  or  layers.  The 
syringa  should  be  grown  in  every  yard,  both  for  its  pure  white 
blossoms  and  its  fragrance.  It  will  grow  from  cuttings  in  any 
good  garden  soil.  The  lilac,  spirea,  woodbine,  and  honeysuckle 
are  all  worthy  of  a  general  cultivation,  which  can  readily  be 
done,  as  they  require  but  little  care  if  properly  planted  in  the  be- 
ginning. The  gladiolus,  dahlia,  tulip,  and  like  flowers  require 
more  care,  as  the  bulbs  must  be  taken  up  in  the  fall,  and  re- 
planted in  the  spring ;  but  their  beauty  warrants  the  use  of 
some  time  that  might  otherwise  be  wasted.  The  bulbs  are 
taken  up  as  soon  as  the  frost  touches  the  plant  and  kept  dry  on 
a  shelf  in  a  cool  place,  or  by  packing  in  dry  sand ;  and  about  the 
first  of  May  should  be  brought  out  and  sprouted  in  a  warm 
spot,  when  the  tubers  should  be  divided.  Each  tuber  that  has 
a  bud  will  bear  a  plant.  They  should  be  planted  out  in  groups 
three  and  a  half  inches  deep,  and  a  stake  driven  beside  them,  to 
which  they  should  be  trained. 

The  peony  is  hardy,  and  requires  only  to  be  covered  with 

I  straw  through  the  winter  to  put  forth  vigorously  on  the  first 

(  approach  of  spring.     The  althea  or  hollyhock,  is  a  neglected 

i  but  beautiful  plant,  we  think  more  desirable  than  the  dahlia. 

,:!  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  May,  one-half  an  inch  deep,  and 

when  the  plants  have  put  out  six  or  eight  leaves,  transplanted. 

By  saving  and  planting  the  seed  of  the  double  varieties,  a  mass 

of  beautiful  flowers  of  many  colors  is  produced  every  season. 

China  asters  are  to  be  highly  recommended.     The  ground  for 

these,  as  for  all  flowers,  should  be  dag  deep  and  well  manured. 

They  are  sown  in  beds  from  the  first  to  the  tenth  of  May,  and 

come  into  bloom  in  August. 

The  verbena  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  garden  flowers  for 
massing  in  beds ;  it  is  however  difficult  to  keep  through  winter. 
We  can  only  name  a  few  of  the  many  plants  included  in  the 


620  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

lists  of  nurserymen  and  florists,  but  it  is  well  not  to  be  de- 
ceived by  high  sounding  names  into  buying  common  and  in- 
ferior plants.  There  are  enough  well  known  plants  like  those 
we  have  mentioned  to  make  a  little  paradise  around  every 
home.  We  come  now  to  speak  of  a  few  indoor  plants.  If  you 
have  a  south  or  east  window  that  you  can  spare  through  the 
winter,  you  can  raise  the  most  beautiful  plants.  In  cities 
where  the  light  is  excluded,  and  the  dry  furnace  heat  chokes 
the  plant  by  day,  and  the  gas  by  night,  it  is  difficult  to  raise 
good  house  plants,  but  in  the  country,  if  you  will,  you  can  have 
them  to  perfection.  "Whatever  they  are,  the  soil  should  be  the 
compost  we  have  described.  Whether  in  boxes  or  pots,  the 
bottom  should  be  covered  with  broken  bits  of  crockery,  and 
there  should  be  a  hole  for  the  escape  of  the  water.  When  the 
roots  fill  the  box  or  pot,  the  plant  should  be  taken  out  and  a 
part  of  the  roots  cut  off,  or  the  plant  should  be  transplanted 
where  it  will  have  mo're  room.  House  plants,  and  plants  in  the 
garden,  should  be  watered  only  with  soft  water,  and  the  watei 
should  be  applied  to  the  leaves  rather  than  the  stem.  Tht 
geranium  stands  first  among  house  plants ;  it  is  propagated  b} 
slips,  and  the  common  fault  in  its  cultivation  is  crowding 
Give  it  light  and  air  on  all  sides.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
nearly  all  indoor  plants,  which  include  the  cactus,  calla,  crys 
anthemums,  verbenas,  and  the  various  dwarf  roses. 


PART  FOURTH. 


EUEAL  AECHITECTURE-LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING-MAEEET  GAEDENDIG" 
FAEMEES'  GAEDENS-AND  MISCELLANEOUS  ITEMS. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


ARM  BUILDINGS  are,  in  a  sense,  the  measure  of  the 

farmer's  thrift ;  for  the  farmer   who   "  makes  his  farm 

pay"  will   see  to   it   that   his   comfortable   house    and 

capacious  barns  give  evidence  of  his  prosperity.     The 

House  is  often  the  last  object  of  >he  farmer's  care,  but  it  should 

be   the   first ;  for   though  he  is  not  much  in  it,  his  wife  and 

children  are,  and  if  he  has  due  regard  for  them  he  will  see  that 

every  thing  about  the  house  is  as  comfortable  and  convenient 

as  his  means  will  allow  him  to  make  it. 

Any  thing  that  will  lessen  the  labors  or  increase  the  comfort 

of  his  wife,  any  thing  that  will  increase  the  attractions  of  his 

i'HoME  to  his  children,  is  worthy  of  his  careful  attention. 

The  location  should  be  the  most  convenient,  healthful,  and 

pleasant  spot  on  the  place,  well  set  back  from  the  road,  and  if 

possible  near  a  lake,  brook,  river,  or  never  failing  spring  of 

water.     A  house  near  the  public  highway  is  subject  to  many 

anoyances,  which  can  be  avoided  only  by  setting  it  back  three 

Dr  four  hundred  yards. 

The  Foundation  should  not  be  slighted  in  any  respect.     Lay- 

ng  the  timbers  on  boards  is  a  miserable  practice.     Make  the 

'oundation  strong,  going  below  frost  with  the  excavation  for 

C2l 


622  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   TAY. 

the  wall,  and  taking  special  pains  to  have  the  corner-stones  i 
large  and  solid. 

Size  of  Timbers.  A  small  stick  of  timber  of  the  right  shape 
is  better  than  a  big  stick.  In  old  houses  the  amount  of  timber 
is  sufficient  to  build  three  or  four  just  as  strong.  Much  depends 
also  on  the  form  of  joints  in  making  a  frame  stiff.  A  three  inch 
by  four  joist  would  be  weak  and  insufficient,  when  the  same 
lumber  in  a  joist  eight  by  one  and  a  half  inches  would  be  strong 
enough  to  support  a  great  weight. 

Make  the  rooms  high  between  joists ;  ten  feet  for  the  lower 
rooms  is  none  too  much,  for  low,  close  rooms  are  a  constant  source 
of  disease.  Put  two  ventilators  in  each  room,  about  eight  feet 
from  the  floor;  fresh  air  will  lessen  your  doctor's  bill.  The 
timbers  of  the  frame  and  all  the  lumber  used  should  be  wel' 
seasoned.  The  farmer  cannot  be  too  particular  about  this 
More  bad-looking  and  unsatisfactory  jobs  are  made  by  neglect 
iug  this  particular  than  any  other.  Nothing  detracts  from  the  ! 
market  value  or  the  comfort  of  a  house  more  than  great  crack. 
and  shrinkages  in  the  doors  and  floors. 

We  have  advocated  setting  back  the  house ;  this  will  leave  a 
large  plot  of  ground  between  the  house  and  the  road,  which 
should  be  filled  with  trees  and  shrubs.  Nothing  looks  better 
here  than  a  variety  of  well-trimmed  fruit  trees.  In  such  a  space 
the  farmer  may  raise  large  and  small  fruits  sufficient  for  a  supply 
the  year  round,  besides  furnishing  sauces,  jams,  preserves,  and 
mild  wines.  If  the  walk  to  the  house  passes  under  several  grape 
arbors  it  will  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  his  place.  Elsewhere 
will  be  found  instructions  for  covering  these  arbors  with  luscious 
fruit.  Fig.  138  represents  the  ground  plan  of  a  very  conveni 
ent  farnv  house.  Y  is  the  verandah,  running  across  the  whole 
front  of  the  house,  h  is  the  hall,  with  doors  opening  into  botl 
parlor  and  sitting  room.     S,  front  stairs.     S,  sitting  room.     P 


RURAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


623 


parlor,  c,  chimney,  h,  bed  room.  K, 
kitchen.  A,  back  stairs.  The  cellar 
stairs  are  directly  under  these,  en- 
trance at  E.  The  kitchen  opens  into 
the  sitting  room  and  bed  room,  and 
also  directly  into  the  pantry,  p,  and 
the  passage  way,  W,  leading  to  the 
dairy,  d  At  o  is  a  side  door  with  a 
little  porch.  W.  R.  is  a  wash  room, 
;  and  W.  S.  a  wood  shed,  beyond  which 
lean  be  connected  any  other  build- 
ings required.  There  are  four  good 
chambers  with  closets  over  the  main 
building,  and  the  back  buildings  can 
be  made  one  and  a  half  stories,  and 
several  more  sleeping  rooms  secured, 
if  desirable. 

Fig.  139  is  a  iiitle  more  compact, 
and,  in  one  or  two  respects,  more  de- 
3irable.  The  verandah  is  on  the  side, 
ind  a  hall,  hh,  extends  the  whole  dis- 
:.ance  from  the  front  to  the  side  en- 
hance. This  cuts  off  the  sitting  room 
irom  the  kitchen,  making  it  colder  in 
.  vvinter  time  as  well  as  cooler  in  sum-  Fig.  138. 

:ner.  /,  front  stairs;  c,  back  and  cellar  stairs.  The  main 
•ooms  are  in  the  same  position  as  before ;  but  the  wash  room, 
vV",  and  wood  house,  H,  are  more  compact.  This  plan  gives  six 
•chambers.  Fig.  140  is  a  laborer's  cottage,  such  as  every  farmer 
vould  do  well  to  have  for  his  hands.  L,  is  the  living  room  ;  B, 
)ed  room;  P,  pantry;  S,  stairs;  K,  kitchen;  W,  wood  house. 
5uch  a  house  is  cheaply  built,  as  follows :  Put  up  a  simple 


w.s.      ! 

W.R. 

d 

w 

p 

^ 

u^ 

K 



3 —  — 

s 

p 

II 

= 

fHiTfm^s^ 

V 

524  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FABM   PAY.  f 

frame  and  nail  plank  siding  on,  up  and  down.  The  planks 
should  be  of  about  equal  width.  Batten  inside  and  out  with 
inch  stuffthree  inches  wide.    To  the  inside  batten  nail  the  lath. 

A  .good  cellar  is  the  most  cheaply  constructed  of  any  apart- 
ment in  the  house,  and  the  others  will  see  little  comfort  without 
it.  The  cellar  bottom  should  be  laid  in  cement  or  gravel. 
Gravel  and  tar  floors  are  not  only  good  for  cellars,  but  for 
stables  and  walks. 

The  right  way  to  make  these  floors  is  as  follows : — Take  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  small  stones,  one  or  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter, put  them  in  a  pile,  and  pour  over  them  enough  coal  tar  to 
coat  them  all,  mixing  them  meanwhile  with  a  shovel ;  then 
spread  them  over  the  floor,  and  rake  to  a  level.  They  should 
make  the  floor  about  three  inches  thick.  Now  a  quantity  of 
coarse  gravel  should  be  coated  with  the  tar,  which  can  be  done 
by  pouring  in  a  pile,  making  a  hole  in  the  top  of  it,  pouring  in 
the  tar,  and  mixing  with  a  shovel.  There  should  be  enough 
coal  tar  to  coat  both  the  stones  and  gravel,  but  no  more,  as  it 
would  require  more  time  for  the  floor  to  harden.  The  gravel 
should  be  spread  over  the  stones  two  inches  thick.  The  whole 
should  then  be  rolled  with  a  heavy  stone  roller,  till  the  floor  is 
perfectly  compact.  The  corners,  where  the  roller  cannot  be 
used,  should  be  beaten  down  with  a  mall.  While  the  rolling, 
and  mailing  is  going  on  the  surface  should  be  strewn  ovei 
broadcast  with  fine  gravel  or  sand,  to  take  up  the  surplus  tarj 
This  process  should  continue  till  the  surface  is  too  dry  to  sticl 
to  one's  shoes  in  walking  over  it.  This  kind  of  floor  is  watel 
proof,  frost  proof  and  rai  proof,  and  is,  therefore,  the  best  of  anj 
The  only  objection  to  it,  is  that  it  emits  a  strong  smell  for  some 
lime ;  but  this  smell  is  healthy,  and  also  helps  to  keep  rats  clear 
away  from  the  barn  or  house. 


a 


w 


w 


B         = 


X: 

K 

h 

7i 

1 

S 

Fig.  140. 
Wig.  139.  Plan  of  Farm  House.      Plan  of  Laborer's  Cottage. 


'Vgf.  141.  GRorND  Plan  of  Barn  represented  in  FKONTispmcii 

3S  625 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE.  627 

By  the  same  process  as  the  above,  there  cau  be  made  the 
very  best  door-yard  walks,  sidewalks,  and  street  crocssiugs. 
Not  even  the  continual  passing  of  teams  over  the  street  cross- 
ings, nor  the  heaving  and  subsiding  of  freezing  and  thawing 
mud  hurt  them.  It  only  grows  harder  and  more  enduring  con 
tinually.  The  smell  soon  passes  away  in  the  open  air,  and  is 
no  more  trouble. 

We  have  given  elsewhere  plans  of  a  sheep  barn,  {Fi,g.  85,)  a 
a  piggery,  {Fig.  90,)  and  a  poultry  house,  {Fig.  97.) 

Fig.  1-il,  is  a  ground  phin  of  the  burn  represented  in  our 
steel  engraved  frontispiece,  a,  a,  a  are  the  doors  seen  lu  the 
engraving,  leading  into  the  barnyard,  s,  s,  the  stalls  for  cows 
and  cattle,  r,  is  the  root  cellar,  ^,  the  grain  room,  and  c,  the 
cooking  room.  The  barn  is  in  a  side  hill  and  the  root  cellar, 
cooking  room,  and  granary  are  nearly  all  under  ground. 

The  stable  floors  are  made  of  gravel  and  coal  tar,  as  described 
above,  and  have  gutters  running  to  the  yard  and  connecting 
with  the  manure  well.  There  is  a  cistern  under  the  cooking 
room  which  is  always  kept  filled  from  the  roof  troughs,  and  the 
stables  are  kept  washed  down. "  A  large  amount  of  liquid 
manure  is  saved,  and  is  used  as  directed  in  Ghapttr  III.  This 
cistern  also  furnishes  a  supply  of  water  the  year  round.  The 
roofs  of  a  large  barn  forty  by  sixty,  will  furnish  three  thousand 
barrels  of  water  annually,  which  would  require  a  cistern  hold- 
ing two  hundred  and  forty  barrels  to  be  drained  monthly. 

Farmers  often  build  small  cisterns,  and  drain  a  large  roof 
surface  into  them,  keeping  them  constantly  overflowed.  « A 
roof  twenty  by  thirty  will  average  one  hundred  and  twenty 
barrels  of  water  per  month.  The  following,  which  we  found  in 
a  Western  paper,  exactly  expresses  a  great  need  at  the  West. 

"  Farmers  in  the  West  have  not  learned  to  appreciate  the  im- 
portance of  barns,  and  the  annual  loss  to  them  in  consequence 
38 


t}2S  now   TO   .MAKE   THE   FAKM   PAY. 

is  immense.  But  the  deficiency  of  this  important  farm  appen- 
dage is  the  natural  result  of  the  circumstances  which  attend  the 
settler  in  a  new  country.  The  little  capital  that  he  sets  out 
with  is  generally  all  required  to  secure  his  land  and  erect  the 
humble  tenement  for  himself  and  family.  He  may  provide  a 
rough  shed  of  poles  for  his  work  horses,  but  his  cattle  must 
seek  shelter  in  winter  under  the  trees  or  behind  fences ;  and 
his  grain  is  threshed  out  in  the  field,  as  soon  after  harvest  as 
circumstances  will  admit.  His  hay  is  stacked  up  near  his  sta- 
ble, and  thus,  from  what  he  is  at  first  compelled  to  submit  to 
from  necessity,  the  habit  of  neglect  is  formed,  and,  in  after 
years,  when  the  circumstances  will  admit  of  providing  sucli 
conveniences,  he  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  they  are 
not  necessary.  , 

"  In  travelling  through  portions  of  Pennsylvania,  we  have 
often  been  struck  with  the  evidences  of  the  foresight  and 
economy  of  the  earrly  Dutch  settlers,  in  providing  barns  of 
capacity  sufiicient  for  the  protection  of  most  of  their  hay  and 
grain,  their  horses  and  farm  stock,  while  their  dwellings  for 
themselves  and  families  are  small  and  of  the  most  humble  style. 

"  The  loss  sustained  by  the  Western  farmers  for  the  want  of 
suitable  barns,  amounts  to  many  millions  of  dollars  annually. 
Besides  the  injury  to  his  hay  and  grain  crops,  he  labors  under 
great  inconvenience,  and  is  subject  to  heavy  losses  in  feeding 
his  stock  during  winter ;  and,  besides  this,  his  animals  require 
much  more  food  to  maintain  them  in  order  through  the  winter 
thftn  when  they  are  comfortably  sheltered.  If  they  do  not  re- 
ceive an  extra  amount  of  food,  to  keep  up  the  animal  heat 
during  the  long,  cold  winter,  they  consume  the  fat  that  they 
have  accumulated  through  the  summer,  to  supply  the  deficiency 
of  food.  Heat  is  maintained  from  one  of  these  two  sources,  bj 
a  sort  of  combustion,  analogous  to  the  fuel  in  a  stove,  or  the  oil 


JOil' 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE.  629 

in  a  lamp.  If  the  fat  is  exhausted  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency 
of  food,  the  animals  are  turned  out  in  the  spring,  poor  and 
emaciated ;  and  if  they  survive  the  trying  month  of  March, 
they  will  consume  one  half  the  summer  in  restoring  the  flesh 
they  have  lost.  This  is  no  fancy  picture,  but  one  that  may  be 
'  almost  everywhere  witnessed  around  us. 

"  Besides  these  losses  and  the  numerous  inconveniences  the 
farmer  is  subject  to  in  preparing  the  food  and  taking  care  of 
his  stock,  for  the  want  of  a  well  constructed  barn,  arranged 
with  all  the  improvements  of  the  present  day,  he  loses  an  im- 
mense amount  for  want  of  shelter  for  his  crops.  In  1855  there 
were  ■  millions  of  bushels  of  wheat  in  the  United  States,  either 
totally  lost  or  greatly  injured  by  exposure  in  the  shock  to  the 
rains.  This  injury  was  so  extensive,  that  in  many  sections  of 
the  country  sufficient  wheat — that  had  not  been  sprouted — 
could  not  be  procured  for  fall  sowing ;  and  the  query  was  made 
in  almost  every  agricultural  paper,  whether  sprouted  wheat 
would  answer  for  seed." 

A  Rat  Proof  Corn  Crib  may  be  built  by  laying  pillars  of 
3at  stones  twelve  inches  square,  two  feet  high,  and  capping 
.hem  with  smooth  flat  stones  two  feet  square. 

An  Ice  House  is  not  only  a  great  advantage,  in  connection 
yith  the  dairy,  but  there  are  many  ways  in  which  it  adds  to 
he  comfort  and  economy  of  housekeeping.  The  ice  house 
ould  be  wholly  above  ground,  and  never  less  than  twelve  feet 
uare  on  the  inside.  The  walls  should  be  double,  with  twelve 
ch  space  between  them,  filled  with  sawdust  or  tan  bark.  A 
uble  row  of  posts,  ten  feet  long  and  set  two  feet  in  the 
ound,  answers  as  well  as  any  thing  else  for  a  frame. 
We  could  wish  that  more  attention  was  paid  to  the  position 
farm  buildings  as  affecting  their  looks.  If  they  are  arranged 
out  a  hollow  square,  and  partially  hid'len  from  passers  by 


630  now  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

fine  shade  trees,  it  will  be  an  advance  upon  the  common,  bare 
irref^ular  haphazard  appearance  usually  presented.  Such  at- 
tention to  looks  will  pay,  if  you  or  yours  should  ever  wish  to 
dispose  of  the  property  to  a  man  of  taste. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  trees  and  arbors  intervening 
between  the  house  and  the  road.  We  hope  this  suggestion  will 
be  heeded.  An  osage  orange  hedge,  in  place  of  a  fence,  will 
add  to  the  attractiveness  of  such  a  plot. 

To  any  one  who  would  really  like  to  build  a  tasty  house,  or 
alter  an  old  one  with  but  little  extra  expense  for  ornament,  we 
recommend  a  perusal  of  Mitchell's,  ("  Eural  Studies,")  Wheeler's, 
Todd's,  Woodward's,  or  Allen's  works  on  Eural  Architecture. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

MARKET    GARDENING    AND    FARMERS*     GARDENS. 

AEKBT  GAEDENING  can  only  be  carried  on,  on  a 
large  scale,  within  a  few  hours  reach  of  large  cities,  but 
near  all  villages  and  incorporated  towns  there  is  always 
a  moderate  demand  which  is  seldom  fully  supplied. 
And  even  if  there  were  no  demand  beside  that  of  the  farmer's 
own  table,  a  variety  of  fresh  vegetables  is  so  desirable,  so  whole- 
some, and  so  cheaply  secured,  that  we  should  say  to  every 
farmer,  keep  a  well  stocked  garden. 

A  good  garden  well  stocked  and  well  tended,  in  connection 
with  the  farm,  is  acknowledged  by  all  experienced  in  domestic 
economy  to  be  the  most  profitable  portion  of  the  farm,  accord- 
ing to  the  expense  and  care  required.  Yet  it  is  a  portion  which 
has  been,  and  is,  too  much  neglected  by  most  farmers  in  this 
country,  much  to  their  loss,  in  both  health  and  comfort.  The 
time  necessary  to  its  successful  culture  is  often  wasted  or  lost 
in  running  to  the  store  for  articles  that  might  not  have  been 
aeeded,  had  there  been  a  good  garden  to  go  to  instead. 

Half  an  acre  devoted  to  garden  purposes  will,  if  properly 
cultivated,  farnish  a  large  family  with  a  considerable  portion  of 
heir  living  from  spring  to  midwinter,  or  till  spring  comes 
igain ;  and  instead  of  the  more  heating  meats,  stale  bread,  and 
)ld  potatoes,  to  which  so  many  farmers'  families  are  confined  in 

fcivinter  and  spring,  we  have  a  successive  and  refreshing  variety 
■  631 


g32  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

of  good,  wliolesome,  fresh  vegetables,  fruits,  salads,  berries,  etc. ; 
and  wlien  the  warm  weather  of  spring  comes,  and  the  system 
requires  a  less  stimulating,  more  cooling  diet,  we  have  a  variety 
offered  to  tempt  the  appetite,  which  can  be  procured  at  so  little 
expense  or  trouble,  in  no  other  way. 

Not  only  should  the  garden  contain,  and  have  cultivated  in* 
it,  the  more  common  vegetables  usually  grown  on  the  farm,  but 
all  the  choice  varieties,  as  also  fruits,  etc.,  desirable  for  family 
use,  that  can  be  grown  in  the  climate. 

The  garden  spot  should,  when  a  choice  is  to  be  had,  have  a 
gentle  descent  or  slope  towards  the  south,  ag  this  exposure  is 
preferable  on  many  accounts  to  any  other.  The  effects  of  a  slight 
frost  are  more  readily  recovered  from,  if  the  air  gets  gradually 
a  little  warmed  before  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  strike  the 
plants  that  may  be  touched.  Protection  ought  to  be  afforded  a 
garden  from  cold  northerly  winds,  if  in  no  other  way,  by  tight 
high  board  fences,  it  is  better  if  protected  by  woods,  high  hills, 
or  buildiiios. 

When  the  half  acre  is  selected,  it  should  be  subsoiled  or 
trenched,  and,  if  at  all  inclined  to  hold  water,  it  should  be 
drained.  {See  Chapter  /.,  for  advantages  of  draining.)  Peter 
Henderson,  in  a  work  on  market  gardening,  records  an  instance 
of  eight  acres,  the  products  of  which  were  increased  two 
thousand  dollars  a  year  by  drainage,  which  cost  five  hundred 
dollars.  It  would  seem  as  if  a  word  to  the  wise  on  this  subject 
ought  to  be  sufficient. 

Next  to  the  draining  and  deep  plowing  is  the  manuring, 
which  should  be  liberal.  The  great  advantages  to  be  secured 
are  earliness,  large  yields,  and  extra  quality ;  none  of  these  can 
be  secured  without  plenty  of  manure. 

A  half  acre  intended  for  a  garden  should  receive  ten  cords  of 
good  compost.     Here  is  just  the  place  for  liquid  manure,  on  tht 


MARKET  GARDENIXG  AND  FARMERS'  GARDENS.     HSS 

growing  crops.     The  garden  being  near  the  stables  and  yard, 
should  receive  many  barrels  of  liquid  manure  during  the  season. 

Eack  subsequent  season  this  heavy  manuring  should  be  con- 
tinued, but  the  compost  should  be  varied.  If  manure  from  the 
hog  pen  is  composted  this  year,  use  horse  manure  the  next, 
night  soil  the  third,  etc.  Rotation  of  maix'.ires  is  often  as  essen- 
tial as  rotation  of  crops. 

Cold  Frames.  One-half  the  enjoyment  and  two-thirds  of 
the  profit  in  raising  garden  stuff  is  in  having  it  early  in  the 
season.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  cold  frames  or  hot 
beds.  The  cold  frame  consists  simply  of  plank,  set  on  edge 
around  the  garden  beds,  and  covered  with  sash.  Two  or  three 
weeks  can  be  gained  by  the  use  of  these  in  growing  early  vege- 
tables, lettuce,  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  etc.  Cold  frames  and  hot 
beds  should  face  south,  or  southeast,  and  be  protected  on  the 
northeast  and  northwest  by  a  tight  board  fence.  We  would 
advise  every  man  to  have  a  small  hot-bed  for  forcing  a  few  early 
plants.  Dig  a  trench  four  to  five  feet  wide,  two  feet  deep,  and 
ten  feet  long.  Board  it  up  with  any  old  plank  to  eighteen 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  making  the  portion 
above  ground  pretty  tight.  You  can  nail  slats  across  the 
frames  in  any  shape,  to  receive  your  sash.  The  heating  mate 
rial  is  fresh  horse  dung  composted  with  its  equal  bulk  of 
leaves.  Draw  them  to  the  vicinity  of  the  hot-bed  and  mix  them 
in  a  conical  heap,  until  they  heat,  which  will  be  shown  by  the 
escape  of  vapors,  when  the  heap  should  be  turned  over  and  leil 
for  the  second  heat.  When  this  takes  place  fill  the  trench, 
treading  down  the  compost  till  it  is  even  with  the  surface. 
Now  put  on  the  soil  six  inches  deep.  A  portion  of  the  surface 
soil  that  was  thrown  out,  mixed  with  one-third  the  quantity 
of  old  hog  manure,  will  be  the  best. 

Market  gardeners  use  straw  mats   for   covering   their  hot- 


63-i  UOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

beds,  but  an  old  carpet  or  blanket  or  coverlid  will  answer  the 
purpose.  There  is  no  part  of  the  country  where  a  variety  of 
plants  may  not  be  started  in  March,  by  ihe  use  of  the  hot-bed. 

Potatoes,  A  few  early  potatoes  should  be  grown  in  the 
farmer's  garden,  as  those  usually  eaten  after  the  first  of  June  are 
absolutely  jinwholesome.  The  farmer  may  also  use  his  garden 
to  test  the  qualities  of  any  new  sorts  before  he  invests  largely 
in  them.  Ashes  in  the  drills,  covered  with  one  inch  of  earth, 
form  a  most  fertile  bed  for  the  potatoes.  We  recommend  the 
Early  Rose  for  garden  culture,  as  the  best  early  potatoe  ever 
grown  in  this  country. 

Beets  should  be  sown  only  in  a  deep  rich  loam.  Clay  or 
gravel  is  not  suitable.  None  but  well  decomposed  manure 
should  be  used,  with  the  addition  of  ashes  and  a  little  salt. 
An  ounce  of  seed  will  sow  over  one  hundred  feet  of  drill  very 
thickly.  Two  crops  should  be  sown,  one  as  early  as  the 
ground  can  be  worked,  and  the  other  six  weeks  later,  for  fall 
and  winter  use. 

The  drillB  may  be  one  foot  apart,  and  when  the  plants  get  two 
nches  high,  they  should  be  thinned.  These  little  plants  make 
the  best  of  greens,  and  if  a  large  bed  is  gradually  thinned  will 
furnish  a  daily  dish  for  two  or  three  weeks.  The  market 
gardeners  make  these  small  beets  and  tops  pay  for  the  labor  of 
thinning  the  crop.  Six  inches  apart  in  the  drills  is  the  distance 
at  which  they  should  stand,  when  the  thinning  is  completed. 
They  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  for  this  purpose,  and 
for  all  the  operations  of  the  garden,  "  Allen's  weed  killer"  will 
be  found  a  very  efficient  implement.  The  long  smooth  blood 
beet  for  the  late  crop,  and  the  early  blood  turnip  rooted  beet  for 
the  early  crop,  are  the  two  varieties  we  recommend.  The  seed 
is  good  two  years. 

Carrots  will  usually  pay  about  double  the  profit  received 


MAKKET  GARDENING  AND  FARMERS'  GARDENS.     635 

from  potatoes  as  a  market  crop,  and  for  the  farmer's  garden  a 
few  may  well  be  sown  in  the  poorest  spot  in  the  garden,  as  rich 
soil  is  apt  to  make  them  rank.  Sow  the  Early  Horn  for  the  first 
crop,  and  thin,  the  same  as  directed  for  beets.  The  Long  Orango 
is  the  best  for  later  sowing  and  winter  keeping. 

Turnips  for  winter  use  should  be  sown  about  the  first  of 
August,  but  a  few  "  purple  top  strap  leaved"  sown  in  May,  or 
the  first  of  June,  afford  a  desirable  addition  to  the  summer  table. 
For  winter  keeping,  the  White  Dutch,  Finland,  Yellow  Dutch, 
and  White  Purple  Top  are  recommended.     [See  Chapter  VII.) 

Onions,  though  discarded  from  society,  are  too  good  to  be 
banished,  and  we  advise  a  bed  of  onions  in  the  farmer's  garden, 
by  all. means.  The  mode  of  cultivation  is  described  on  another 
page. 

The  Parsnip  is  exceedingly  desirable,  as  they  may  be  left  in 
the  bed  over  the  winter,  and  afford  fresh  vegetables  as  soon  as 
the  frost  is  out  in  the  spring.  The  free  use  of  the  parsnip  at 
this  time  is  most  beneficial  to  the  system,  after  the  somewhat 
limited  fare  of  the  late  winter  months.  Its  cultivation  is  the 
same  as  for  the  carrot  and  other  vegetables  of  this  class. 
Plant  in  rows  one  foot  apart,  and  thin  to  four  inches.  A  half 
ounce  of  seed  is  sufficient  for  a  hundred  feet  of  drill. 

The  Eadish  is  much  esteemed  in  cities,  and  is  desirable  in 
every  garden.  It  gives  a  relish  to  other  articles  of  food,  other- 
wise rather  insipid.  A  light  rich  soil,  deep  and  finely  pulverized, 
will  grow  radishes  in  six  weeks  from  tlie  planting.  Sow  in  drills 
an  inch  deep  and  six  inches  apart.  Thin  to  two  inches  apart  after 
they  are  well  up.  A  drill  six  feet  long  sown  in  the  hot-bed  the 
first  of  March,  another  in  the  cold  frame  the  first  of  April,  a 
third  in  the  open  garden  the  first  of  May,  a  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth,  at  intervals  of  a  month,  between  the  rows  of  asparagus, 
will  furnish  your  table  daily  from  April  to  October. 


QS6  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

Asparagus.  It  is  so  easy  a  matter  to  secure  a  good  bed  of 
asparagus,  that  wo  should  think  every  farmer's  garden  might 
be  provided  with  one.  The  preparation  of  the  bed  requires 
some  labor,  but  when  it  is  remembered  that  it  will  last  for 
twenty  or  thirty  years,  it  seems  small  indeed.  Lay  out  a  bed  in 
the  warmest,  mellowest  part  of  the  garden.  Throw  out  all  the 
soil  to  a  depth  of  two  feet ;  throw  in  a  layer  of  well  rotted 
compost,  and  then  a  layer  of  the  soil,  forking  the  two  over  in 
the  trench.  When  filled  a  little  above  the  level,  mark  rows 
icross  the  bed  an  inch  deep  and  twelve  inches  apart.  Soak  the 
seed  in  milk  over  night,  and  drop  in  the  drills  an  inch  apart. 
When  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches  high,  thin  them  out 
to  nine  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  In  the  fall  cut  off  the  stalks 
aud  add  six  inches  of  compost,  half  manure  and  half  soil.  Add 
another  dressing  in  the  spring,  and  each  succeeding  spring. 
Xorth  of  New  York  the  bed  should  have  a  fall  dressing  to  pro- 
tect the  plants  from  the  frost.  No  plants  should  be  cut  for 
the  first  three  years.  Salt  should  be  put  on  whun  the  bed  is 
made,  and  with  each  spring  dressing. 

Celery.  Sow  in  April  in  the  cold  frame,  or  May  in  the 
open  ground.  Thin  and  weed  the  plants  until  July,  when  they 
should  be  transplanted  to  rows  three  feet  apart.  When  they 
attain  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  in  height,  bank  them  up  with 
earth  from  between  the  rows,  pressing  it  closely  about  the 
stalks.  As  the  stalks  increase  in  height,  add  more  earth.  For 
winter  u.se  leave  the  stalks  in  the  rows  until  there  is  damper  of 
freezing,  then  remove  to  the  cellar,  covering  all  but  the  tops 
with  dry  sand.  Never  plant  any  of  the  large  kinds.  Incom- 
parable Dwarf  and  "  Boston  Market"  are  the  best  in  all  respects. 

Lettuce.  The  universal  cultivation  of  this  plant  leaver 
little  to  be  said.     It  may  be  sown  at  various  times  from  April 


MAliKET   GARDENING   AND   FABMERS'   GARDENS.  637 

to  July.  When  transplanted  or  thinned  the  plants  should 
stand  one  foot  apart.  The  seed  only  requires  to  be  covered 
with  one-fourth  inch  of  soil.  The  Early  Curled  Simpson  for 
early  sowing  and  the  Curled  India  for  late  sowing  are  the  best 
varieties  for  garden  culture. 

Peppers  should  be  sown  in  the  hot-bed  in  March,  or  the 
cold  frame  in  April,  and  planted  out  as  soon  as  the  ground  gets 
thoroughly  warm,  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  and  eighteen  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  The  Squash  Pepper  is  the  most  productive 
and  the  Sweet  Mountain  the  largest  and  mildest  flavored. 

Ehubarb  or  Pie  Plant  is  exceedingly  convenient  for  making 
pies  at  a  time  when  nothing  else  is  available.  Five  heads  will 
supply  a  family  of  twenty  persons.  All  that  is  required  is  to 
set  out  a  piece  of  root  and  it  will  grow.  Dig  the  soil  deeply, 
manure  it  richly  before  putting  out  the  plant,  and  fork  in  a 
quantity  of  heating  manure  every  spring.  Market  gardeners 
apply  one  hundred  tons  of  manure  to  the  acre,  and  realize  an 
average  jirofit  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre. 

Tomatoes,  in  this  latitude,  may  be  planted  in  the  cold  frame 
in  April,  or  the  hot-bed  a  month  earlier.  They  are  now  in  uni- 
versal favor,  and  an  early  crop  is  always  in  the  market  at  gooc. 
prices.  A  few  plants  will  suffice  for  an  ordinary  family,  and 
these  can  be  started  in  a  box,  in  some  warm,  protected  spot. 
The  ground,  if  in  good  fertility,  should  not  be  enriched  for  the 
plants,  as  they  will  run  to  tops.  The  old  early  smooth  red,  and 
the  later  large  red  and  large  yellow,  are  as  good  as  the  modern 
varieties. 

Beans  are,  perhaps,  as  generally  cultivated  as  any  garden 
crop,  and  yet  but  few  cultivate  them  rightly.  They  contain  a 
larger  proportion  of  nutriment  than  any  other  plant  or  vegeta- 
ble, and  as  a  garden  or  field  crop  deserve  more  attention  than 
they  get.     All  beans  require  a  light,  mellow  soil,  loell  enriched. 


i338  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

A  wet,  cold  soil,  or  a  barren  soil,  is  no  more  fit  for  raising  beans 
than  for  wheat ;  and  the  product  of  an  acre  in  beans  will  sup- 
port life  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  product  of  an  exactly  similar 
acre  of  wheat.  The  Lima  is  the  best  garden  bean ;  but  the  ill 
success  of  many  gardeners  in  raising  them  has  brought  it  into 
disrepute.  There  is  no  trouble,  however,  if  rightly  managed. 
Dig  the  spot  intended  for  Limas  the  last  thing  in  the  fall.  Set 
down  your  poles  as  soon  as  the  ground  will  do  to  work  in  the 
spring,  three  feet  apart  each  way.  Grease  your  beans,  by  turn- 
ing on  to  them  melted  fat  (not  hot)  of  any  kind,  and  plant  six  to 
a  hill,  with  the  eye  down.  If  all  the  beans  sprout,  pull  up  two, 
leaving  four  plants  at  each  pole.  The  greasing  prevents  their 
rotting,  which  has  been  the  great  objection  to  them.  The  Dwarf 
Bean  is  planted  in  drills  twelve  inches  apart ;  two  inches  deep 
and  six  inches  apart  is  about  the  right  distance  to  drop  the  seed. 
If  the  drills  are  directly  underlaid  with  hen  manure  or  night- 
soil  compost,  the  growth  will  be  rapid  and  the  yield  large. 
For  string-beans,  the  Indian  Chief  is  preferred.  The  Concord 
and  Rhode  Island  Butter  bean  are  desirable  for  shelling.  Beans 
should  be  hoed  often,  but  never  when  the  leaves  are  wet.  It  is 
best  not  to  plant  them  until  the  ground  is  warm,  as  they  are  not 
hardy  like  peas.  A  succession  may  be  planted  from  May  to 
August,  and  the  table  constantly  supplied  with  corn  and  beans. 
"We  shall  speak  of  the  culture  of  beans  and  peas  as  a  field  crop 
in  another  place. 

Peas  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  in 
the  spring,  even  if  it  freezes  up  and  is  covered  with  snow  after- 
wards. If  the  ground  is  trenched  two  feet  deep  in  the  fall,  it 
will  be  several  days  earlier  in  the  spring.  Warm,  light  soils, 
moderately  enriched  by  stable  manure  or  bone  dust,  are  best 
adapted  to  the  pea ;  but  if  the  ground  has  been  manured  the 
year  before,  no  further  manure  is  desirable.     For  the  early 


MARKET   GARDENING  AND   FARMERS'   GARDENS.  639 

crop  SOW  the  Daniel  O'Eourke  or  Tom  Thumb.  Get  some  in 
just  as  early  as  you  can,  and  then  sow  a  few  every  two  weeks 
until  July.  The  early  kinds  will  need  no  brush.  The  best 
varieties  for  later  planting  are  the  Champion  of  England  and 
the  Marrowfat.  In  planting  peas,  soak  the  seed  in  warm  water 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  hours  before  planting.  The  rows  oi 
the  smaller  kinds  may  be  six  inches  apart,  but  the  large  kinds 
should  not  be  less  than  twelve  inches  apart,  and  three  inches 
apart  in  the  rows,  for  garden  culture. 

Sweet  Corn  needs  no  recommendation — every  body  uses  ii , 
but  farmers'  gardens  usually  get  but  one  planting ;  whereas  if  a 
few  hills  were  planted  every  two  weeks  from  the  first  planting, 
there  would  be  a  constant  succession  of  "roasting  ears."  Stow 
ell's  Evergreen,  and  Early  Darling,  are  two  excellent  varieties 
Pop-corn  is  also  desirable,  as  it  affords,  without  expense,  an 
evening  treat  throughout  the  year.  The  winter  evenings  arc- 
made  bright  and  cheerful  for  the  girls  and  boys  by  means  of 
pop-corn,  molasses  candy,  and  such  simple  pleasures ;  and  who 
can  tell  what  influence  these  bright  home  scenes  may  have  in 
turning  the  young  away  from  sinful  pleasures,  the  bar  room, 
and  the  gaming  table. 

The  Cabbage  requires  a  rich  loam,  and  lime.  Pound  up 
your  oyster  and  clam  shells  as  fine  as  may  be  with  a  sledge 
nammer,  and  put  them  into  the  soil,  but,  until  they  are  de- 
cayed, apply  lime  and  barnyard  manure  Sow  the  seed  in  the 
cold  frame,  or,  after  the  ground  is  warm,  m  the  open  garden. 
Transplant  to  rows  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  two  feet  apart 
in  the  rows.  The  frequent  application  of  liquid  manure  to 
these  plants  will  produce  an  astonishing  growth.  In  the  gar- 
den is  a  good  place  to  try  the  value  of  the  liquid  manure  we 
recommended  in  Chapter  III. ;  and  you  will  soon  see  that  ono 
half  your  manure  has  been  going  to  waste,  at  a   great  loss. 


(J40  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

The  Wakefield  and  Early  York  are  tlie  best  early  varie- 
ties, and  the  Drum  Heads  and  Savoy  the  favorite  late  kinds. 
These  last  are  not  planted  until  May,  and  transplanted  in  July. 

The  Cucumber,  though  tabooed  by  the  Doctors,  is  still  a  fa- 
vorite, and  if  used  for  nothing  but  pickles,  is  still  almost  indis- 
pensable. Every  good  housewife  appreciates  a  jar  of  cucumber 
pickles.  I'he  holes  for  planting  cucumbers  should  be  dug 
about  eighteen  inches  deep,  and  filled  with  a  mixture  of  soil 
aud  rotted  manure.  A  shovelful  of  night  soil  in  the  bottom  of 
the  hole  will  do  wonders.  Fill  up  the  hole  to  two  or  three 
inches  above  the  level,  and  in  this  raised  mound  plant  a  dozen 
seeds,  covering  them  an  inch  deep  with  fine  dirt,  patting  it 
down  with  the  spade.  When  the  plants  are  up,  thin  them  down 
gradually  to  the  four  strongest  ones.  The  White  Spined  and 
Early  Frame  are  the  best  early  varieties,  and  the  Early 
Cluster  where  pickles  are  the  main  object. 

Squashes  and  Melons  should  be  planted  in  the  same  way 
as  cucumbers.  A  few  early  melons  might  be  started  in  the  hot- 
bed, then  transplanted  to  the  cold  frame,  and  finally  to  the  gar- 
den. After  the  hot-bed  is  disused,  a  hill  of  cucumbers,  melons, 
or  squashes  might  be  planted  in  it.  The  Hubbard  Squash 
should  have  a  place  in  every  garden,  as  most  delicious  pies  can 
be  made  from  it  all  winter.  A  few  watermelons  and  musk- 
melons  can  be  raised  in  almost  every  garden,  and  are  an  inex- 
pensive luxury.  If  any  one  is  entitled  to  such  luxuries  it  is 
the  farmer  surely. 

Thyme,  Sage,  Summer  Savory,  and  Sweet  Marjorum 
should  also  be  grown  in  the  farmers'  garden  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  housekeeper  in  her  seasonings.  The  Thanks- 
giving turkey  or  the  Christmas  goose  cannot  be  just  right 
without  them.  All  stufied  and  baked  meats  are  improved  by 
their  use.     The  seed  is  sown  in  May,  in  rich,  mellow  soil,  and 


MARKET    GARDENING-   AND    FARMERS'    GARDENS.  641 

the  plant  kept  entirely  free  from  weeds  until  they  are  trans- 
planted in  June  or  July.  Set  twelve  inches  between  the  rows 
and  eight  inches  between  the  plants.  Keep  down  all  weeds  by 
the  frequent  use  of  a  rake.  In  September,  cut  every  other 
plant. 

Having  now  given  directions  for  the  home  garden,  we  wish 
to  speak  of  those  crops  which  it  will  pay  the  farmer  to  culti- 
vate as  "  field  crops"  for  town  or  city  market.  And  we  would 
say  here,  that  a  wide  field  is  open  to  Southern  cultivators  in 
supplying  the  Northern  markets  with  early  vegetables  and 
fruits,  melons,  etc.  Any  crop  that  will  ship  and  that  can  be 
brought  to  New  York  City  a  few  days  before  it  can  be  grown 
on  Long  Island  or  in  New  Jersey,  must  pay  enormous  profits. 
New  York  will  pay  extravagant  prices  for  having  an  early 
supply.  Nothing  will  so  well  pay  the  Southern  people  on  the 
coast,  or  rivers,  or  railroads,  as  to  devote  their  energies  to  the 
early  production  of  garden  crops. 

Market  Gardening  may  be  so  conducted  as  to  be  very 
profitable,  but  the  cultivator  cannot  calculate  upon  extraordi- 
nary profits  with  ordinary  cultivation.  Constant  attention  and 
large  outlays  are  required  to  secure  large  crops  and  large 
profits.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre  is  the  lowest 
estimate  at  which  we  put  the  cost  of  producing  the  most  profita 
ble  crops,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  man  who  can  spare  but  five 
hundred  dollars  on  his  crops  should  cultivate  but  two  acres, 
and  in  that  proportion  for  a  larger  working  capital.  Some  few 
farmers  may,  perhaps,  get  good  profits  from  a  few  acres  with 
less  outlay. 

An  average  profit  of  four  hundred  dollars  per  acre  has  been 
realized,  for  ten  years,  by  the  market  gardeuers  about  New 
York,  where  competition  is  greater  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
country.     If  the  soil  has  not  been  drained  the  expense  will  be 


642  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAKM   PAY. 

greater ;  but  drainage  is  a  permanent  investment,  more  perma- 
nent and  more  certain  than  any  other  the  farmer  can  make. 

Seventy- five  to  one  hundred  tons  of  manure  per  acre  is  used 
by  the  regular  market  gardener,  who  raises  two  or  three  crops 
on  the  land  thus  manured,  Mr.  Henderson  makes  the  follow- 
mg  estimate  of  expenses  and  receipts  per  acre. 

EXPENSES. 

Labor  $300,  horse  labor  $35 $335.00 

Seventy-five  tons  manure 100.00 

Eent,  seeds,  and  tools 70.00 

Cost  of  selling 100.00 

$605.00 

RECEIPTS. 

12,000  Early  cabbages  at  five  cents  per  head     .     .  $600.00 

14,000  Lettuce  at  one  cent  per  head 140,00 

30,000  Celery  at  two  cents  per  head 600.00 

$1340.00 
Leaving  a  profit  of  $735.00. 

"  A  crop  of  early  beets  or  onions,  followed  by  sweet  herbs 
or  horseradish,  would  have  given  about  the  same  results." 
Three  hundred  dollars  per  acre  seems  a  large  sum  for  labor, 
but  it  comes  back  with  interest.  One  half  of  this  amount  for 
labor  and  fifty  tons  of  manure  might  serve  for  the  farmer,  as 
he  will  not  be  likely  to  crowd  the  crop  to  such  good  advantage 
as  the  regular  gardener. 

The  manure  is  prepared  by  the  hogs,  as  follows :  A  manure 
yard  is  laid  out,  dug  out  two  feet  deep,  and  enclosed  by  a  board 
fence  six  feet  high.  The  green  manure  is  thrown  in  pretty 
evenly;  also,  refuse  chips,  muck,  peat,  sods,  bone  shavings,  and 
all  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  Enough  hogs  are  kept  in  it 
to  keep  it  constantly  worked  over,  and  these  hogs  are  fed  the 


MARKET  GARDENING  AND  FARMERS'  GARDENS.     64.3 

refu-ie  vegetables,  tops,  etc.  Peruvian  guauo  ;iud  bone  flour  are 
the  best  fertilizers ;  but  the  farmer  can  make  manure  cheaper 
than  to  buy  it,  and  we  refer  him  to  Chapter  III.  Henderson 
relates  the  following :  "  It  is  a  grave  blunder  to  attempt  to  grow 
vegetable  crops  without  the  use  of  manures  of  the  various  kinds 
in  about  the  proportions  I  have  named.  I  never  yet  saw  soil 
of  any  kind  that  had  borne  a  crop  of  vegetables  that  would  pro- 
duce as  good  a  crop  the  next  season  without  the  use  of  manure, 
no  matter  how  rich  the  soil  may  be  thought  to  be.  An  Illustra- 
tion of  this  came  under  my  observation  last  season.  One  of  my 
neighbors,  a  market  gardener  of  twenty  years'  experience,  and 
whose  grounds  have  always  been  a  model  of  productiveness, 
had  it  in  prospect  to  run  a  sixty-feet  street  tArough  his  grounds. 
Thinking  his  lands  sufficiently  rich  to  carry  through  a  crop  of 
cabbages  without  manure,  he  thought  it  useless  to  waste  money 
by  using  guano  on  that  portion  on  which  the  street  was  to  run, 
but  on  each  side  sowed  guano  at  the  rate  of  twelve  hundred 
pounds  per  acre,  and  planted  the  whole  with  early  cabbages.  The 
effect  was  the  most  marked  1  ever  saw ;  that  portion  on  which 
guano  had  been  used  selling  off  readily  at  twelve  dollars  per 
hundred,  or  about  fourteen  hunJiod  dollars  per  acre,  the  other 
hardly  averaged  three  dollars  per  hundred.  The  street  occu- 
pied fully  an  acre  of  ground,  so  that  my  triend  actually  lost 
over  $1,000  in  crop  by  withholding  $60  for  manure."  Another 
fact  stated  by  the  same  gardener  is,  that  head  crops,  as  cabbage, 
lettuce,  etc.,  should  be  followed  by  root  crops,  and  vice  versa. 

If  our  Southern  friends  will  commence  careful  cultivation 
and  heavy  manuring,  with  a  view  to  bringing  large  early 
crops  into  our  Northern  markets,  they  will  find  it  abun- 
dantly profitable.  The  crops  to  which  their  attention  should 
be  thus  devoted  are  beets,  cauliflowers,  radishes,  cucum- 
bers, peas,  beans,  sweet  corn,  onions,  lettuce,  tomatoes,  early 
39 


(544  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

-quashes,  early  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  cabbage,  and  melons. 
To  these  the  Northern  farmer  can  add  asparagus,  carrots,  tur- 
nips, spinach,  rhubarb,  horseradish,  and  watercresses.  We  shall 
describe  the  approved  methods  of  culture  adapted  to  both  North 
and  South.  The  culture  of  carrots,  turnips,  beets,  potatoes,  and 
sweet  potatoes  has  been  given  in  the  Chapter  on  roots.  The 
main  object  now  being  earliness,  larger  quantities  of  manure 
and  more  thorough  and  careful  cultivation  should  be  given,  and 
two  crops  taken  from  the  same  soil  yearly.  It  is  better  to  cul- 
tivate five  acres  thus  liberally  than  to  give  ten  acres  ordinary 
cuhivation.  The  implements  required  are  Allen's  cylinder 
plow ;  the  subsoil  plow,  the  marker,  (see  Fig,  QQ^)  as  in  cotton 
culture,  only  with  small  teeth  and  but  six  inches  apart ;  the  har- 
row, with  fine  teeth  on  one  side  and  short  coarse  ones  on  the 
other ;  a  hand  roller  for  covering  the  seed ;  the  digging  fork 
with  flat  tines ;  the  scuffle  hoe ;  Allen's  "  weed-killer"  hoe, 
{Fig.  50 ;)  a  steel  or  iron  tooth  rake ;  a  seed  sower,  {Fig,  48 ;) 
and  a  dibbler.  The  latter  is  made  of  a  crooked  stick,  two  or 
three  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  point  shod  with  iron. 

Asparagus.  Sixteen  to  eighteen  thousand  plants  are  set  to 
the  acre,  requiring  five  to  six  pounds  of  seed.  One  pound  of 
seed  then  will  produce  plants  enough  for  one -sixth  of  an  acre, 
and  you  can  regulate  your  sowing  accordingly.  The  plants  are 
first  sown  in  a  seed  bed,  and  transplanted  the  second  season. 
The  ground  should  be  thoroughly  prepared.*  Drop  the  seed  in 
rows  one  foot  apart.  The  "  marker"  makes  them  only  six  inches 
apart,  but  every  other  row  can  be  omitted.     Keep  the  plants 


*  To  avoid  repetition,  we  shall  suppose  that  all  ground  for  vegetables 
will  be  plowed  deeply  and  sub-soiled  and  (unless  we  state  otherwise) 
heavily  manured  also.  Fifty  tons  of  stable  manure  per  acre,  or  its 
equivalent  in  fertilizers,  is  the  smallest  amount  we  shall  designate.  Any 
exceptions  to  these  rules  will  be  noted,  as  we  proceed. 


MAEKET    GARDENING    AND    FARMERS'    GARDENS.  645 

carefully  hoed  and  clear  of  weeds  all  the  time  during  the  first- 
season's  growth,  and  they  will  be  ready  to  transplant  the  second 
year ;  otherwise  you  must  wait  till  the  third  year.  Transplant 
as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  is  in  working  order,  setting 
the  plants  in  two-feet  rows,  and  eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
The  trench,  or  drill,  in  which  they  are  set,  should  be  wide 
enough  so  that  the  roots  can  be  spread  out,  and  deep  enough  so 
that  the  crown  of  the  plant  shall  be  covered  about  two  inches. 
Sow  one  hundred  pounds  of  refuse  salt  per  acre  on  ihe  beds  in 
the  spring.  Fork  in  five  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  super- 
phosphate of  lime.  {See  Garden  Culture.)  Do  not  gather  any 
the  first  year,  and  only  moderately  the  second ;  after  that  cut 
until  it  begins  to  spindle.  Cut  it  always  below  the  surface  and 
with  a  slanting  cut.  One  thousand  dollars  per  acre  clear  profit 
is  often  realized  from  this  crop  by  the  market  gardeners.  It 
always  meets  a  sure  sale  at  remunerative  prices. 

Beans.  As  we  have  before  stated,  the  bean  is  the  most 
nutritious  of  all  vegetables,  and  is  profitable  food  for  man  and 
beast.  They  bring  a  good  price,  and  the  market  is  never  full. 
The  common  white  bean  can  be  grown  on  any  corn  land,  and 
needs  no  more  manure  and  less  labor  than  corn.  They  should 
be  sown  at  about  the  same  time  as  corn,  in  drills  from  two  to 
two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  from  three  to  six  inches  apart  in 
the  drills.  If  a  seed  sower  is  used  and  the  seed  distributed 
evenly,  three  pecks  per  acre  is  sufficient.  Cover  the  seed  with 
the  roller.*  As  soon  as  the  plants  get  two  or  three  inches 
high,  go  through  with  a  cultivator  and  hand  hoes,  and  clean  out 
every  vestige  of  weeds.  When  the  weeds  show  again,  repeat 
the  process.  At  the  next  cultivating  turn  up  a  light  furrov/ 
against  each  side  of  the  row. 

Beans  may  be  harvested  by  mowing  or  cradling  them  when 
*  All  seed  had  best  be  rolled  after  planting. 


H46  HOW    TO   MAKE    THE   FABM   PAY. 

most  of  the  pods  are  ripe,  and  before  thej  begin  to  open ;  they 
should  then  be  thoroughly  dried,  and  threshed  on  a  clean  floor. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  loss  from  scattering  during  the 
drvins,  and  they  should,  if  possible,  be  sheltered  from  rain 
during  this  curing  process.  Where  the  crop  is  small,  the  pods 
are  usually  gathered  by  hand.  In  either  case  they  must  be 
very  thoroughly  dried  by  exposure  to  the  sun  or  to  the  heat 
of  a  drying  kiln  before  they  are  put  up  in  bulk,  in  bags,  barrels 
or  boxes;  for  if  any  moisture  remains  in  them  they  will  be 
certain  to  heat  and  become  mouldy  and  worthless.  They 
should  therefore  always  be  kept  spread  out  thin  on  a  dry  floor 
until  they  are  completely  cured. 

The  White  Marrow  ^ve  consider  the  best  for  field  culture, 
although  the  Eed  bean  is  the  one  usually  cultivated.  The  White 
Kidney  and  China  Eed  Eye  make  good  field  crops,  although  not 
gften  zo  gtown.  !?orty  bushels  per  acre  can  be  raised  on  good 
corn  land  with  the  same  manuring  and  cultivation  required  to 
produce  a  good  corn  crop.  The  bulk  of  the  Southern  crop  is 
shipped  to  New  York  in  the  green  state  for  string  beans,  and 
meet  a  rapid  sale  at  high  prices.  With  increased  attention  to 
the  crop  it  could  be  readily  doubled  and  brought  into  market  a  ? 
few  days  earlier. 

Cauliflower  and  Broccoli  are  substantially  the  same 
thing  under  different  names;  the  latter  being  planted  for  fall 
use.  and  the  former  for  the  summer  market.  Any  soil  that  will 
grow  early  cabbages,  will  also  grow  cauliflower ;  but  the  latter 
being  a  more  valuable  crop  will  repay  extra  jnanuring  and 
preparation.  Watering  in  dry  weather,  even  by  hand,  is  ad. 
vantngeous.  The  gardeners  of  Charleston,  Savannah,  and  Nor- 
folk have  a  great  advantage  in  raising  these  vegetables.  The 
seeds  are  sown  in  September  or  October.  In  four  or  five  wrecks 
trajasplant  into  cold  frames,  and  plant  out  in  March  or  April. 


MARKET  GARDENING  AND  FARMERS'  GARDENS.     647 

The  Northern  gardeners  do  not  get  their  crop  in  mayket  until 
June.  The  sale  is  limited,  but  it  pays  fifteen  hundred  dollars 
per  acre. 

Cabbages.  It  is  a  fact  not  generally  known  that  cabbages 
are  the  largest  and  most  profitable  crop  grown  by  the  market 
gardeners  at  the  North.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  September  and 
the  plants  carefully  wintered  in  cold  frames,  yet  they  pay  a 
handsome  profit.  But  at  the  South,  where  the  temperature 
does  not  fall  twenty  degrees  below  the  freezing  point,  the  seed 
can  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  in  October,  and  planied  out  on 
the  first  opening  of  spring. 

Put  out  the  plants  in  rows  twenty-four  inches  apart,  and 
sixteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Set  the  plant  down  to  the 
first  leaf,  so  that  all  the  stem  will  be  covered.  Between  the 
rows,  lettuce  plants  can  be  set  out  twelve  incnes  apart.  The 
lettuce  will  all  be  off  in  six  or  eight  weeks,  before  the  cabbage 
is  large  enough  to  occupy  the  ground,  and  the  cabbages  are  ofi' 
soon  enough  to  plant  a  second  crop.  A  crop  of  cabbage  and 
lettuce  so  raised  will  often  bring  one  thousand  dollars  per  acre. 
Late  cabbage  is  a  crop  the  Northern  farmer  can  raise;  the  soil 
and  cultivation  is  not  so  important.  Sow  the  seed  in  May,  and 
plant  out  in  July  inirows  three  feet  apart,  and  two  feet  apart  in 
the  row,  and  work  the  crop  with  the  cultivator  or  light  plow. 
On  Long  Island  they  are  set  out  after  a  crop  of  peas  or  early 
potatoes  have  been  removed.  Eight  to  twelve  tons  of  stable 
manure  is  put  in  the  rows.  As  the  early  cabbages  are  raised 
at  the  South  and  shipped  North,  so  the  late  cabbage  grown  at 
the  North  are  shipped  South.  Both  early  and  late  varieties 
are  named  in    "  Oardea  CuUureP 

Early  Sweet  Corn  can  also  be  raised  to  advantage  at  the 
South  for  the  Northern  market.  Where  the  planting  can  be 
commencod  in  April  the  crop,  if  highly  manured,  can  be  brought 


n48  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAT. 

forward  <it  least  a  month  earlier  than  it  can  be  raised  at  the 
North.  Plant  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  settled,  and  plant  only 
so  much  as  you  can  faithfully  attend.  Earliness  is  the  main  point, 
and  faithful  cultivation  hastens  its  maturity.  We  prefer  drill 
sowing  in  rows  four  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  six  to  eight  inches 
apart  in  the  drill.  Northern  farmers  can  realize  double  the 
profit  fror  sweet  corn  sold  green  that  they  can  for  ripe  corn, 
besides  getting  the  whole  off  in  time  to  sow  turnips  for  a 
second  crop.  The  stalk  of  the  sweet  corn  is  much  more  nutri- 
tions than  that  of  the  common  corn,  and  it  is  as  fodder  that  we 
chiefly  recommend  it  to  the  farmer.  Sow  a  few  acres  in  drills 
or  broadcast,  and  it  furnishes  a  fodder  excelled  by  nothing  else 
that  we  know.  Early  Darling  and  Stowell's  Evergreen  are 
the  best  market  varieties,  but  any  sugar  corn  will  answer  for 
fodder. 

The  Cucumber  is  well  fitted  for  Southern  culture,  and  the 
profits  on  an  acre  in  cucumbers,  ready  for  market  a  month  ear- 
lier than  they  can  be  raised  near  New  York,  will  exceed  the 
average  profit  on  ten  acres  in  cotton.  A  new  method  of  for- 
warding the  plants,  originated  by  ]N[r.  Henderson,  is  to  plant  the 
seeds  on  reversed  sods,  in  cold  frames,  covering  them  with  half 
an  inch  of  rich  mould.  The  sods  are  two  or  three  inches  thick, 
and  three  seeds  are  planted  to  each  sod  of  four  inches  square. 
The  seeds  are  sprinkled  thoroughly  with  a  watering  pot,  and 
the  sashes  kept  on  until  the  plants  come  up,  which  will  be  inside 
of  a  week.  They  should  now  have  air  daily  from  nine  to  three 
o'clock,  for  two  or  three  weeks,  when  they  can  be  planted  out 
in  hills,  three  feet  apart  each  way.  In  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
this  cannot  be  done  before  the  first  of  June,  while  at  Charleston 
It  might  be  done  a  month  or  six  weeks  earlier,  the  seed  being 
"own  early  in  April.  When  set  out  they  should  be  manured 
m  the  hill.  {See  Garden  Culture.) 


I 


MARKET  GARDENING  AND  FARMERS'  GARDENS.     649 

Immense  quantities  of  later  cucumbers  are  used  for  pickling, 
and  we  have  before  us  the  advertisement  of  a  Chicago  house  for 
five  hundred  acres  of  cucumbers  for  pickles.  In  growing  them 
for  this  purpose,  land  from  which  some  early  crop  has  been 
taken  can  be  used,  and  the  cucumber  seed  planted  at  any  time 
from  the  first  of  June  to  the  last  of  July.  Mark  out  the  ground 
as  for  corn,  four  feet  each  w^ay,  and  add  a  shovelful  of  well 
rotted  manure,  dug  in  at  each  angle  where  the  hills  are  to  be. 
Sow  about  a  dozen  seeds  in  each  hill.  The  Gherkin  and  Early 
Cluster  we  deem  the  best  for  extensive  cultivation. 

Horseradish  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  profit- 
able second  crops  of  the  New  York  gardeners.  The  average 
weight  of  the  crop  is  five  tons  per  acre,  and  the  average  price 
two  hundred  dollars  per  ton;  and,  notwithstanding  there  are 
over  two  hundred  acres  grown  near  New  York,  the  price  has 
steadily  advanced  for  twenty  years.  The  following  is  a  sum- 
mary of  Mr.  Henderson's  method  of  cultivation:  "In  prepar- 
ing the  roots  for  market  in  Avinter,  all  the  rootlets  are  preserved, 
cut  in  pieces  five  inches  long,  and  put  away  in  sand.  Tied  in 
small  bundles,  and  a  layer  of  sand  between  each  bundle,  they 
will  not  heat,  if  kept  in  boxes  in  a  cool  cellar  or  buried  in  the 
open  ground.  After  the  cabbages  or  cauliflower  are  set,  these 
rootlets  are  set  between  the  rows,  usually  about  the  first  of  May. 
The  planting  is  done  with  the  crowbar;  a  hole  being  made  eight 
inches  deep  and  the  root  dropped  in  so  as  to  be  two  or  three 
inches  under  the  surface.  It  can  be  grown  between  the  rows 
of  beets  or  any  other  vegetable.  I*  should  be  dug  the  same 
season,  just  before  the  frost  closes  up  the  ground.  Grown  in 
the  deep  rich  soil  of  our  market  gardens,  horseradish  has  been, 
for  the  past  twenty  years,  one  of  our  most  profitable  second 
crops." 

Lettuce  may  be  sown  the  middle  of  September,  and  a  month 


600  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

later  planted  in  cold  frames  for  winter,  or  sown  in  the  hot-bed 
in  e;irly  spring,  February  or  March,  transplanted  to  the  cold 
(rames  in  April,  or  in  the  South  to  the  open  ground.  If  not 
set  between  the  rows  of  cabbages  as  before  described,  place  them 
in  rows,  one  foot  apart  each  way.  For  after  crops  the  seed  may 
be  sown  in  the  open  ground.  The  Early  Curled  Silesia  is  pre- 
ferable for  fall  sowing.  The  Simpson  is  a  trifle  earlier,  but  not 
so  good.  The  Tennis  Ball  is  the  proper  variety  for  early  spring 
sowing  in  the  hot-bed,  and  the  Green  Winter,  Curled  India,  and 
Ne  Plus  Ultra  for  spring  and  summer  sowing. 

Meloxs  are  legitimately  a  farmer's  crop.  The  grounds  of 
the  market  gardener  are  too  valuable  for  melon  growing. 
Melons  require  a  sandy  loam,  and  but  half  the  aVnount  of 
manure  required  by  the  vegetable  tribe,  say  twenty-five  to 
fifty  tons  of  stable  manure  to  the  acre.  They  should  be 
])lanted  in  rows  marked  out  as  for  corn,  with  a  portion  of  the 
manure  in  each  hill,  and  cultivated  the  same  as  for  corn.  The 
Southern  cultivators  will  do  well  to  force  their  crop,  planting 
their  seeds  on  reversed  sods,  as  directed  for  cucumbers.  Water- 
melons received  in  July  can  be  sold  by  the  million  in  the  New 
York  markets,  at  from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  each. 

The  Black  Spanish  watermelon  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  best 
varieties.  The  Mountain  Sprout  is  a  large,  handsome  and  pro- 
ductive variety.  Skillman's  Netted  is  the  earliest  of  the  musk- 
melons,  and  the  Borneo  the  largest.  The  Green  Citron,  Nutmeg, 
and  White  Japan  are  excellent,  and  the  Persian  is  a  favorite 
Southern  variety.  Great  oare  should  be  observed  in  selecting 
melon  seeds,  as  directed  iu  the  latter  part  of  this  Chapter. 

Onions  form  one  of  the  few  crops  that  should  be  grown  on 
the  same  soil  for  a  succession  of  years.  The  early  crop  of  half 
ripe  onions  is  the  crop  for  the  market  gardener,  and  the  South- 
ern cultivator.     For  producing  this  crop,  seed  is  sown  very 


MARKET   GARDENING   AND   FARMERS'    GARDENS.  65  JL 

thickly  in  poor  soil,  early  in  spring,  and  taken  up  about  j^u- 
gust,  when  tliey  will  be  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  smaller  ; 
the  smaller  the  better.  These  "  sets "  are  dried  and  housed 
until  the  next  spring,  when  they  are  planted  out  early,  in  highly 
enriched  and  thoroughly  pulverized  ground,  three  inches  apart, 
in  drills  nine  inches  apart.  The  drill  should  be  deep  enough 
su  that  the  bulb  can  be  covered  with  earth,  which  should  be 
rolled  over  them  with  the  hand  roller.  Twice  hoeing  and 
weeding  is  usually  sufficient  in  clean  ground,  but  the  weeds 
should  be  kept  down  until  the  onions  are  half  grown,  say  in 
May  at  the  South,  and  in  June  at  the  North, -Nvhen  pulling  may 
be  commenced. 

Field  cultivation  is  described  nearly  as  follows,  by  one  of  the 
largest  onion  growers  in  Fairfield  County,  Connecticut,  Mr.  J.  B. 
"Wakeman :  "  Select  a  deep  loam  if  to  be  had.  Avoid  wet  clay, 
stoney  land,  or  side  hills.  Cultivate  the  ground  for  two  years 
with  some  hoed  crop;  I  prefer  corn  one  or  two  years.  It  snould 
be  highly  manured,  and  not  a  single  weed  allowed  to  go  to  seed. 
When  the  corn  crop  is  gathered,  prepare  the  ground  in  the  fall 
for  the  next  year's  crop  of  onions,  by  putting  on  twenty  cart 
loads  of  well-rotted  manure,  fifty  bushels  to  the  load,  per  acre. 
It  should  be  free  from  weed  seed,  and  ploughed  in  deep,  and  not 
harrowed  in  the  foil.  I  have  plowed  my  ground  both  spring 
and  fall,  manuring  at  the  same  time.  It  is  not  more  than  half 
the  work  to  prepare  ground  for  the  seed  that  was  plowed  in  the 
fall,  and  the  yield  is  as  good,  if  not  better.  Hog  manure  is  the 
best,  but  any  kind  of  strong  manure  will  do.  All  manure 
should  be  free  from  seed.  Manure,  either  fine  or  coarse,  sliouid 
be  ploughed  in  deep.  If  ashes  are  to  be  liad,  put  on  one  to  two 
hundred  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  crop  of  onions  will  pay  for 
them  the  first  year,  and  they  will  last  from  five  to  eight  years. 
Bone  dust  is  a  fine  manure.     The  ground  in  the  spring  should 


(j52  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

be  prepared  for  the  seed  as  soon  as  it  is  dry,  by  harrowing 
with  tooth  and  brush  until  the  ground  is  level.  It  needs  to  be 
very  mellow,  about  an  inch  deep,  and  raked  off  level.  It  re- 
quires from  three  to  four  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  I  sow 
them  by  a  machine  made  very  simple,  and  costing  from  two  to 
four  dollars.  It  sows  two  rows  at  once,  twelve  inches  apart. 
The  first  row  must  be  perfectly  straight,  which  will  be  a  guide 
to  the  second,  and  so  on.  To  cover  them  up,  I  take  a  hoe  that 
stands  in  well,  and  push  it  along  over  the  line  where  the  seed 
is.  When  they  get  up  so  that  I  can  see  the  rows,  I  com.mence 
hoeing  them,  and  as  soon  as  there  are  any  weeds  to  be  seen  weed 
them;  and  continue  to  hoe  and  weed  as  long  as  there  is  a  weed 
to  be  seen.  It  will  not  pay  to  sow  a  piece  of  onions  if  they  are 
not  taken  care  of,  and  no  crop  pays  better  if  well  tended." 

The  main  points  are  to  prepare  the  land  very  thoroughly,  to 
put  on  a  large  quantity  of  manure,  and  not  less  than  fifty 
bushels  of  ashes,  and  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  Six  bushels  of 
salt  to  the  acre,  after  the  first  hoeing,  is  beneficial.  After  the 
crop  is  gathered,  free  the  land  from  weeds ;  let  none  go  to  seed. 
To  keep  onions  in  the  winter,  store  them  so  that  they  will  have  a 
circulation  of  air  around  them,  and  still  not  be  subject  to  freezing 
and  thawing.  The  Danvers  Yellow  is  the  best  onion,  and  the  j 
Red  Globe,  or  Wethersfield  Red,  the  most  profitable  one  grown. 

Onions  are  the  most  profitable  crop  that  a  farmer  can  raise, 
and  the  quantity  has  been  increased  from  three  hundred  to  nine 
hundred  bushels  per  acre,  and  I  think  one  thousand  bushels  or, 
more  can  be  grown  by  proper  cultivation.  Red  onions  are 
now  wholesaling  at  three  dollars  per  barrel,  and  white  ones 
at  four  dollars  per  barrel.  One  year  I  sold  my  onions  at  one 
dollar  a  bushel,  and  sent  them  to  market  in  the  fall  beforej 
housing.  I  have  sold  red  onions  as  high  as  five  dollars  a  bar 
rel,  and  white  ones  at  six  dollars.     There  has  been  no  time 


MARKET  GARDENING  AND  FARMERS'  GARDENS.    653 

within  twelve  years,  but  that  onions  would  bring  two  dollars  a 
barrel  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

Pe^s.  (See  Garden  Culture.)  A  crop  of  early  peas  can  be 
taken  off  in  time  to  get  in  a  crop  of  late  cabbages  or  turnips. 
It  is  a  good  crop  to  raise,  for  it  benefits  the  soil,  and  the  tops 
of  both  peas  and  beans  are  good  food  for  stock,  and  excellent 
fertilizers  if  plowed  under  green.  Peas  are  good  for  horses, 
sheep,  or  any  other  stock,  and  what  cannot  be  sold  at  good 
prices  in  market  can  be  profitably  used  at  home.  Early  peas 
bring  enormous  prices,  and  if  our  Norfolk  friends  can  supply 
the  early  demand  they  will  find  it  remunerative. 

Eadisi^es,  grown  at  Norfolk  and  received  at  New  York  in 
advance  of  Northern  cultivators,  bring  an  average  of  ten  dollars 
per  barrel,  and,  as  there  is  no  danger  of  glutting  the  markets, 
we  advise  increased  cultivation.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast 
and  harrowed  in.  The  ground  therefore  requires  thorough 
preparation.  The  crop  comes  off'  in  time  for  a  second  crop  of 
later  vegetables.  The  long  Scarlet  Short  Top,  Scarlet  Turnip, 
White  Turnip,  and  Scarlet  Olive  Shaped,  are  the  best  varieties 
for  extensive  cultivation. 

Ehubarb  requires  the  deepest  cultivation  and  the  heaviest 
manuring.  Any  piece  of  a  root  that  has  a  bud  will  make  a 
plant.  Set  either  in  fall  or  spring,  in  rows  three  feet  apart 
each  way.  Plow  in  stable  manure  in  the  fall  or  spring.  Three 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre  may  be  realized  from  it  for  a 
number  of  years.  It  is  extensively  grown  in  some  localities  for 
wine.  By  setting  barrels  without  heads  over  the  plants  in  the 
fall  and  filling  them  half  full  of  hay,  to  be  taken  out  as  soon  as 
hard  freezing  is  over  in  the  spring,  very  early  and  tender  stalks 
will  be  secured.  Leave  the  open  barrels  over  them  until  it  is 
settled  warm  weather. 

Spinach  for  early  spring  use  is  sown  late  enough  to  get  half 


654:  HOW    TO    MAKE    TUE    FARM    PAY. 

growu  before  winter.  (September  15th,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Philadelphia.)*  Sow  in  drills  one  foot  apart.  That  for  later 
use  is  sown  in  early  spring  between  the  rows  of  early  vegeta- 
bles; it  requires  little  labor,  and  is  readily  sold  about  six  weeks 
alter  sowing.  It  pays  about  three  times  the  profit  of  potatoes 
on  the  same  soil,  but  requires  more  manure. 

Squashes  as  a  farm  crop  should  be  much  more  largely 
grown,  for  none  of  the  large  markets  North  or  South  have  ever 
been  supplied.  The  Boston  market  is  perhaps  more  nearly 
supplied  than  any  other.  A  light  warm  soil  is  best  suited  to 
the  squash.  A  clay,  if  not  too  heavy,  may  be  so  ameliorated  by 
sand,  drainage,  and  high  manuring  as  to  be  made  to*  produce  a 
fair  crop.  A  drained  meadow  will  produce  a  large  quantity  of 
almost  worthless  squash,  unless  large  quantities  of  sand  and 
loam  are  worked  into  it.  A  sandy  loam,  moderately  gravelly, 
gives  the  best  results.  On  such  lands  the  squash  will  do  well 
on  freshly  broken  sod.  Manure,  not  in  such  large  quantities 
as  required  for  some  of  the  other  crops,  but  at  the  rate  of  at 
least  ten  cords  to  the  acre,  should  without  fail,  be  applied. 
Night  soil  is  the  best;  hen,  pig,  and  sheep  dung  next,  and  barn- 
yard manure,  muck,  superphosphate  of  lime,  guano,  and  wood 
ashes,  about  equal  in  value.  Night  soil  should  be  thoroughly  ^ 
composted  with  muck  or  loam  as  directed  in  Chapter  III.  If  the 
soil  is  very  sandy,  the  hill  should  be  filled  with  peat ;  excellent 
crops  have  been  raised  on  sandy  plains  by  this  method.  Wood 
ashes  should  not  be  mixed  with  the  other  manures  until  just 
before  they  are  applied.* 

Guano,  superphosphates,  and  other  concentrated  manures  are 
applied  directly  in  the  hill,  before  planting,  but  the  bulk  of  thej 
manure  should  be  plowed  or  harrowed  in  broadcast;  for  the 


See  note  at  close  of  Chapter  III. 


J 


MARKET   GARDENING   AND    FAKMERri'    GARDENS.  655 

roots  run  as  far  as  the  vines,  and  should  lind  food  wherever 
they  go.  The  ground  should  be  mellowed  by  tlTe  harrow,  clod 
crusher,  and  roller ;  then  the  manure  spread  and  harrowed  in,  or 
plowed  under  with  the  cultivator.  Two  great  mistakes  are  usu  ■ 
ally  made  in  planting :  the  hills  are  too  near,  and  unnecessary 
:,  labor  is  given  in  preparing  them.  The  hills  for  the  mammoth 
varieties  should  not  be  less  than  twelve  feet  apart  each  way; 
the  Hubbard,  Turban,  and  Yokohama,  ten  feet;  the  smaller 
marrows,  eight  feet ;  and  the  summer  varieties,  four  to  six  leet, 
A  chain  dragged  across  the  field  each  way,  at  the  above  dis- 
tances, will  mark  the  places  for  the  hills,  where  the  lines  cross. 

A  small  hollow  like  a  plate  is  made  at  these  crossings,  and  a 
I 
[  handful  of  guano,  or  one  of  the  other  fertilizers,  thrown  mto  it; 

1   a  shovel  of  earth  is  thrown  onto  this,  and  the  whole  thoroughly 

I   worked  together  with  a  flat-tined  fork.    Unless  this  working  of 

j   the  fertilizers  into  the  soil  is  thorough,  there  is  danger  of  heat- 

j   ing.     Plant  four  seeds  (wo  more)  in  the  hill,  and  when  the  plants 

[  are  out  of  danger  of  destruction  from  bugs  thin  to  two  in  each 

i  hill.     Keep  the  weeds  down  with  the  cultivator  until  the  vines 

i   run  so  as  to  interfere,  when  the  piece  must  be  let  alone.     The 

^  first  of  May,  in  this  section,  is  the  time  for  planting  the  seed. 

[  Hoeing  the  earth  in  large  quantities  about  the  vines  is  a  waste 

\   of  labor,  as  just  enough  to  steady  the  vine  in  the  wind  is  suffi- 

E  cient.     Summer  squashes  are  sold  long  before  ripening,  and  are 

;  of  no  value  after  the  shell  can  be  felt  with  the  thumb  nail ;  but 

t  winter  squashes  are  to  ripen  on  the  vine.     Ripeness  is  indicated 

!   both  by  color  and   by  the  drying  up  of  the  stem.     When  the 

»  stem  is  cut  from  the  vine,  the  squash  is  turned  under  side  up, 

and  left  for  a  few  days  to  dry,  unless  there  is  danger  of  frost, 

;  when  they  must  be  brought  into  piles  and  protected.     A  house 

i  with  double  walls,  double  doors,  and  double  windows,  and  pro- 

>  yide<l  with  a  stove,  is  the  best  for  wintering  squashes.     If  some 


656  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

arrangement  cannot  be  readily  made  for  keeping  them  at  an 
even  temperature,  tliej  had  best  be  disposed  of  in  the  fall.  A 
very  dry  cellar  will  keep  squashes  well.  The  cellar  of  a  barn 
on  high  ground,  in  dry  soil,  with  double  walls  above  ground,  is 
a  good  store-room.  The  average  fall  price  of  the  Hubbard 
squash  is  thirty-four  dollars  per  ton  in  the  Boston  market, 
while  in  the  spring  they,  bring  eighty  to  one  hundred  dollars 
per  ton.  There  is  nothing  more  delicious  for  a  winter  pie  than 
the  Hubbard  squash,  and  it  is  as  good  as  sweet  potatoe  when 
baked.  The  Turban  and  Yokohama  stand  next,  and  the  Boston 
or  Autumnal  Marrow  is  quite  inferior  to  them.  The  Summer 
Crookneck  and  the  white  and  yellow  Bush  Scollop  are  the  best 
summer  varieties. 

The  Tomato  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  of 
farm  garden  products.  Tf  Southern  cultivators  will  force  them 
in  hot-beds,  commencing  the  last  of  January,  they  may  put 
them  in  market  two  or  three  weeks  earlier  than  now,  and 
realize  a  large  profit  from  the  operation.  The  following  is  the 
proper  method  of  culture ;  the  only  difference  in  the  South 
being  the  date  from  one  to  two  months  earlier.  Sow  the  seed 
in  the  hot-bed  about  the  middle  of  March  in  the  locality  of 
Philadelphia.  Previous  to  the  last  of  April  the  plants  will  be 
large  enough  to  reset  in  the  cold  frames  ;  and  four  weeks  later 
they  may  be  planted  out  in  the  open  ground,  in  light  soil,  three 
feet  apart.  A  shovelful  of  the  best  well  rotted  stable  manure 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  in  the  hill  Defore  set- 
ting out  the  plants.  The  Early  Smooth  Eed  and  Cook's  Favorite 
are  the  best  early  market  varieties.  The  Red  and  Yellow  Plum 
tomato  are  grown  for  pickling  and  preserving :  for  a  late  cro 
where  large  quantities  are  desired  for  catsup  and  canning,  th 
fiarge  Red  and  Large  Yellow  are  preferable  to  any  others. 

Water  Cress.     Many  farmers  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Yorld 


MARKET  GARDENING  AND  FARMERS'  GARDENS.     (j57 

;  realize  more  profit  during  a  couple  of  weeks  in  spring  from 
water  cresses  than  for  their  whole  year's  work  in  growing  farm 
crops.  Any  farmer  wlio  has  water  on  his  farm  in  the  shape  of 
a  brook  or  pond  will  do  well  to  plant  water  cresses  along  the 
margins.  The  seed  can  be  had  of  any  seedsman.  If  some  patch 
suitable   for   cranberry  culture   is  planted  with  water   cresses 

.  instead,  and  flov^red  as  directed  for  cranberries,  several  thousand 
dollars  per  acre  may  be  realized  from  it,  we  have  no  doubt. 

The  growing.  Selection,  and  Preservation  of  Seed  is  a 
subject  on  which  we  have  not  touched  in  the  preceding  pages, 
but  it  is  equally  important  in  garden  crops  as  in  any  of  the 
heavier  farm  crops.  With  many  of  the  preceding  crops,  as 
the  beet,  cauliflower,  cabbage,  carrot,  lettuce,  onion,  and  tur- 
nip, the  seed  are  grown  by  setting  out  in  the  spring  a  plant  of 
the  previous  year's  growth.  In  all  cases  just  such  plants  should 
be  selected  for  seed  plants  as  it  is  desirable  to  raise.  If  earli- 
ness  is  desired,  select  the  earliest  specimens  that  perfect,  and  let 
no  consideration  of  price  tempt  you  to  part  with  them.  Many 
of  these  crops  can  be  made  a  week  earlier  by  the  careful  selec- 
tion of  the  earliest  fine  specimens.  If  size  is  desired,  select  the 
largest  and  best  shape  for  the  seed.  The  shape  of  the  red  onion 
has  been  entirely  changed  within  a  few  years  by  this  selection 
of  seed  specimens.  With  the  squashes,  melons,  and  cucumbers 
the  same  is  true ;  select  the  very  best  specimens  for  seed.  The 
seeds  of  the  melon  class  are  not  ripe  when  the  plant  is,  but 
ripen  upon  the  inside  for  some  time  after  gathering.  The 
earliest  beans,  peas,  corn,  tomatoes,  etc.,  are  rushed  off  to  market, 
but  they  should  in  all  cases  be  retained  and  ripened  for  seed. 

Purity  of  seed  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
gardener,  and  each  had  better  raise  his  own.  Of  course  the  late 
ripened  specimens  will  produce  later  crops  than  earlier  ripened 
ones.     Another  point  is  to  have  the  seed  free  from  other  varie- 


6o8 


HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 


ties ;  two  varieties  grown  in  close  proximity  will  mix  in  spite 
oi'  all  you  can  do.  The  melon  and  squash  are  particularly  liable 
to  this.  We  should  never  have  any  crops  of  i/iese,  or  in  fact  of 
hardly  any  other  vegetables  or  fruits^  were  it  not  for  ike.  busy  bees, 
who  carry  the  pollen  from  one  plant  to  the  other ;  but  they  are 
just  as  liable  to  mix  two  varieties  as  two  plants.  Great  care 
should  therefore  be  taken  to  separate  differing  varieties  of  the 
same  species,  else  a  crop  of  Hubbard  squashes  may  turn  out  to 
be  half  pumpkins.  There  are  a  few  regular  and  reliable  seed 
growers,  from  whom  it  is  safe  to  order  what  you  want,  but  not 
from  the  stock  of  the  seedsmen. 

Seeds  should  be  thoroughly  dried  and  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place. 
Tims  kept,  beans,  peas,  peppers,  carrots,  thyme,  sage,  and  rhu- 
barb are  good  the  second  year ;  asparagus,  lettuce,  spinach,  and 
radish  for  three  years ;  cauliflower,  cabbage,  celery,  and  turnip, 
four  years ;  and  beets,  cucumbers,  melons,  squashes,  and  toma- 
toes, _^ue  to  ei^'Ai  years.  The  following  tables,  taken  from  Mr. 
Henderson's  work,  will  be  exceedingly  useful  to  the  beginner  in 
vegetable  gardening.     Amount  of  seed  per  acre  : 


About. 

Beans 1^  bushels. 

Beets 8    pounds. 

Carrots 5 

Cucumbers 1 

Musk  melons 1 

Watermelons 1^ 

Onions. 6 

Parsnips 8 


About. 

Radish,  in  drill 5  pounds. 

"       broadcast 10      " 

Turnips,  in  drill 2      " 

"      broadcast 4      " 

Squashes 1      " 

Spinach 10      " 

Peas 1^  bush. 


\ 


Number  of  plants  from  one  ounce  of  different  seeds : 


About. 

Asparagus .500  plants. 

f  Cabbage 2,000      " 

I  "aaliflower 2,000      " 


Celery 4,000  plants. 

Lettuce 3,000      " 

Peppers 1,00U      " 


MARKET    GARDENING   AND   FARMERS'    GARDENS. 


659 


About. 

Tomatos 1,000  plants. 

Thyme 5,000      " 

Number  of  plants  required  to  set  an  acre  at  given  distances : 


About. 

Sage 1,500  plants. 

Khubarb 500      " 


1    foot  by  1  foot 4d,560 

U        "     1^    "  19,360 

1  "     3      "  14,520 

•2         "      2      "  10,890 

3         "     2      "  7,260 


2^  feet  by  2^  feet 6,970 

3  "     3      "  4,840 

4  "     4     "    2,722 

5  5     "  1,742 

6  "     6     "  1,210 


40 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


MISCELLANEOUS    INFORMATION. 

(T-^j^NDEE  this  head  we  shall  discuss  various  matters  not 
coming  under  either  of  the  previous  heads,  and  shall 
also  insert  the  opinions  of  several  good  authorities  upon 
matters  not  coming  within  our  own  personal  knowledge. 

Fences. — We  build  ten  times  too  many  fences.  The  fences 
on  many  thrifty  farms  are  a  great  tax  upon  the  owner.  It  is  a 
useless  custom.  No  fences  are  absolutely  required,  except  the 
fence  aljout  the  pastures  and  a  few  hundred  rods  of  movable  fence, 
that  can  be  set  up  anywhere  at  short  notice.  Highway  fences  and 
division  fences  are  an  unmitigated  nuisance.  The  great  objection 
to  them  is  their  cost,  but  they  also  occupy*  good  land  and  harbor 
weeds  and  briers ;  they  are  in  the  way  in  cultivating  and  harvest- 
ing our  crops;  the  sooner  we  stop  building  them  the  better.  We 
do  not  say  tear  down  good  new  fences;  but  build  no  more,  except 
extra  liigh  and  strong  ones  around  the  jjastures.  But,  says  one, 
if  the  highway  fences  were  down  the  cattle  would  destroy  the 
crops.  So  they  would,  if  allowed  to  run  in  the  streets.  But 
which  can  be  done  with  the  least  trouble  or  expense,  keeping 
stock  in  the  pasture  or  keeping  millions  of  dollars  worth  of 
fences  ?  But  the  law  requires  that  I  should  build  highway  and 
division  fences.  So  it  does;  but  in  whose  hands  is  the  law? 
Yours.  If  the  farmers  demand  that  this  burdensome  system  be 
done  away,  and  more  stringent  laws  passed  in  regard  to  restrain- 
ing stock,  it  will  be  done.  There  are  now  communities  where 
there  are  no  fences,  and  we  say  to  the  new  settlers  in  the  West, 
and  to  the  impoverished  lai^l  owners  of  the  South,  do  not  let  this 
burdensome  tax  be  settled  upon  your  industry,  but  repeat  the  cry, 
down  with  the  fences. 

Forest  Tree  Culture  is  a  matter  of  vast  importance  in  agri- 
culture.    We  have  stripped  the  country  of  forests,  diminishing  its 
productiveness ;  and  these  forests  must  be  in  part  replaced, 
6(J0 


MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION.  fi61 

Mr.  A.  S.  Fuller  delh-ered  the  following  address  on  forest  trees, 
at  a  late  meeting  of  the  Farmers'  Club  of  New  York: 

Eight  years  ago  I  had  the  pleasure  of  reading  an  essay  before 
this  club  upon  tlie  subject  under  consideration  to-day.  1  then 
called  your  attention  to  the  importance  of  not  only  preserving 
those  forests  which  we  still  possess,  but  to  that  of  rearing  others 
for  future  need.  The  hundreds  of  letters  that  I  haA'e  received 
since  that  time,  askinj?  for  further  information  upon  the  subject, 
have  convinced  me  that  our  people  are  slowly  but  surely  awaken- 
ing from  that  careless  indifference  which  has  in  many  instances  not 
only  permitted,  but  aided  in,  the  destruction  of  some  of  our  most 
noble  and  valuable  forests ;  and  these,  too,  on  land  that  is  com- 
parativelj'  worthless  for  other  purposes.  Instances  are  not  want- 
ing to  prove  that  thousands  of  acres  of  valuable  timber  is  annually 
destroj^ed  by  men  who  have  no  use  for  the  land  after  the  trees  are 
removed ;  at  least  they  possessed  more  acres  that  are  already 
cleared  than  they  can  properly  cultivate.  I  do  not  now  refer  to 
I  be  cutting  of  timber  that  is  required  for  building  or  fuel,  but  to 
the  many  instances  vrhere  the  sole  object  iu  its  destruction  was 
for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  proprietor  to  obtain  a  slightly 
lengthened  view  from  his  dwelling,  or  that  which  is  more  probable, 
pampering  to  that  foolish  weakness  which  is  far  too  general  among 
land-owners,  for  having  it  said  that  they  possesN  a  few  more  acres 
of  cleared  laud.  The  first  act  of  a  settler  in  a  timbered  country 
is  to  clear  away  the  forest,  so  that  he  may  have  land  to  cultivate 
and  produce  the  necessaries  of  life.  But  he  does  not  stop  when 
he  has  accomplished  this,  but  continues  to  cut  and  hew  awa^'  at 
the  forests  as  though  it  was  the  only  object  of  his  life,  and  as  each 
monarch  of  the  old  woods  falls  to  the  earth,  making  it  tremble 
with  its  weight,  he  imagines  that  the  echoes  which  come  back  to 
him  are  so  many  plaudits  to  his  industry.  With  many  of  our 
people  destruction  is  synonymous  with  improvement.  And  there 
is  no  doubt  but  that  the  destroying  of  forests  in  our  Eastern  States 
lias  become  a  matter  of  habit  Avith  our  people.  The  grandfathers, 
and  in  a  few  instances  tlie  fathers,  of  the  present  race  of  farmers 
cleared  land  because  it  was  actually  needed  for  cultivation  ;  and 
as  each  successive  generation  imagined  that  it  was  incumbent  upon 
them  to  make  further  improvements,  they  readily  followed  in  the 
beaten  i)ath  uiade  b}'  their  ancestors,  forgetting  that  an  act  which 
might  show  great  wisdom  at  one  time  would  be  foolish  imbecility  at 
another. 

The  young  man  builds  his  dwelling  upon  elevated  ground,  and 
probably  clears  awa}'  the  trees  because  thej'  obstruct  his  view, 
for  he  values  prospect  more  than  protection ;  but  later  in  life  he 
will  sigh  for  a  few  of  those  grand  old  trees  to  shield  him  from  the 
burning  sun  of  summer  and  the  keen  blast  of  winter.  Is  it  not 
l)assing  strange  that  a  majorit}'  of  mankind  find  no  useful  lesson 
In  the  history  of  the  past,  but  continue  to  travel  iu  tlie  channeJ 


i 


662  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 


whifli  hns  Wan  worn  wide  and  deep  by  previous  generations  in 
tlitir  downward  course  to  destruction.  Entire  countries  have  be- 
ronio  liarren  wastes  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  their 
forests  ;  nations  have  become  impoverished,  and  those  beacon 
liirhts  of  greatness,  the  arts  and  manufactures,  extinguished,  and 
the  sole  cause  was  the  scarcity'  of  wood ;  and  yet  in  regions  where 
it  is  plentiful,  the  same  improvident  waste  is  going  on,  as  though 
the  supply  was  inexhaustible,  and  that  no  deleterious  etfects  would 
result  from  a  total  annihilation.  It  would  be  folly  for  me  to  at- 
tempt to  estimate  the  value  of  forests  to  any  country  for  it  is  be- 
v<jnd  the  comprehension  of  the  human  mind.  The  rain  and  dew 
that  refresh  and  support  vegetation,  the  rivers  and  rivulets  that 
pour  down  from  the  mountains  and  hills,  often  owe  their  very  ex- 
istence to  the  great  forests.  This  view  of  the  subject,  you  may  say, 
is  only  visionary  and  theoretical.  Be  this  as  it  may,  I  would  re- 
mind you  of  one  simple  fact,  and  that  is — all  we  know  of  trees,  or 
arc  likely  to  know  of  them,  has  its  origin  in  the  great  primeval 
forests.  It  is  by  studying  the  natural  distribution  and  character- 
istic of  the  different  species  that  enables  us  to  cultivate  them  suc- 
cessfully. 

Heavy  Soil  for  Oak. — We  learn  from  nature  that  certain  spe- 
cies of  oak  flourish  far  better  upon  a  heavy,  moist  soil  than  in  one 
of  an  opposite  character  ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  almost  every' 
other  genus.  The  chestnut  prefers  the  old  red  sandstone  regions, 
and  avoids  the  limestone,  while  the  reverse  is  true  with  the  hard 
maple  and  beech.  The  elm  and  soft  maple  grow  more  luxuriantly 
in  the  low  alluvial  soils  near  our  rivers  than  elsewhere.  By  fur- 
ther investigation  we  find  that  the  quality  of  the  wood  is  greatly 
•ntlnenced  by  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown.  For  instance, 
aickory  that  grows  upon  a  sandy  soil  is  far  more  brittle  and  less 
valuable  than  when  grown  upon  a  rich,  deep  clay;  but  just  the 
oi)posite  of  this  is  true  in  regard  to  the  common  locust. 

GuowiNQ  Trees  from  Seeds. — We  also  learn  from  nature  some 
of  our  most  practical  lessons  in  regard  to  the  growing  of  trees 
from  seeds.     A  few  spocies  ripen  their  seeds  early  in  the  season, 
and    these   must   be    planted    very  soon  thereafter,  as  they  will 
seldom  remain  sound  until  the  following  spring.     This  is  particu- 
larly the  case  with  the  elm.     Swamp  and  silver  maple,  or  their 
seeds,  ripen  about  the  first  of  June;  but  the  sugar  and  negundo 
maple  do  not  perfect  their  seeds  until  autumn,  consequently  they 
may  be  sown  at  that  time,  or  preserved  in  any  moist,  cool  place 
until   spring.     The  dilTerent  species  of  foreign  maples,   such  as  j 
Norway,    English,   and    sycamore,    ripen   their   seeds   about   the^ 
same  time  as  our  sugar  maple,  and  maybe  treated  in  the  same| 
manner.     Chestnut,  oak,  hickory,  beech,  black  walnut,  butternut,! 
etc.,  all  ripen  their  seeds  in  autumn;  and  I  believe  it  is  the  bestj 
plan  to  sow  them  soon  after  being  gathered,  unless  it  be  in  sec- 
lions  of  the  country  where  the  land  is  liable  to  be  frequently  frf>2ei]| 


MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION.  663 

and  thawed  during  the  winter.  In  localities  where  the  weather  in 
winter  is  very  changeable,  all  kinds  of  hardy  trees  seeds  may  be 
safely  preserved  in  the  following  manner:  Select  a  tight,  strongs 
box ;  in  the  bottom  of  this  place  a  thin  layer  of  sand  ;  on  this  put 
a  layer  of  seed  ;  then  a  little  more  sand,  and  so  on  alternately  until 
the  box  is  full ;  nail  on  the  cover,  and  then  bury  the  box  in  the 
open  ground,  covering  it  a  foot  or  more  deep.  A  dry,  sandy 
knoll  is  the  best  place,  if  handy  ;  if  not,  set  the  box  on  the  ground, 
and  make  a  lai'ge  mound  of  earth  over  it.  The  common  sweet 
chestnut  is  generally  thought  to  be  a  difficult  seed  to  keep  through 
winter,  but,  buried  in  saud  as  I  have  described,  it  will  usually  be 
as  fresh  and  sound  in  spring  as  when  first  gathered  from  the 
tree.  I  have  also  preserved  the  chestnut  and  similar  seeds  by 
packing  in  damp  moss,  and  then  placing  them  in  a  cool  cellar. 
Rats  and  mice  are  very  fond  of  most  kind  of  tree  seeds,  and  they 
should  be  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  these  pests  of  the  farm  and 
garden. 

Value  of  Different  Kinds  of  Timber. — It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary for  me  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  forest  tree  cul- 
ture can  be  made  a  profitable  business,  even  more  so,  in  many  lo- 
calities, than  any  of  our  ordinar}-  farm  crops.  Neither  will  you 
expect  me  at  this  time  to  designate  the  best  species  of  varieties 
for  culture,  inasmuch  as  soils,  locations  and  markets  differ  very 
widely,  and  each  may  demand  a  particular  kind.  For  instance, 
the  common  white  birch  is  usually  considered  one  of  the  most 
worthless  species  of  native  trees  ;  still,  near  some  of  our  manufac- 
turing towns,  where  its  wood  is  used  for  making  spools,  it  com- 
mands a  much  greater  price  than  oak,  hickory,  chestnut  and  many 
similar  kinds  of  timber.  Even  the  much  despised  alianthus  for 
some  locations  and  soils  is  a  most  valuable  tree.  It  grows  rapidly 
even  upon  poor  light  soils  ;  and  although  it  does  not  attain  a  ver}' 
large  size,  still  its  wood  is  well  adapted  to  many  other  purposes 
besides  that  of  fuel.  There  are  man}'  other  similar  instances  that 
might  be  named  where  the  local  value  of  a  species  is  far  a)bove  its 
general  one.  But  all  these  things  will  be  learned  in  time,  and  the 
most  we  can  expect  at  present  is  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
masses  to  the  importance  of  the  subject,  for  we  know  full  well  that 
when  our  people  become  aware  that  there  is  a  rich  field  open  to 
them  they  are  ready  to  occupy,  and  make  it  yield  a  full  return. 
We  have  to  regret  that  the  art  of  planting  forest  trees  has  not  re- 
ceived that  attention  from  our  people  which  its  importance  de- 
mands. 

It  may  be  said  that,  as  it  is  a  branch  of  horticulture,  it  is  en- 
couraged by  nurserymen  and  all  others  who  are  engaged  in 
the  cultivation  of  trees.  But  I  do  not  believe  that  arboriculture 
will  ever  reach  the  high  position  which  it  deserves  until  it  is  stu- 
died and  encouraged  as  a  separate  profession.  Witli  your  per- 
mission, I  will  at  some  future  time  give  a  few  practical  hints  as  to 


1 


064  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

the  best  methods  of  growing  the  different  kinds  of  trees,  as  well 
as  a  list  of  the  most  valuable  species  and  varieties. 

About  (Jatiikrtno  Nuts — Timber  Grovting,  etc. — Black  and 
white  walnuts  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  they  fall  from  the 
trees,  and  planted  at  once,  as  follows: — Draw  furrows  six  feet 
apart  and  three  or  four  inches  deep,  drop  the  nuts  from  two  to 
luur  feet  apart  in  the  row,  cover  them  four  or  five  inches  deep  and 
Ntep  on  each  one,  or  what  is  better,  roll  with  a  common  two-horse 
roller;  this  packs  the  soil  and  prevents  them  from  drying  out,  so 
that  the  frosts  of  winter  will  burst  the  shells,  and  most  of  them 
will  come  up  the  ensuing  spi'ing.  Should  any  of  them  fail  to 
pome  the  first  season,  they  are  very  sure  to  come  the  second. 
Besides  these,  the  chestnut,  and  horse  chestnut,  and  the  beech  nut 
may  be  obtained  at  a  trifling  expense  from  the  States  east  of  us, 
where  the  timber  abounds,  and  the  trees  produced  without  any  diffi- 
culty, if  you  are  careful  to  prevent  the  nuts  from  becoming  dry, 
by  i)lacing  them  in  moist  earth  or  sand,  and  keeping  them  secni-  - 
from  mice  and  frost  till  the  time  for  planting  in  the  spring  ;  then 
plant  the  same  distance  apart  as  other  trees,  and  cultivate  two  or 
tiiree  seasons  so  as  to  keep  down  all  weeds  ;  or,  wdiat  is  better,  as 
soon  as  the  trees  are  up  a  foot  or  two,  mulch  thoroughly  with 
straw  or  slough  hay.  All  trees,  fruit,  or  forest  thrive  much 
lietter  for  mulching,  as  all  trees  in  their  natural  positions,  in 
groves  or  large  tracts  of  timber,  are  annually  mulched  by  the 
falling  leaves,  which  keep  tlie  ground  moist  about  their  roots, 
except  in  long  continued  droughts.  If  we  imitate  nature  in  this 
respect,  we  shall  doubtless  find  trees  flourishing  just  as  well  in  a 
prairie  as  a  timbered  count ly. 

In  addition  to  the  above  named,  or  any  otfcer  of  our  deciduous 
fui-est  trees,  every  man  wants  evergreens  in  proportion  to  his 
means  to  purchase,  ami  the  room  to  be  occupied.  But,  in  the 
second  place,  where  do  we  want  trees?  If  our  location  admits 
our  building  on  the  north  or  west  sides  of  the  road,  we  want  thick 
bells  of  timl)er  north  and  west  of  our  buildings, — evergreens,  if 
we  can  aflbrd  them,  as  being  altogether  a  better  wind-break  thnn 
deciduous  trees  ;  but,  at  all  events,  plant  trees,  and  plant  them  ..o 
close  (two  or  three  rows  wotild  be  better  than  one)  that  after  a 
few  years  they  will  prove  a  pretty  effectual  barrier  to  the  cold 
blasts  of  winter,  furnishing  a  grateful  shelter  to  man  and  beast. 
If  you  havii  to  build  on  the  east  or  south  side  of  the  road  you 
camot  have  the  same  amount  of  shelter  without  obstructing 'the 
view  of  the  road ;  but  even  in  these  situations,  by  no  means  the 
most  desirable,  by  setting  your  buildings  farther  back  from  the 
road,  if  on  the  east  side,  plant  north  of  your  buildings  a  belt  of 
trees  as  thick  as  they  will  grow,  with  rather  more  in  front  of  the 
house  than  would  be  admissible  if  the  house  fticed  the  east  or 
south;  likewise,  if  your  house  is  south  of  the  road,  plant  your 
trees  plentifully  on  the  west,  but  on  the  east  and  south  of  youi 


MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION.  665 

buildings  plant  few  or  no  trees,  especially  near  the  buildings,  for 
it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  physiologists  that  all  animals,  human 
or  brute,  require  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine  in  order  to  a  full 
development  of  their  physical  frames  and  the  enjoyment  of 
vigorous  health.  Indeed  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  an 
individual  has  passed  away  in  the  morning  of  life,  and  now  fills  a 
consumptive's  grave,  who,  with  plentj'  of  pure  air  to  breathe  by 
night  and  by  day,  with  suitable  exercise  every  da}'"  with  nothing  to 
shield  them  from  the  sun  and  the  wind  but  the  broad  canopy  of 
the  skies,  might  have  lived  to  a  good  old  age  in  the  enjoyment  of 
health  and  strength.  I  rather  like  the  idea  expressed  in  my  hear- 
ing a  few  years  ago,  by  a  gentleman  recently  a  graduate  of  one 
of  our  Eastern  colleges,  now  pastor  of  a  church  in  a  flourishing 
town  in  an  adjoining  count}^,  who  said,  if  going  to  build  a 
residence  for  himself,  he  should  want  it  to  face  the  northeast, 
southeast,  or  southwest,  so  that  the  sun  might  shine  some  part  of 
each  day  in  every  room  in  the  house.  This  may  be  considered 
eccentric  or  extravagant  by  some,  but  the  suggestion  seems  to 
me  worthy  of  consideration.     Pardon  this  digression. 

Furthermore,  we  want  belts  of  forest  trees,  evergreens,  (if  we 
can  afford  it,)  to  protect  our  orchards,  and  if  our  orchards  are 
large,  rows  of  evergreens  interspersed  among  oin-  api)le  trees, 
and  every  man  who  has  forty  acres  or  more  of  land,  wants  a 
grove  more  or  less  for  the  sake  of  the  fuel  and  timber  it  will 
afford,  and  for  the  protection  it  will  give  his  growing  crops  a? 
well.  Should  any  object  to  planting  trees  as  thick  as  recom 
mended,  let  them  remember  that  after  ten  or  twelve  years,  if  they 
appear  too  much  crowded,  it  will  be  very  convenient  to  cut  out 
from  the  thickest  plt\ces  occasionally,  as  needed,  and  trees  planted 
as  thick  as  they  can  grow  to  advantage  will  be  much  more  valuable 
for  timber,  growing  taller  and  straighter.  If  it  be  true,  as  we 
read  in  the  Good  Book,  that  "parents  ought  to  lay  up  for  their 
children,"  surely  no  more  imperative  duty  rests  upon  the  present 
inhabitants  of  our  beautiful  prairie  country  than  to  plant  trees 
for  shelter,  for  fuel,  for  timber.  For,  treat  the  question  of  timber 
as  we  may,  it  is  a  fact  that  should  be  impressed  upon  tlie  mind  of 
every  man,  that  as  the  population  and  wealth  of  the  country 
increases,  the  want  of  machinerj-,  particularly  agricultural  imple- 
ments, increases  in  a  much  greater  ratio.  In  the  States  east  of 
us,  where  most  of  the  timber  is  obtained  for  the  manufacture  of 
these  articles,  I  speak  advisedly  when  1  say  that  the  quantity  is 
rapidly  diminishing,  and  in  many  places  it  has  quadrupled  in 
value  in  the  last  twenty  3'ears.  Would  it  not  be  well  to  pause 
and  ask  ourselves  the  question  :  Where  are  we  to  obtain  the 
necessar}'  supply  for  these  piirpot<es,  (to  sny  nothing  of  the 
amount  required  for  buildings,  furniturei  etc.,)  twenty-live  or  fifty 
years  hence,  when  the  demand  in  this  Western  country-  shall  have 
increased  tenfold  ?     How  much  better  for  the  rising  generation, 


6(',6  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

and  'or  the  State  as  well,  if  someof  those seekingapermanent  invest, 
incut  for  Iheir  surplus  wealth,  instead  of  laying  it  out  iu  railroad 
stock,  bank  stock,  mining  companies,  oil  companies,  in  corner  lots 
of  paper  cities,  or  in  any  of  the  thousand  and  one  schemes  invent- 
ed to  relieve  people  of  their  money,  they  should  invest  it  in  land 
on  our  broad  praries,  improve  it  and  plant  with  oak,  walnut,  ash, 
hickory,  chestnut,  wild  cherry,  etc.  Surely  their  children  and  grand- 
children would  rise  up  and  call  them  blessed,  and  more  certainly 
than  upon  him  who  causes  two  spears  of  grass  to  grow  where  but 
one  grew  'before,  will  future  generations  look  upon  them  as  bene- 
factoT-s  of  mankind.— H.  G.  Neal,  Davenport,  Iowa. 

Kaisino  two  or  more  Crops  Together. —  Farmers  with  but 
little  extra  trouble  can  raise  two  or  more  crops  upon  one  piece 
of  land  by  selectihg  certain  varieties  that  will  not  mix  or  draw 
the  same  .substances  from  the  soil,  and  in  this  way  not  retard  ae 
growth  of  the  main  crop,  but  greatly  lessen  the  expense  of  pro- 
ducing it.  Squashes,  beets,  dwarf  peas,  etc.,  will  thrive  finely 
with  potatoes,  while  beans  pumpkins,  tomatoes,  and  turnips  do 
well  with  corn.  Melons,  pumpkins,  and  squashes  should  never  be 
planted  together,  or  iu  the  immediate  vicinity  of  each  other  no 
more  than  sweet  and  common  corn,  for  one  will  partake  of  the 
nature  and  qualities  of  the  other  to  such  an  extent  as  to  greatly 
deteri(n'ate  their  value  for  the  particular  uses  to  which  they  are 
put. 

The  kitchen  garden  is  valuable  to  every  family,  and  should  not 
be  neglected  by  any,  but  much  of  the  products  usuaily  grown 
there  may  be  raised  with  tenfold  less  expense  by  the  farmer  in 
the  field.  Beans  in  the  corn  hill  if  planted  with  the  corn,  ai"e 
raised  al)undantly  without  extra  labor ;  turnips  sown  between  the 
rows  wlien  cultivating  the  last  time  are  g^rown  with  no  trouble, 
and  a  tomato  plant  set  beside  each  hill  of  corn  on  the  outside 
rows  thrive  well,  and  when  the  vines  are  laden  with  fruit  they 
may  be  tied  up  to  the  corn  stalks,  where  the  fruit  will  ripen  to  the 
best  possible  advantage. 

Thus  from  a  single  acre  a  full  crop  of  corn  may  be  obtained, 
besides  five  or  six  bushels  of  beans,  many  loads  of  pumpkins  and 
turnips,  and  all  the  tomatos  a  dozen  families  could  use.  From 
tlie  ptjtato  field  a  full  supply  of  beets,  squashes,  peas,  etc.,  are 
j-eeeived  without  incurring  extra  expense,  or  adding  but  little  if 
any  labor  to  the  cultivation  of  the  main  crop. 

It  is  true  that  where  land  is  heavily  cropped,  an  extra  amount  of 
manure  is  required  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  same  ;  but  every 
farmer  knows  tliat  the  more  a  single  acre  can  be  made  to  produce 
by  manuring,  or  any  other  means,  the  greater  profit  it  is  to  the 
owner.  Where  three  hundred  bushels  of  corn  can  be  raised  from 
four  acres  the  crop  pays,  but  when  six  or  eight  acres  are  required 
to  produce  that  amount,  it  is  not  a  paying  business.  We  do  not 
remember  where  we  found  the  above  extract,  but  we  commend 


MISCELLANEOUS    INFOEMATION.  6(^7 

tlie  view  of  gettincr  the  largest  possible  amount  from  every  acre 
b3^  heavy  aucT  continual  manuring. 

The  Cultivation  op  Peanuts. — The  extraordinary  number  of 
peanuts  that  have  been  brought  to  market  this  fall,  says  the 
Southern  Farmer,  induced  us  to  make  some  inquiries  concerning 
their  cultivation,  and  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied.  The 
crop  is  one  ver}-  easily  grown,  yielding  a  large  product,  and  com- 
manding good  prices. 

The  price  this  season  bas  been  lower  than  for  several  j'^ears  past, 
ranging  from  sixty  to  eighty  cents  per  bushel,  according  to  quality ; 
but  even  at  that  price  there  is  perhaps  no  other  crop  yielding  so 
much  profit.  The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  ground  pea  is  a 
moderately  rich  loam,  neither  very  heavy  nor  very  light.  A  stiff 
soil  will  not  admit  the  stems  beai'ing  the  fruit  to  penetrate  it  with 
facility,  and  a  sandy  soil  is  too  thirsty.  Again,  if  the  soil  is  too 
rich,  the  tendency  of  the  plant  is  to  run  to  vine  instead  of  the 
formation  of  fruit.  Any  soil  of  the  requisite  texture,  capable  of 
producing  five  or  six  barrels  of  corn  to  the  aci'e,  is  well  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  the  ground  pea  without  the  addition  of  any 
manure.  But  should  manure  be  used  at  all,  it  should  be  in  small 
quantitie.S. 

The  ground  is  prepared  by  laying  it  ofi"  in  rows  three  feet 
distant,  and  very  slightly  ridging,  as  in  culture  of  cotton.  When 
manure  is  applied,  it  should,  as  in  case  of  cotton,  be  put  in  the 
drill.  Through  the  entire  cultivation,  the  chief  object  should  be  to 
keep  the  ground  clean  of  grass  and  as  level  as  possible.  The 
slight  ridge  on  which  the  seed  is  planted  will  be  nearly  or  quite 
worked  down  by  the  first  hoeing.  As  the  vines  extend  over  the 
surface,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  ground  well  stirred  with  a 
trowel,  hoe,  or  other  implement  that  does  not  turn  it  over.  A 
couple  of  plowings  and  occasional  working  Avith  the  hoe  is  re- 
garded a  sufficient  amount  of  cultivation — less  than  what  is 
required  for  cotton,  and  not  exceeding  that  of  the  corn  crop. 

As  soon  as  the  vine  is  killed  by  frost,  the  harvesting  should 
commence.  The  first  operation  is  to  run  a  colter  close  to  the 
vines  on  each  side,  for  the  purpose  of  loosening  the  earth.  The 
plants  are  then  taken  up  with  a  lioe,  and  laid  bottom  upward  on 
the  ground  to  dr3^  There  the}-  are  to  remain  for  several  days 
until  they  are  cured — the  time  being  longer  or  shorter,  according 
to  the  state  of  the  weather.  If  it  rains,  it  will  do  the  crop  no 
finjury.  When  sufficiently  cured,  the  vines  should  be  packed  away 
in  a  barn,  or  under  any  good  shelter,  where  the  fruit  may  be  picked 
■at  leisure. 

,  A  fair  crop  may  be  regarded  as  about  seventy-five  bushels  per 
;Mcre,  and  is  frequently  as  much  as  a  hundred.  Some  of  the 
farmers  in  the  lower  counties  raise  as  much  as  five  hundred  or  a 
tliousand  bushels.  The  crop  has,  to  some  extent,  taken  the  place 
of  cotton,  requiring  much  less  manui'e,  and  being  more  profitable. 


QQS  HOW    TO   JIAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY. 

A  great  advantage  attending  its  cultivation  consists  in  the  valu<» 
of  tlie  pens  remaining  in  the  ground  after  the  crop  is  gathered. 
The  liogs  are  turned  on  the  field,  where  they  thrive  rapidly.  So 
rich  is  Ihc  nut  in  nutritious  matter,  that  many  farmers  tliink  the 
portion  remaining  in  the  ground  after  digging  is  e(iual  in  vnlne, 
as  food  for  hogs,  to  the  entire  crop  of  corn  the  land  would  have 
produced. 

Making  the  Most  of  a  Farm. — In  every  neighborhood  a 
striking  difference  in  the  productiveness  of  farms  may  be  noted  ; 
and  this  Variation,  wheu  acre  is  matched  against  acre,  cannot,  in 
most  cases,  justly  be  attributed  to  the  diversit}-  of  the  soil,  lait 
rather  to  tho  effect  of  the  methods  by  which  the  farming  is  con- 
ducted. It  is  the  dillerence  of  character  in  the  farmers,  and  of  the 
objects  they  aim  at,  which  are  illustrated  in  their  labor  and  its  pro- 
ducts. And  various  as  are  these  methods  and  their  results,  yet 
we  have  little  doubt  but  ever}^  farmer  flatters  himself  that,  consid- 
ering circumstances,  he  is  making  the  most  of  his  farm.  We  will 
briefly  sketch  some  of  the  various  ways  by  which  farmers  strive  to 
reach  the  same  end. 

One  adopts  the  skinning  process ;  his  cultivation  is  shallow  but 
spreads  over  a  good  deal  of  surface.     In  measuring  land  he  never 
considers  depth  but  breadth  only  ;  so  he  sows  as  many  acres  as 
possible,  but  slights  the  work  and   grudges  the  expenditure  of 
every  dollar  in  that  direction.     A  rich  farm  and  fine  improvements 
are  not  so  desirable  in  his  eyes  as  a  large  farm  and  money  at  in- 
terest.    He  farms  at  as  little  expense  as  possible,  and  makes  his 
property, — if  he  is  so  fortunate  with  crops  of  wheat' yielding  ten 
bushels  per  acre,  corn  twenty,  and   grass  a  ton, — by  saving  and 
Ijinching.     If  he  dies  young  he  dies  poor,  but  if  he  lives  to  an  old 
age,   by  miserly  economy   he  maj'^  amass  considerable  property. 
Another  considers  the  farm  a  sort  of  a  mine  from  which  he  may 
draw  treasure.     He  works  with  skill   and   i)atience,  and    spends 
freely  for  necessary  or  profitaljle  labor.     He  keeps  good  breeds  of 
block,  for  there  is  the  most  profit  in  such,  and  builds  barns  and 
sheds  to  shelter  them.     He  sees  depth  to  the   soil,  as   well    as 
breadth,  and  works  accordingly.     He  underdrains  and  subsoils, 
cultivates  well,  and  performs  alUabor  in  the  best  manner.     His  ob- 
ject is  to  get  the  most  from   the  soil,  and  he  transforms  its  pro-" 
ducts  into  other  forms  of  wealth.     Such  a  course  may  answer  for 
one  man's  lifetime,  but  in   the  end  his  farm  will   resemble    the  ■ 
"squeezed  orange,"  or  the  mine  whence  the  ore  has  been  taken; 
and  the  lodes  run  out.     The  majority  of  what  are  termed  our  best 
dinners  in  this  country  are  pursuing  this  plan.     It  is  one  that 
adds  little  real  wealtli  to  tlie  aggregate,  for  it  is  substantially  but 
transforming  the  wealth  of  the  soil  into  other  forms,  and  as  the 
sod  is  not  inexhaustiMe  the  time  must  come  when  the  supply  from  f 
'  hat  source  will  diminish.     A  third,  and  the  smallest  of  all  classes  : 
■A  farmers,  adds  to  thorough  and  skilful  cultivation  the  more  im- 


MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION.  669 

porlant  idea  of  constantly  replenishing  the  soil  with  the  plant  ele- 
ments which  crops  have  extracted  from  it.  The  coarse  products 
are  consumed  on  the  farm,  and  more  food  for  stock,  or  special  fer- 
tilizers, are  bought  to  replace  the  fertility  carried  awa}'  in  the 
animals  and  cereals  that  are  sold.  We  said  there  are  few  farmers 
of  this  class,  few  that  have  matured  and  practice  a  system  of  farm- 
ing by  which  the  maximum  of  products  may  be  produced  from  the 
soil,  and  3'et  maintain  it  as  fertile  and  productive  for  a  century. 

But  we  have  not  3'et  arrived  to  the  condition  where  American 
farmers  will  work  for  the  future.  The  American  farmer  is  not 
permanent  enough  in  his  location;  the  abundance  of  land  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population,  the  fertility  of  tlie  soil,  the  rai)id  ad- 
vance in  prices,  stimulate  the  restless  element  in  his  nature,  and  ren- 
der him  too  migratory  to  become  a  scientific  agriculturist.  It 
needs  nn  ordinary  lifetime  to  develop,  with  legitimate  means,  sci- 
entific agriculture  on  American  farms;  and  not  uh.'l  the  young 
farmer  shall  come  to  look  upon  his  domain  ns  his  future  home  cat 
we  hope  for  this  attainment. 

We  commend  the  above  view  of  three  systems  of  farming  to  our 
readers.  The  latter  will  be  found  full}-  illustrated  in  previous 
pages  of  this  volume. 

'  Winter  Work  on  the  Farm. — Everybody  knows  what  work  to 
do  on  the  farm  during  the  summer.  The  difiTerent  crops  in  their 
order  require  the  farmer's  attention,  and  in  this  way  work  pro- 
vides itself;  but  in  the  winter  there  seems  to  be  little  to  be  done, 
but  tlireshing  grain  and  cutting  wood.  But  to  a  farmer  who  is 
desirous  of  obtaining  the  greatest  income  there  will  ever  be  plenty 
to  do  in  winter. 

Threshing  especially,  in  the  ^Middle  and  Eastern  States,  is 
generally  done  during  the  winter  season.  It  should  be  so  arranged 
that  it  can  be  done  on  stormy  days,  and  fair  days  devoted  to  out 
door  work,  unless  the  rise  or  fall  in  prices  of  the  grain  should 
render  it  expedient  to  do  otherwise. 

To  those  farmers  who  have  had  a  crop  of  flax,  and  pulled  it,  the 
cold  dry  dnys  of  the  season  Avill  be  the  proper  ones  to  work  it 
out.  During  a  cold  dry  day  the  "  shives"  separate  more  readily 
from  the  lint  than  at  other  times.  A  farmer  who  has  little  to  do 
will  fiind  working  out  a  crop  of  flax  straw  a  profitable  job,  espe- 
cially at  the  present  high  prices.  Cutting  a  stock  of  firewood  sutii- 
cient  for  at  least  a  year  to  come  should  now  be  attended  to. 
Secure  a  good  supply  of  wood,  and  work  it  up  for  the  stove, 
either  by  hand  or  horse  povor,  and  pile  it  up  in  a  drj'  place. 
Any  one  who  has  tried  both  plans  ol'  getting  firewood,  namely, 
getting  enough  prepared  in  winter  for  a  year,  or  cutting  a  few 
sticks  every  day  through  the  summer,  and  that  often  green,  will 
not  need  much  argument  on  this  subject. 

Material  for  fencing,  if  anj'  be  needed,  should  be  procured  and 
prepared  for  use      Posts  should  be  dressed  and  holed,  raUs  split, 


670  HOW   TO    MAKE  THE    FARM    PAY. 

and  spliced,  logs  taken  to  the  saw-mill  for  posts,  railings,  plank, 
or  any  other  lumber  required  on  the  farm  daring  the  year  ;  it 
would  be  well  to  have  a  good,  well  seasoned  white  oak,  ash  or 
liickorv  loo-  sawed  up  for  wagon  tongues,  harrow  or  plow  beams, 
oi  otlier  similar  purposes,  and  the  farmer,  if  he  be  much  of  a 
uorkman,  could  thus  repair  many  of  his  own  implements,  or  he 
could  furnish  what  he  knew  to  be  good  material  for  his  wheelright 
lo  do  it. 

Fa  liners  who  have  manure  cellars  should  secure  a  supply  of 
muck,  leafes,  etc.,  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter,  for  increasing 
iho  manure  i)iie  ;  leaves  can  be  raked  together  in  great  quantities 
in  earlv  winter,  and  no  better  material  can  be  had  for  keeping  the 
stables  and  pig  sty  dry  and  comfortable. 

in  time  of  peace  it  is  well  to  prepare  for  war,  and  so  during  the 
leisure  of  winter  is  the  time  to  make  preparation  for  the  active 
campaign  of  the  summer.  If  an}^  implements  or  fixtures  arc 
needed  on  the  farm  during  the  summer,  the  farmer  now  has  time 
to  make  them  for  himself  lie  can  now  make  a  sled  to  mai'k  his 
ground  for  corn,  boxes  for  hens'  nests,  coops  for  his  chickens, 
traps  for  varments,  or  do  a  dozen  things  that  he  may  want  done 
when  he  has  not  time  to  do  them.  But  during  all  his  fixing  and 
doing  he  should  allow  himself  time  for  recreation  and  improve- 
ment, and  for  the  reading  and  study  of  agricultural  books  and 
papers. 

The  Bird  Question. — [From  the  Germantown  Telegraph.^  The 
Western  New  York  Fruit-Grower's  Society  had  a  discussion  at  its 
laf-.t  meeting  on  the  question  of  the  value  of  birds  upon  the 
premises  of  fruit-growers,  and  the  burden  of  the  comments  was 
against  them,  particularly  the  robin.  Some  of  the  leading  fruit- 
growers were  down  on  the  red-breast,  and  recommended  the 
shooting  of  as  man}'  as  would  clear  the  premises.  One  of  the 
speakers  was  a  friend  to  hawks,  crows,  and  owls,  but  said  the 
robin  was  very  destructive  upon  cherries,  strawberries,  etc.,  etc. 

Another,  and  a  solitary  one,  advocated  birds.  He  said  he  had 
un  abundance  of  birds  and  an  abundance  of  fruit,  etc.  Our  own 
premises  are  full  of  birds,  and  we  encourage  them  to  take  up  their 
abode  aljout  us  in  every  possible  \va,y.  They  are  rather  greedy, 
it  is  true,  and  take  much  more  than  their  share  of  the  cherries,; 
especially  the  early  ones.  But  is  not  the  robin  only;  the  black- 
bird, the  blue-bird,  Hparrow,  orioles,  and  particularly  the  cat-bird, 
all  freely  help  themselves,  and,  with  the  exception'  of  the  black- 
bird, are  heartily  welcome.  We  lose  only  a  few  strawberries,  and 
these  among  the  early  ripening ;  but  the  robin  here  is  not  the  only 
depredator  upon  these.  The  cat-bird  is  its  full  match,  and  a 
much  slyer  thief  It  is  especially  destructive  upon  the  Delaware 
und  some  other  small  grapes  in  September. 

But  there  is  a  remedy  for  the  depredations  of  birds  upon  the 
farly  fruit  which   is  very  easy  to  apply.     That  is,  to  plant  he-c 


MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION".  671 

and  there  a  black  midberry  tree.  The  birds  prefer  this  fruit,  on 
account  of  its  being  free  from  acidity,  to  both  cherries  and  straw- 
berries ;  and,  as  the  mulberry  is  a  good  fruit  of  itself  and  liked  by 
many  people,  this  would  add  to  the  inducement  to  plant  it. 
Therefore,  we  hope  our  belligerent  fruit-raisei's,  instead  of  shoot- 
ing the  robin,  will  feed  it  on  mulberries,  and  it  will,  no  doubt,  be 
very  thankful. 

[We  hope  the  suggestion  to  plant  the  black  mulberry  and 
"  spare  the  birds"  will  be  heeded  b}'-  all  the  friends  of  these 
spring  and  summer  warblers.  The  "  wild  cherry"  would  also  be 
the  favorite  of  the  "robins,"  and  thus  save  other  fruits.] 

Eggs  by  the  Pound. — One  of  our  exchanges  has  started  this 
idea: 

A  few  days  since,  while  making  our  purchases  of  provisions  in 
market,  we  were  forcibly  struck  with  the  difference  in  size  between 
the  eggs  in  the  baskets  of  several  farmers,  although  the  price 
asked  was  the  same  for  each.  So  great  was  the  disparity  that 
we  purchased  a  dozen  each  from  three  different  baskets,  and  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their  weights  correctly,  took  them  to 
the  warehouse  of  Fairljanks  &  Ewing,  where  they  were  carefully 
weighed  on  Fairbanks'  standard  scales,  with  the  following  re- 
sults :  Number  one,  one  pound  ten  and  a  quarter  ounce>> ;  number 
two,  one  pound  seven  and  a  half  ounces ;  number  three,  one 
l)ound  three  and  a  quarter  ounces.  It  will  be  seen  that  there 
was  a  difference  of  nearly  one-half  a  pound  between  number  one 
and  three,  and  yet  the  price  asked  for  them  V)y  those  who  had 
them  for  sale  was  the  same.  It  may  be  said  that  this  is  an  ex- 
treme case;  we  admit  that  it  may  properly  be  so  considered,  but 
if  we  take  the  weights  of  nnml)er  one  and  two,  we  find  a  differ- 
ence of  nearly  three  ounces,  or  a  little  more  than  twelve  per  cent 
As  great  difference  is  frequently  found  in  the  weight  of  oats,  corn, 
wheat,  and  other  grains,  and  this  disparity  is  largely  increased 
where  the  measurer  is  skilful  at  his  l)usiness,  we  should  be  glad 
to  have  the  opinion  of  practical  farmers  on  this  subject. 

Damp  St  aisles. — When  I  lirst  came  to  the  farm  which  I  now 
hold  by  purchase,  I  found  the  stables  built  under  large  trees  and 
near  a  spring  of  water,  with  a  northern  aspect.  My  horses  were 
soon  in  poor  condition,  with  long  and  rough  coats,  and  almost 
always  lax  in  tlieir  bowels,  nor  could  I  get  them  up  by  extra  food 
or  lighter  work;  but  my  cows  suffered  the  most,  for  they  were 
always  sick.  Their  milk  fell  off  and  their  butter  was'poor,  and  of 
a  bad  color  and  taste,  and  four  of  them  slipped  their  calves 
before  time.  When  the  spring  came  they  left  their  winter  quar- 
ters in  a  worse  state  than  I  had  ever  seen  them,  and  two  of  them 
died  from  scours  on  going  to  pasture.  On  inquiry  I  found  that 
tlie  tenant  who  had  left  had  always  been  what  the  neighbors 
termed  unfortunate  in  his  horses  and  cattle,  and  from  that  cause 


^72  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

more  than  any  other  he  had  not  been  able  to  make  both  ends 
meet.  The  truth  flashed  upon  me  in  an  instant,  and  in  a  very 
little  longer  time  than  it  has  taken  me  to  tell  my  story.  I  had 
commenced  pulling  down  the  stable,  the  unhealthiuess  of  which 
bad  been,  I  was  convinced,  the  cause  of  all  the  evil  and  the  loss; 
and  it  was  no  more  than  two  days  before  there  was  not  left  one 
stone  upon  another  of  the  whole  fabric.  I  now  set  to  work  and 
creeled  another  on  higher  ground,  removed  from  water,  and  clear 
from  the,  shade  of  trees,  with  a  southeast  aspect,  and  dry  capa- 
cious yard  ;  and  from  that  day  I  have  had  neither  sickness  nor 
borrow  in  my  out  door  household,  ^f}'  horses  live  on  less  food, 
are  always  sleek  and  in  good  condition,  and  my  cows  are  a  credit 
to  their  keep.  Our  butter  brings  two  cents  a  pound  more  in 
market,  and  for  the  last  year  our  sales  are  more  than  doubled 
from  the  same  number  of  cows  and  the  same  pasturage,  and  no 
more  premature  calves.  Instead  of  watering  my  cattle  as  hereto- 
fore, at  the  spring  under  the  trees — the  water  cold,  with  a  deadly 
taste  and  bad  color — I  sank  a  well  and  put  in  a  pump  ;  and  at  a 
long  trough  in  the  yard  for  the  summer,  and  another  under 
shelter  for  the  winter,  my  cattle  slake  their  thirst  without  setting 
up  their  coats,  as  they  used  to  do  after  drinking  at  the  hole  under 
the  trees.  Even  when  the  weather  was  warm  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  shake  all  over,  as  if  they  were  in  a  fit  of  ague  after  drink- 
ing their  fill  of  this  water  ;  and  to  this,  with  the  bad  aspects  of  the 
stables,  I  attribute  all  the  sickness  and  misery  which  I  have 
experienced  amongst  my  cattle  and  horses. 

To  PROTECT  Horses  from  Flies. — Take  two  or  three  small 
handfuls  of  walnut  leaves,  upon  which  you  pour  two  or  three 
quarts  of  cold  water;  let  it  infuse  one  night,  and  pour  the  whole 
next  morning  into  a  kettle  and  let  it  boil  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour;  when  cold  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  No  more  is  required  than 
to  ujoisten  a  sponge,  and  before  the  horse  goes  out  of  the  stable, 
let  tliose  parts  which  are  most  irritable  be  smeared  over  with  the 
liquor,  viz.,  between  and  upon  the  ears,  the  neck,  flank,  etc.  Not 
only  the  lady  or  gentleman  who  rides  out  for  pleasure  will  derive 
benefit  from  the  walnut  leaves  tluis  prepa-red,  but  the  coachman, 
the  wagoner,  and  all  others  who  use  horses  during  the  hot, 
months. 

The  Teeth  of  a  Horse  as  an  Indication  or  Age. — At  five 
years  of  age  a  horse  has  forty  teeth— twenty-four  molar  or  jaw 
teeth,  twelve  incisors  or  front  teeth,  between  the  molars  and 
uicisors  ;  but  usually  wanting  in  tiie  mare. 

At  birth  only  two  nippers  or  middle  incisors  appear. 

At  a  year  old,  the  incisors  are  all  visible  on  the  first  or  milk  set. 

Before  three  years,  the  permanent  nippers  have  come  through. 

At  four  years  old,  the  permanent  tlividers  next  to  the  nippers  i 
are  cut. 


4 


MISCELLANEOUS    IXFORMATiOX.  •  673 

At  Pve,  the  mouth  is  perfect,  the  sccoikI  set  of  teetli  having 
been  c^'inpleted. 

At  s-jc,  the  noUow  under  the  upper,  called  the  mark,  has  disap- 
peared iVom  tne  nippers,  and  diminished  in  the  dividers. 

At  s-cven,  tne  mark  has  disappeared  from  the  dividers,  and  the 
next  tettn  or  corners  are  level,  though  showing  the  mark. 

At  eigdt,  the  mark  has  gone  from  the  corners,  and  the  horse  is 
said  to  bo  aged.  After  this  time — indeed  good  authorities  say 
that  aftei  Ave  ,years — the  age  of  the  horse  can  only  be  conjec- 
tured. Bai,  the  teeth  gradually  change  their  form,  the  incisors 
becoming  loand,  oval,  and  triangular. 

How  TO  ViT  Collars  to  Houses'  Shoulders. — It  is  very  im- 
portant to  have  a  collar  fit  nicely  and  snugly  to  the  shoulders  of 
the  horse.  It  enables  him  to  work  with  a  great  deal  more  ease, 
and  to  apply  a  great  deal  more  strength.  It  prevents  -galling 
and  wounding,  as  the  friction  is  avoided.  Collars  are  so  made, 
or  should  be  so  made,  as  to  throw  the  chief  force  on  tlie  lower 
part  of  the  shoulder.  The  horse  can  apply  but  little  strength  on 
the  upper  part,  and  for  this  reason  breast  collars  are  coming 
greatly  into  vogue — as  the  strength  is  exerted  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  shoulder.  But  we  started  oat  to  tell  our  readers  how  to 
make  a  new  collar  fit  the  shoulder  of  the  horse.  The  collar  should 
be  purchased  of  the  proper  size;  just  before  putting  it  on  the 
first  time,  immerse  it  in  water,  letting  it  remain  about  a  minute, 
and  immediately  putting  it  on  the  horse,  being  careful  to  have 
the  hames  so  adjusted  at  top  and  bottom  as  to  fit  the  sho\ilder, 
and  then  pufthe  horse  to  work.  The. collar,  by  being  wet,  will 
adapt  itself  to  the  shoulder,  and  should  dry  on  the  horse.  "When 
taken  off  it  should  be  left  in  the  same  shape  it  occui)ied  on  the 
horse,  and  ever  after  you  will  have  a  snug  fitting  collar  and  no 
wounds. —  Valley  Farmer. 

Devon  Cow^s — Butter  Making. — We  have  said  elsewhere  that 
the  Devons  are  not  a  dairy  breed,  but  that  they  sometimes  make 
excellent  dairy  stock  is  proved  by  the  following:  D.  H.  Prest,  of 
Ontario,  having  seen  Mrs.  Cragg's  statement  about  her  butter  pro- 
duct in  the  "  Rural,''^  sends  a  communication  giving  his  experi- 
ence in  butter  making.  Four  3-ears  ago,  having  purchased  a 
Devon  cow,  it  was  resolved  to  test  the  value  of  the  purchase  by 
keeping  an  account  of  the  butter  made  from  her  milk.  The  first 
week's  cream  was  churned  hy  itself,  and  produced  fourteen 
pounds  of  butter.  The  milk  stood  from  morning  till  night,  ajid 
from  night  till  morning,  and  was  skimmed  and  fed  to  the  calf 
before  it  got  sour.  That  calf,  when  a  heifer  two  years  old,  was 
milked  separately'  like  the  dam,  and  produced  in  a  week  ten  and 
three-quarter  pounds  of  excellent  butter.  Another  heifer,  from  the 
same  mother  as  the  last,  came  in  also  at  two  years  old,  and  in  the 
second  week  in  March  produced  ten  and  eleven-sixteenths  pounds 


674  .  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

of  butler,  which  was  sold  at  fort^'-seven  cents  per  pouhd.  Our 
correspondent  adds  :  "  I  was  not  trying  to  beat  any  one,  but  only 
testing  the  character  of  the  Devon  cows  as  compared  with  others 
I  had  on  hand.  I  think  I  could  better  this  by  a  good  many 
pounds  should  I  make  it  my  study." 

Carrying  Milk. — In  France,  milk  is  packed  in  small  tin  cans, 
easily  moved  b}'  one  man,  and  by  a  simple  contrivance  the  stopper 
screws  close  down  upon  the  contents  of  each  can,  so  the  motion 
of  the  railway  cannot  chui'n  the  milk  in  transitu.  The  cans  are 
then  placed  in  covered  wagons,  and  in  summer  are  wrapped  in 
cloths,  which  are  watered  from  time  to  time  so  as  to  piomote  cool- 
ness by  evaporation.  The  result  of  this  care,  which  costs  but 
little,  is  that  the  milk  supply  of  Paris  is  proverbially  excellent. 

Agricultural  Fairs  were  intended  to  be  and  are  a  good  thing 
when  properly  conducted,  but  the  prominence  now  given  to  fast 
horses  and  trotting  is  disgusting,  and  injurious  to  the  interests 
of  agriculture.     Read  the  following : 

What  proportion  the  trotting  horses  bear  to  the  number  of 
horses,  or  what  their  proportional  value  may  be,  I  am  unin- 
formed. Their  value  is  considerable,  I  am  aware,  but  that  their 
raising  and  training  is  proportionally  pecuniarily  advantageous 
to  the  farmer  I  am  unprepared  to  believe,  or  that  the  "  horse 
trot"  at  our  agricultural  fairs  is  of  greater  advantage  to  the 
farmer  than  all  other  interests  combined,  I  am  equally  unpre- 
pared to  admit. 

For  farm  purposes,  a  somewhat  different  style  of  horse  is 
needed,  as  also  for  all  general  purposes,  from  the  t'rotting  horse. 
Yet  as  there  is  a  taste  and  demand,  which  will  be  supplied,  for 
trotting  and  fast  horses,  farmers  will  endeavor  to  breed  those 
having  that  quality  to  recommend  them,  and  with  this  enterprise 
I  have  no  fault  to  find,  neither  would  I  desire  to  be  understood 
as  finding  fault  with  the  agricultural  society  or  its  managers 
for  olieriug  premiums  in  the  aggregate  greater  for  trotting 
horses  than  for  all  other  interests,  for  they  have  that  privilege ; 
l)ut,  as  the  trotting  horse  interest  is  of  minor  importance  to  agri- 
culturists, a  corresponding  value  ought  to  be  attached  to  it  by 
our  agricultural  societies. 

If  we  are  to  have  the  inevital)le  "horse  trot,"  let  us  have  that 
as  a  distinct  exhibition,  not  mix  it  up  with  exhibitions  of  farm; 
stock  pro|)er  and  products. 

As  to  the  advantage  to  the  farmer  of  breeding  fast  horses,  with 
that  object  only  in  view,  I  might  bring  the  expressed  opinion  of 
m:iny  eminent  agriculturists  and  writers;  but  it  is  unnecessary^ 
and  1  refrain,  believing  that  the  intelligence  of  the  farm  commu- 
nity will  eventually  regulate  this  matter,  by  Holding  fairs  devote* 
'o  the  true  interests  of  agriculture.        '  W.  H.  White. 

/Vlsike  Clover — Allow  me  to  advise  my  bee-keeping  friends 


MISCELLAXEOUS   INFORMATIOX.  675 

who  are  farmers  to  cultivate  the  Alsike  clover.  For  while  it  is, 
for  pasturing  or  haj'  purposes,  decidedly  preferable  to  red  clover, 
it  full}^  equals  it  in  the  secretion  of  honey,  and  far  surpasses  the 
white.  Its  cultivation  would,  therefore,  greatly  increase  the 
forage  for  bees,  which  is  very  desirable.  I  have  ever  contended 
that  no  plant  can  be  cultivated  with  profit  for  bee-pasturage 
nlone — that  bee-keeping  is  profitable  from  the  fact  that  bees 
gather  w-hat  would  othei'wise  run  to  waste  ;  3'et  the  bee-keeper 
ma}'  often  cultivate  a  crop  that,  while  it  proves  remunerative  as 
such,  will,  at  the  same  time,  increase  the  pasturage  for  his  bees. 

Perhaps  nothing  will  better  meet  the  wants  of  the  bee-keeper 
in  this  respect  than  the  Alsike  clover.  2s ot  only  so,  but  the 
farmer  who  does  not  keep  Ijci's  would  find  it  to  his  advantage  to 
sow  Alsike  clover  instead  of  red  clover,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  account  of  the  experience  of  the  Shaker  family,  near 
Albany,  Xew  York,  furnished  to  the  ''  The  Counfrij  Gentleman,'''' 
by  Mr.  Chauncy  Miller,  a  member  of  that  famil}' : 

"  We'find  the  Alsike  clover  a  very  superior  grass  in  the  follow- 
ing points : 

"  1.  For  its  value  as  a  hay  crop  on  a  great  variety'  of  soils, 
being  of  a  growth,  in  height,  varying  according  to  qualit}'  of  soil, 
from  ten  inches  to  two  and  a  half  feet,  and  yielding  from  one  and 
a  half  to  three  tons  per  acre ;  thus  comparing  with  our  best  red 
clovers. 

"2.  For  fineness  of  stalk  or  haum. 

"  3.  For  its  multitude  of  sweet  flowers,  blooming,  perhaps,  three 
or  four  times  as  much  as  red  clover,  making,  when  in  bloom, 
literall}^  a  sea  of  flowers. 

"4.  Its  adaptation  to  heavy  soils,  clay,  or  .leavy  clay  loams, 
as  well  as  sandy  soils,  not  being  so  liable  to  heave  out  by  frosts 
in  winter  and  spring  as  red  clover,  on  account  of  the  root  being 
more  fibrous,  partaking  somewhat  of  the  character  of  the  white 
clover. 

"  5.  To  all  farmers  who  keep  bees  largely,  the  crop  wonld  be  of 
^reat  value,  for  bees  can  work  upon  the  flowers  equall}-  as  well  as 
apon  wdiite  clover,  the  blossoms  being  about  the  same  size,  and 
irecisel}'  of  the  same  habit  as  the  latter,  but  much  more  abundant 
u  honey ;  bees  are  as  fond  of  the  flowers  as  of  mignonette,  and, 
n  its  season  of  flowering,  which  lasts  about  six  weeks,  are  con- 
;inuaUy  upon  it,  from  dewy  morn  until  dusk}'  eve.  • 

"  6.  To  those  farmers  raising  clover  seed  for  market,  the 
Vlsike  clover,  in  our  opinion,  would  be  of  great  value,  as  it 
;eeds  enormously,  and  the  seed  threshes  easily,  by  flail  or 
aachine,  leaving  a  beautiful  quality  of  hay,  the  stalks  retaining 
heir  greenness  when  most  of  the  seed  is  quite  ripe." 

According  to  tlie  above,  it  would  be  advisable  for  farmers  to 
ultivate  it  whether  they  keep  bees  or  not.  That  the  above  is  not 
'verdrawn  is  fully  proved  by  those  who  have  tried  it  in  Canada. 
4i 


(J76  now  TO  makf:  the  farm  pay. 

II.  M.  Thomas,  of  Brookliu,  Ontario,  had  it  grown  to  a  much 
•rreater  heiulit  than  tliat  mentioned  in  the  above  extract,  in 
places  measuring  four  and  a  half  feet.  It  is  abundant  in  seed, 
vicldiu'T  from  live  to  eight  bushels  to  the  acre  ;  after  threshing, 
the  haum  is  equally  as  good,  and  is  bj'^  man^^  considered  better 
for  cows  than  red  clover  ha3\  In  this  count}'  (Ontario)  many 
able  and  intelligent  farmers  are  ordering  seed,  being  well  satisfied 
that  it  is,  for  all  purposes,  superior  to  red  clover.  So  great  is 
Lhe  demand  in  the  United  States  that  the  seed  is  retailing  at  one 
dollar  and  ninet}^  cents  per  pound,  at  the  Rochester  seed  store, 
though  I  believe,  with  us,  it  sells  at  thirt}'-  cents  a  pound,  or 
Ufteen  dollars  a  bushel.  J.  H.  Thomas, 

Chinese  Yam. — Having  fully  investigated  the  character  and 
merits  of  this  yam,  I  have  some  positions  to  announce  in  regard  to 
it,  which  I  should  have  much  hesitation  about  advancing,  if  1  were 
not  well  assured  of  their  triumphant  verification  by  my  country- 
men. I  assert,  that  this  esculent,  by  its  concentration  of  each 
useful  property,  transcends  in  importance  every  other  edible 
vegetable  of  the  earth,  and  that  it  is  destined  to  supersede  the 
tropical  and  unreliable  potato  in  all  northern  climates.  The  com- 
bination of  its  admirable  properties  as  food  for  man  constitiite  it 
also  the  most  estimable  vegetable  boon,  and  the  most  nutritious 
aliment,  for  man  and  domestic  stock,  which  God  and  nature,  in 
their  all-pervading  beneficence  and  benign  provision,  have  bestowed 
upon  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe.  I  shall  discuss  all  these  points 
on  a  future  occasion  in  the  ample  sense  to  which  they  are  entitled. 
The  present  article  is  intended  solely  to  impart  such  practical 
facts  and  advice  in  relation  to  the  plant  as  will  aid  those  who  are 
now  commencing  its  culture.  I  desire,  however,  to  make  known 
that  there  are  more  than  fifty  varieties  of  various  colors  and  forms, 
and  varying  in  length  from  seven  inches  to  two  feet. 

Characteristic  Points. — This  yam  is  a  native  of  the  northern 
limits  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  will  flourish  in  the  coldest 
regions  of  our  country,  and  of  the  British  territories,  and  will 
endure,  everywhere,  the  winters  in  the  open  ground.  Its  produce 
is  more  than  double  the  crop  of  any  potato,  and  it  never  rots.  It 
will  flouri.sh  best  on  the  now  useless  sandy  lands  of  New  Jer.sey 
and  Long  Island,  and  of  the  entire  coast  range,  and  it  will  also 
succeed  on  any  other  soil  but  a  stiff  clay.  It  does  not  require 
replanting  annually,  but  reproduces  abundant  crops  from  theifrag- 
ments  and  small  tubers  that  are  left  in  the  earth.  There  can  "  ~ 
no  fragment,  howevci  diminutive,  that  will  not  vegetate.  Froi 
tul)ers,  the  roots  attain  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  and'  wei£ 
four  to  six  ounces.  From  sections  of  the  root,  such  as  used  ft 
the  regular  crop,  the  roots  attain  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches 
length,  and  weigh  from  half  a  pound  to  one  and  a  half  pound! 
and  often  more.  A  plantation  of  this  yam,  is  in  China  termed  "i 
permanent  magazine  of  food,"  and  the  roots  may  be  dug  fresh  fo 


MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION.  677 

use  dail}',  from  early  spring  to  winter,  thus  furnishing  new  yams 
continuoush^  It  is  more  palatable  than  the  best  Mercer  or  any 
other  potato.  Its  taste  and  flavor  are  intermediate  between  the 
finest  potato  and  arrowroot,  of  an  exceedingly  delicate  farinaceous 
character,  and,  like  the  potato,  it  is  devoid  of  all  insipid  sweetness. 
It  is  free  from  any  ligneous  or  fibrous  substance,  and  possesses 
the  peculiar  property  of  not  being  subject  to  rot  or  deca}^  but  will 
remain  perfectly  sound  and  excellent  in  a  dry  state  for  a  year, 
thus  rendering  it  exceedingly  valuable  for  long  sea  voyages,  and 
for  the  prevention  of  scurvy.  It  is  much  more  nutritious  than  an}' 
other  edible  vegetable  used  by  man,  and  more  so  than  wheat  or 
any  other  grain.  It  is  the  only  vegetable  of  all  the  earth  which 
combines  an  ample  portion  of  azote,  the  grand  constituent  of 
animal  substances  which  imparts  vigor  to  the  muscular  power  of 
man  and  beast ;  and  it  is  by  the  possession  of  this  essential  equiva- 
lent in  this  esculent  that  the  use  of  animal  food  is  rendered  un- 
necessar}'-  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  nations,  whose  immense 
populations  comprise  nearly  one-half  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe. 

The  culture  of  this  most  estimable  and  productive  of  all  vege- 
tables, on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  south  side  of  Long  Island  and 
throughout  the  sandy  region  of  the  Atlantic  portion  of  New  Jersey, 
which  are  of  a  character  precisely  adapted  and  congenial  to  its 
growth  and  development,  and  where  the  crops  will  consequently 
be  much  greater  than  in  other  locations,  must  impart  a  value  to 
those  lands  which  no  one  has  j^et  anticipated ;  and  they  may  soon 
command  higher  rates  than  any  of  the  firm  soils  of  the  north  side 
of  the  Island  or  of  the  upper  section  of  Xew  Jersc}'. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — The  ground  for  planting  tubers 
should  be  rendered  mellow  and  permeable  to  the  depth  of  fifteen 
inches,  and  for  roots  to  the  depth  of  twenty  inches.  Old  decayed 
stable  manure,  or,  decayed  peat  or  wood  mould,  should  be  mixed 
moderately  throughout.  Over-manuring  is  injurious,  and  pou- 
drette  is  unsuitable. 

Planting. — The  season  for  planting  is  as  soon  as  the  freezing 
,  has  ceased  and  the  ground  has  become  settled.        • 

Tubers. — These  should  be  planted  in  a  double  row — the  rows 
twelve  inches  apart,  and  the  tubers  ten  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

Roots. — The  sections  of  root  should  be  about  one  and  a  half 
inches  in  diameter.  They  should  be  planted  in  a  douljle  row — the 
vows  fifteen  inches  apart,  and  the  roots  at  twelve  inches  apart  in 
the  rows. 

There  is  no  plant  whose  culture  is  more  simple  and  easy  than 
'';at  of  this  yam.  , 

Its  extensive  cultivation  promises  to  our  country  a  vast  and 
inexhaustible  resource,  derived  from  such  soils  as  have  hitherto 
been  most  unproductive  and  unpi-omising.  It  will  supersede  and 
far  more  than  replace  the  failing  and  uncertain  crops  of  the  potato, 
with  the  addition  of  this  potent  and  comprehensive  fact,  that  this 


073  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY 

esculent  will  suceeed  and  yield  ample  and  relial)lc  crops  through- 
nut  all  the  northern  sections  of  the  country. —  Canada  Farmer. 

Stacks  for  Hay  and  Grain. — In  a  stack  for  \\Q.y  or  grain  care 
bliould  be  taken,  as  in  the  construction  of  a  house,  to  have  a  good 
r>undation.  Great  quantities  of  both  hay  and  grain  are  annually 
lost  bv  lack  of  attention  to  this  matter.  Sometimes  the  hay  or 
grain  becomes  frozen  to  the  ground  ;  at  other  times  water  is  carried 
up  far  into  the  stack.  It  is  often  the  case  that  the  stack  has  no  better 
foundation  than  some  brush,  coarse  weeds,  poles  or  straw ;  and 
not  unlVoquently  the  stack  rests  directly  on  the  ground.  It  is  no 
wonder  that  farmers  who  commence  their  stacks  in  this  manner 
complain  of  great  waste  of  hay  or  grain  in  the  stack. 

In  England  great  care  is  taken  in  providing  a  good  foundation 
for  stacks.  Ordinaril}'  there  is  a  permanent  inclosure  for  a  stack- 
yard. The  stack  foundations  are  also  permanent.  Sometimes 
stone  pillars  capped  with  broad  flat  stones  are  used,  which  not 
only  protect  the  stack  from  moisture  but  from  vermin.  Iron  rails 
and  pillars  are  also  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

In  this  country  it  is  hardly  necessary'  to  go  to  so  great  an 
expense  to  secure  a  good  foundation,  since  lumber  is  comparatively 
cht-aj)  and  plenty  here.  It  would  ahvays  be  well,  however,  to 
l)uild  the  stack  on  timbers  or  poles  placed  on  the  ends  of  posts 
which  should  project  about  two  feet  above  ground.  A  set  of  such 
foundations  would  last  for  years. 

The  shape  of  a  stack  for  either  hay  or  grain  should  be  nearly 
that  of  an  Qgg,  the  small  end  up ;  the  bulge  in  a  rick  should 
occupy  the  same  position.  Care  should  at  all  times  be  taken,  in 
stacking  grain,  to  pack  the  heads  of  the  bundles  some  inches 
above  the  buts,  so  as  to  protect  the  grain  from  rain.  For  the 
better  ventilation  of  stacks  some  farmers  recommend  to  place  a 
barrel  on  the  foundation,  gradually  raising  it  as  the  stack  goes  up 
This  will  insure  a  draft  through  the  whole  length  of  the  stack. 

An  excellent  covering  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  stack  may 
be  made  by  working  in  a  small  amount  of  long  straw  or  tall  grass, 
letting  the  endsliang  over  on  the  outside.  This  may  be  put  in  at 
intervals  of  a  few  feet  apart  from  where  you  begin  to  taper,  and  it 
will  Ije  of  much  use  in  protecting  the  grain  beneath. — Agri- 
cultu  rails  t. 

The  Farmer's  Grindstone. — There  is  no  tool  so  essential  to  the 
farmer  as  a  good  grindstone  ;  and  a  very  correct  idea  may  e 
formed  of  the  management  of  the  farm  by  the  appearance  of  Lliis 
homely  but  useful  article.  If  the  neighboring  saw  or  edge  tool 
faotory  has  furnished  one  of  its  cast  oti'  "  hubs,"  which  is  hung  on 
a  wooden  shaft  and  suspended  in  the  crotch  of  a  tree,  or  in  a" 
fence  corner,  you  may  rest  assured  that  such  a  farm  will  not  pro-  • 
duce  four  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes,  or  forty  bushels  of  wheat 
to  the  acre.  But  such  cases  are  rare  now-a-days,  as  this  article 
has   kept   pace    with  the   wonderful   improvements    in   mowing 


i 


MISCELLANEOUS    IXFORMATIOX,  679 

machines  and  farming  implements  generally.  The  old  fashioned 
unfinished  stone,  with  square  hole  and  uncertain  grit,  has  been 
superseded  by  the  finished  stone,  with  self-adjusting  shaft,  friction 
rollers,  and  treddle ;  so  that  one  person  can  turn  the  stone,  and 
grind  any  ordinary  tool  without  assistance.  In  olden  times,  the 
only  grindstones  in  use  came  from  New  Castle,  in  England ;  and, 
although  very  good  for  some  purposes,  they  were  not  suitable  for 
farmers'  use,  the  grit  being  too  coarse.  The  Nova  Scotia  stones 
were  next  introduced,  and  found  to  be  a  great  improvement  on  the 
New  Castle.  The  Ohio  grindstones  are  very  largel}-  used  by  the 
farmers  and  others  throughout  the  West,  although  our  Penn- 
sylvania farmers  prefer  a  good  blue  Nova  Scotia  stone ;  but 
recently  a  most  excellent  article  has  reached  us  from  the  shores 
of  Lake  Huron,  having  a  fine,  sharp  grit,  leaving  a  fine  edge,  and 
cutting  prettj'^  fast. 

Hoping  these  remarks  ma}-  induce  our  farmers  io  give  this 
important  tool  the  attention  it  desei-%'es,  a  few  hints  how  to  put  it 
in  order  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

1st.  Always  keep  your  grindstone  under  cover,  as  exposure  to 
the  sun's  rays  hardens  the  grit  and  injures  the  frame. 

2d.  Don't  let  the  stone  run  in  water,  or  stand  in  water  when  not 
used,  as  this  causes  soft  places  where  none  exist ;  but  allow  the 
water  to  drip  from  a  water-pot — an  old  white  lead  keg  will  answer 
— fixed  above  the  stone,  and  stop  it  off  when  not  grinding. 

3d.  Clean  off  all  greasy  or  rusty  tools  before  sharpening,  as 
grease  or  rust  chokes  up  the  grit ;  and  always  keep  the  stone 
perfectly  round  b}'  razeeing  it  off  when  necessary;  and  finally, 
every  farmer  should  have  a  good  grindstone  of  his  own,  always 
ready  for  use,  and  no  one  should  be  so  improvident  as  to  waste 
the  cost  of  a  stone  by  running  to  his  neighbors  to  grind  his  tools. 
—  Cor.  Farm  and  Fireside. 

Farm  Laborers  are  at  present  very  unsatisfactory  and  unrelia- 
ble ;  and  this  is  in  part  the  farmer's  fault.  If  the  farmer  would 
encourage  the  hiring  of  married  men,  even  at  a  small  increase  of 
wages,  and  provide  these  men  with  comfortable  houses  at  a  small 
rental,  keeping  them  employed  the  year  round,  he  would  find  it 
to  his  profit.  We  give  elsewhere  a  plan  of  a  laborer's  cottage, 
(Fig.  140,)  which  can  be  built  for  from  four  hundred  to  six  hundred 
dollars,  and  the  farmer  can  charge  the  interest  of  the  money  for 
the  rental.  The  better  class  of  labor  he  would  be  able  to  secure 
by  such  a  course  would  well  pay  for  the  trouble.  We  heartily 
commend  the  following,  by  L.  A.  Iline,  from  The  Euralis/  : 

Farmers  are  now  provided  with  the  necessary  hired  help^  and 
are  pushing  the  work  of  the  season.  Probably  about  half  tne 
cultivators  of  the  soil  for  a  business  and  a  livelihood  perforin 
their  own  work  without  hired  hands.  The  other  half  have  from 
one  to  four,  and  in  some  cases  more,  men  employed  at  monthly 
wages. 


fiSO  now   TO    MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 

In  behalf  of  these  men  we  now  address  a  few  words  to  their 
employers.  The  larger  part  of  them  will  be  worked  during  the 
bcasuii,  and  ou  the  approach  of  winter  will  be  dismissed.  They 
arc  receiving  on  an  average  about  seventeen  dollars  per  mouth 
and  board,  which  for  eight  monlrhs'  time  will  amount  to  one  hun- 
ched and  I'orty-live  dollars.  During  the  balance  of  the  year  they 
will  find  but  little,  and  many  of  them  absolutely  nothing  to  do. 
Thev  must  get  through  as  best  they  can  until  the  next  spring. 
Many  of  them  will  go  to  the  towns  and  into  the  cities  hoping  to 
procure  &u  occasional  day's  work,  or  at  least  find  a  more  agreea- 
ble variety  amid  which  to  kill  time.  Temptations  are  on  every 
hand,  and  few  of  them  will  have  a  dollar  left  or  decent  clothes  in 
the  following  March,  when  they  will  again  be  seeking  for  places 
ou  the  farms.  This  condition  is  very  discouraging  and  humili- 
ating. It  is  well  calculated  to  break  the  manly  spirit,  induce  reck- 
lessness, and  increase  the  vices  and  the  crimes  of  the  coiyitry. 
What  we  would  suggest,  is  the  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  em- 
ployer to  furnish  work  for  their  men  the  year  round.  If  a  profit 
has  been  made  out  of  their  labor  during  the  summer,  they  can  be 
worked  during  the  winter  at  slightly  reduced  wages  without  loss 
to  the  emplo^-er.  There  is  much  good  time  for  work  during  the 
winter,  and  considerable  labor  preparations  for  the  next  busy  sea- 
son can  be  performed.  In  consequence  of  a  lack  of  hands,  much 
goes  to  waste  during  the  winter  that  might  be  saved.  The  manure 
heap  might  be  largeh'  increased  b}'^  keeping  the  stables  and  yards 
Well  cleaned  up,  and  large  quantities  of  muck,  leaves,  rotten  wood, 
sod,  or  rich  soil  from  the  ravines  for  composting.  A  hired  man 
could  in  this  service  alone  more  than  make  his  wages  for  the  intel- 
ligent farmer,  by  working  no  more  than  half  the  time.  Then  there 
is  ditching  and  underdraining,  which  can  be  performed  better  in 
the  winter  than  any  other  season,  especially  when  the  ground  is 
not  too  severely  frozen.  It  would  pay  to  haul  leaves  or  straw  and 
spread  along  the  lines  of  ditches,  to  prevent  the  ground  from 
freezing,  so  that  digging  can  go  forward  at  any  time.  There  are 
very  few  days  too  cold  to  work  with  comfort.  Most  farmers  can 
make  ditching  profitable,  and  while  the  ground  is  soft  and  water 
will  run  is  the  time  to  do  it.  There  is  plenty  of  work  that  a  farmer 
may  provide  for  his  men  during  the  winter.  It  is  cruel  and  de- 
structive of  the  public  interest  to  employ  men  during  the  summer, 
and  turn  them  out  with  nothing  to  do  during  the  winter. 

It  would  be  a  good  plan  for  those  who  have  one  hundred  acres 
or  more  to  build  one  or  more  cottages,  in  which  laboring  men  with 
families  can  permanently  reside.  This  will  be  of  great  benefit  to 
b(Ah  the  employer  and  the  employed.  It  will  give  a  fair  rental  to 
the  farmer  and  afford  the  laborer  something  like  a  home,  in  which 
his  family  can  be  comfortable,  and  be  encouraged  to  be  respectable. 
It  would  give  the  employer  the  advantage  of  the  same  hands  from 
year  to  year,  and  thus  avoid  the  trouble  and  the  risk  of  trying  new 
men  e^ery  summer. 


MISCELLANEOUS   INF0KMA1I0N.  .        681 

Indeed  we  are  convinced  that  the  farmer  cannot  afford  to  dis- 
miss his  hands  in  the  fall.  This  practice  leaves  work  undone  that 
should  be  performed  before  the  spring  season  opens,  in  order  that 
the  best  advantage  may  be  taken  of  tlic  first  days  of  good  weatlier 
for  getting  in  oats,  spring  wheat,  and  barley.  When  the  winter 
has  been  devoted  to  rest  and  the  "  chores,"  there  is  such  a  rush  of 
every  thing  to  be  done  that  much  is  lost  by  being  behindhand  with 
every  thing. 

We  hope  that  all  employers  will  take  these  hints  into  serious 
consideration,  and  trace  out  the  arjrumeut  at  length,  which  we 
have  not  now  time  or  space  to  complete.  Even  if  nothing  could 
be  made  out  of  hired  help  in  the  winter,  moral  considerations  de- 
mand provision  for  the  men  the  year  round.  But  there  is  no  doubt 
on  the  subject  of  proiit  out  of  such  labor.  Those  who  ha  "e  intel- 
ligence ought  to  act  on  elevated  principles,  and  have  some  regard 
for  the  welfare  of  otliers  ;  they  can  make  it  paj',  because  intelli- 
gence is  the  capital  that  always  yields  a  profit. 

How  TO  OBTAIN  W'aTER    ON    THE    PRAIRIES.       DrIVE  WeLLS.-  -In 

many  instances  these  have  given  great  satisfaction,  in  others  par 
tial,  and  in  others  have  proved  a  failure.  It  is  certain  that  these 
results  are  accidental ;  the  mere  subjects  of  chance. 

While  we  have  a  high  opinion  of  the  value  of  this  sj^stem  of  ob- 
taining water,  we  have  some  suggestions  to  make  on  the  mode  of 
putting  it  into  practice.  In  the  first  place  these  pumps  have  been 
mostly  in  the  hands  of  what  are  known  as  pump  peddlers,  who 
have  charged  enormous  prices  for  putting  in  the  pumi)s ;  though 
always,  to  their  credit,  ready  to  warrant  a  supply  of  watei',  and,  so 
far  as  we  know,  have  carried  ou.t  their  contracts  faithfully.  Lut 
the  high  price  charged  has  been  ample  to  protect  them  against  loss. 
In  one  extreme  case  that  has  come  under  our  ol)servation,  the  pipe 
was  driven  down  into  the  band  of  blue  clay  to  the  depth  of  one 
hundred  feet,  without  reaching  water,  when  the  pipes  could  neithei 
be  driven  down  nor  withdrawn,  and  the  whole  proved  a  loss  to  tht 
contractors.  Some  persons  have  taken  the  precaution  to  bore  a 
hole  of  the  size  of  the  pipe  and  projecting  bands.  This  is  cheaply 
done  by  welding  a  two  inch,  or  what  is  better,  a  two  and  a  half 
inch  auger  to  a  common  square  three-fourth  inch  rod.  An  irou 
handle  of  sixteen  inches,  with  a  square  hole  punched  in  the  centre, 
a  trifle  larger  than  the  rod,  so  that  it  can  be  made  to  slide  up  oi 
down  readily,  will  enable  one  to  stand  at  the  surface  to  turn  it. 
When  the  auger  has  been  bored  down  to  the  top  of  the  rod,  say 
six  inches,  it  must  be  withdrawn.  This  is  done  by  taking  hold  of 
one  end  of  this  handle,  which  by  pressure  against  the  sitles  of  the 
rod  prevents  it  slipping,  and  it  can  be  drawn  out,  when  not  at  a 
very  great  depth.  Additional  lengths  can  be  welded  to  the  rod  as 
desired,  or  the  rod  can  be  put  together  by  cap  joints  similar  to 
those  in  the  pipes,  always,  however,  with  a  ke}-  to  prevent  uncou- 
pling when  under  the  necessity  of  turning  it  back.     With  this 


gS2  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

latter  arran£;eiuent  a  deep  hole  can  be  bored  without  the  expense 
of  a  hiijh  scartbUl,  which  is  necessary  when  the  wiiole  is  welded 
togi'ther. 

We  have  several  reasons  for  preferring  the  use  of  the  auger,  the 
most  prominent  of  which  is  that  of  cheapness  and  certainty  of  re- 
sults. We  take  no  risk  in  this  case.  Suppose  we  put  down  a  well 
of  twenty-five  feet,  which  may  be  considered  the  average  depth  of 
what  we  call  shallow  wells.  We  bore  down  fifteen  feet  and  strike 
a  small  stone  ;  our  only  remedy  is  to  begin  again.  If  we  drive 
down  the  rod,  we  have  to  do  the  same.  While  the  driving  requires 
a  large  amount  of  labor,  the  boring  is  easily  done.  There  is  no 
battering  of  the  threads  on  the  pipe,  to  be  fixed  up  so  they  will 
pass  for  the  time,  but  really  of  no  value,  and  in  time  to  disap- 
point us. 

All  know  that  success  with  this  kind  of  well  depends  upon  stri- 
king a  strata  of  sand  or  gravel.  In  boring  through  clay  it  adheres 
to  the  auger,  while  the  sand  or  gravel  will  not  do  so ;  I)ut  in  pass- 
ing through  the  strata  again  into  clay,  it  at  once  adheres,  and  we 
are  at  no  loss  in  regard  to  the  result.  If  we  have  been  careful  to 
note  the  thickness  of  the  sand  or  gravel  strata,  we  shall  be  at  no 
loss  in  regard  to  the  exact  position  to  locate  the  perforated  point. 
In  fact  we  do  not  need  this  point  at  all ;  the  open  end  of  the  tube 
is  just  as  well,  for  we  must  pump  up  the  sand  and  soil  that  is 
mixed  with  the  gravel  bed,  in  case  of  gravel  or  the  sand  in  the 
sand  strata  immediately  surrounding  the  pipe.  If  we  pump  up  a 
ouliic  foot  of  sand  we  have  space  for  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  and  this 
forms  the  reservoir  of  our  water  supply.  It  is  not  probable  that 
we  shall  displace  a  very  large  quantity  of  sand,  and  unless  the 
supply  of  water  is  abundant  we  can  only  raise  the  water  when  the 
reservoir  is  filled  above  the  small  holes  in  the  pipe.  Therefore,  if 
we  had  the  end  of  the  pipe  thrust  to  the  bottom  of  this  cavity,  it 
would  be  better  than  the  long  point  perforated  with  holes  for  six- 
teen inches  of  its  length.  At  least  so  long  a  space  should  not  be 
exposed  to  air.  With  a  limited  suppl}^  of  water,  as  must  be  thej 
case  in  most  of  these  wells,  we  must  wait  until  they  fill  up,  tc 
renew  tlie  pumping ;  whereas,  if  the  reservoir  was  large,  we  woulc 
have  an  abumlant  suppl3^ 

In  driving  down  these  pipes  we  may  pass  the  water  supply,  oi 
thin  shft't  of  sand  that  contains  it,  and,  driving  into  the  blue  clay  J 
cut  it  oirfoiriplctely,  and  thus  make  a  failure;  but  with  the  augei 
no  such  l)lundci-  need  occur.  We  therefore  recommend,  in  evei'2 
case  where  these  pipes  are  to  be  used,  that  they  be  put  down  bj 
the  aid  of  an  auger. 

When  the  supply  of  water  is  not  abundant,  or  when  it  is  ol 
tained  in  the  seams  of  the  clay  or  from  small  veins,  as  is  most 
generally  the  case,  we  must  have  a  large  reservoir  to  hold  a  supply 
for  use;  and  in  this  case  there  is  but  one  way  to  obtain  it,  and  tha^ 
is  by  sinking  a  well.     But  there  is  no  need  of  wallintr  this  well  tc 


MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION.  683 

its  full  depth,  but  we  may  complete  our  reservoir  of  the  desired 
size,  and  arch  it  over  and  fill  all  above  with  clay,  after  having 
put  in  the  pipe  and  coating  it  with  coal  tar.  Ordinary  wells  are 
sunk  of  the  diameter  of  four  feet ;  the  brick  work  y'lU  occupy 
eight  inches,  leaAang  three  feet  and  four  inches, — a  very  convenient 
size  to  get  down  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  out  or  for  repairs. 
If  a  well  of  this  size  is  walled  up,  say  six  ftet,  we  shall  have  a 
reservoir  sufficiently  large  for  all  practical  purposes,  say  of  fifteen 
barrels.  By  enlarging  the  well  at  the  bottom,  which  is  practicable 
in  a  stiflTclay,  the  space  could  be  doubled,  if  desired. 

In  arching  over  and  filling  above  with  clay  we  have  several  ad- 
vantages, which  these  gas-pipe  pumps  give  us.  There  is  no  danger 
from  rats,  mice,  or  rabbits  getting  into  it,  nor  will  autumn  filfit 
with  leaves  ;  consequently  it  will  need  no  annual  cleauings  to  keep 
the  water  pure,  but  at  all  times  will  be  reliable.  In  the  next  place 
it  will  be  free  from  surface  water,  the  slops  of  the  kitchen,  or,  if 
near  tlie  barn,  the  drippings  of  the  barnyard.  These  are  all  de- 
sirable qualities,  but  yet  there  are  some  others.  An  iron  pump 
costs  little,  if  an}^  more  than  a  wooden  one,  but  the  cost  of  brick 
walls  that  can  be  dispensed  with  is  something  to  consider.  To 
wall  up  a  four  foot  wall  of  twenty-five  feet  will  require  two  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  fift}'  brick;  for  six  feet  with  arch,  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty,  making  a  difference  in  favor  of  the  gas-pipe  well  of 
one  thousand  six  hundred  brick.  These  brick  at  the  kihi  are  worth 
at  least  sixteen  dollars,  often  more,  and,  taking  the  average  dis- 
tance, to  haul  them  would  cost  not  less  than  nine  dollars ;  which 
makes  a  saving  of  cash  and  labor  of  one  dollar  a  foot,  or  twenty 
dollars  for  a  twentj'-five  foot  well.  This  twenty-five  dollars  would 
build  a  small  cistern  or  do  something  towards  a  large  one.  We 
may  oflfset  the  filling  in  of  clay  against  the  walling  up  of  brick, 
and  then  we  have  no  trouble  about  making  the  platform  mouse  and 
frog  proof,  nor  is  *lie  water  fouled  by  the  rotting  of  the  pump 
stock.  In  either  '.-■'fie  the  digging  of  the  well  is  the  same,  but  the 
saving  of  brick  v"  Tuore  than  sufficient  to  pay  for  an  iron  pump  and 
pipe.  Well  buckf^ts,  well  sweeps,  and  windlass  are  thus  swept  away 
by  this  new  invention. 

In  this  case  wc  need  no  perforated  point,  and  we  simpl}'  have 
the  pump,  which  costs  from  six  to  eight  dollars  in  Chicago,  and 
twenty  feet  of  mpe,  (the  pump  making  five  feet,)  which  will  cost 
thirty  cents  a  loot,  if  of  one  and  a  quarter  inch  pipe.  These  pumps 
and  the  pipe  utc  sold  b}'  large  quantities  in  Chicago,  and  by  several 
houses,  and  the  prices  given  arc  for  single  pumps  and  accompany- 
ing pipe.  At  wholesale  thc}^  cost  fifteen  to  thirty  per  cent,  less, 
according  to  amount  of  invoice. 

The  pipe  in  in  lengths  of  from  four  to  seven  feet,  and  to  obtain 
0  pipe  of  the  required  length  one  length  must  be  cut  and  a  new 
thread  worked  on  it  by  hand.  The  wholesale  men  do  not  fit  these 
yumpR  ■  they  simply  sell  so  many  pumps  and  so  many  bundles  of 


084  now    TO   MAKE   THE   FARM    I'AV. 

pipe,  containing  a  given  amount  of  feet,  while  the  retailer  fits  the 
joints,  cuts  the  pipe  to  the  given  length,  and  packs  them  in  suita- 
ble condition  for  siiipping  by  freight  or  express. 

The  i)unip  peddlers  purchase  at  wholesale,  deliver  and  put  the 
jnimps  in  the  wells  at  a  given  figure  per  foot.  When  one  of  these 
pumps  comes  from  the  city,  the  farmer  must  have  the  tools  to  put 
it  togctlier.  A  small  iron  vice,  costing  ten  or  twelve  dollars,  is 
almost  indispensable  on  a  farm.  This,  with  a  good  monkey  wrench, 
will  be  ample  for  the  purpose.  A  pump  of  twenty-five  feet  will  cost 
about  as  follows : 
Pump $r.50 

Twenty  feet  oi'  pipo,  ^0  cents 6.0U 

Cart.i^c  and  jiuekage 50 

S14.00 

To  this  must  be  added  freight ;  and  in  case  one  prefers  to  drive 
the  pipe,  he  will  need  in  addition  a  perforated  point,  costing  two 
to  two  and  a  half  dollars,  and  also  a  driving  plug,  costing  two  dol- 
lars, a  pair  of  grappling  tongs,  and  a  wrench. 

By  comparing  the  above  prices  with  those  of  the  local  pumpman, 
any  person  will  know  how  he  can  best  attain  the  end  desired,  and 
the  relative  cost  — Prairie  Farmer. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    AND    FAMILY    RECIPES 

P  wHat  use  is  a  crop  of  wheat,  or  potatoes,  or  a  flue  ^  f,oe 
of  beef  or  mutton  unless  we  know  how  to  cook  thjji? 
They  maj'  be  made  in  extreme  cases  to  support  life,  i  at 
their  value  is  only  known  when  they  are  properly  cool  .(d. 
^^  This  Chapter  then  is  as  important  to  the  farmer  as  any  in 
the  book,  and  although  he  may  not  read  it  himself,  his  wife 
and  daughters  will  draw  from  it  information  that  will  increase  both 
his  comfort  and  his  health.  An  intelligent  domestic  economy  is 
that  which  teaches  when  to  cook,  what  to  cook,  and  how  to  cook 
it.  The  three  objects  of  food  are  to  supply  the  lungs  with  heat, 
to  make  muscular  power,  and  to  supply  bone  and  brain.  About 
five-sixths  of  our  food  goes  to  furnish  heat  to  the  lungs.  Constant 
exposure  to  cold,  then  produces  a  necessity  for  a  large  supply 
of  those  articles  of  food  which  furnish  heat  for  the  lungs,  whiK; 
intense  and  protracted  muscular  action  makes  necessary  a  siipph 
of  muscle  producing  food.  The  good  house  wife  should  \u\ovi 
how  to  adapt  food  to  the  various  conditions  of  her  household. 

The  articles  of  common  food  producing  the  greatest  proportion 
of  heat,  are  hog  fat,  mutton  fat,  olive  oil,  butter,  white  of  eggs, 
fresh  milk,  bolted  wheat,  roast  beef,  veal,  oat  meal,  peas,  potatoes, 
and  beans.  The  common  foods  giving  the  largest  amount  of 
muscle  and  strength  producing  substance,  are  eggs,  unbolted 
wheat,  animal  fibrine  or  lean  meat,  animal  caseine  from  beans, 
rice,  milk,  venison,  dried  beef,  roast  veal,  cabbage,  oats,  barley, 
and  potatoes.  Those  articles  of  food  which  contain  in  themselves 
both  properties  in  large  proportion  are  eggs,  wheat,  rye,  corn, 
and  oats,  when  made  into  liglit  bread  or  otherwise  prepared  for 
food ;  the  lean  me?-t  of  the  deer,  ox,  sheep,  and  hog,  and,  lastly, 
milk.  Milk  contains  a  large  portion  of  oil,  and  therefore  does  not 
readily  digest  in  some  stomachs,  but  if  such  persons  will  let  their 
milk  stand  for  twelve  hours  and  skim  off"  the  cream,  they  can 
then  drink  the  skimmed  milk  with  impunity'.  We  have  placed 
wheat  in  this  list ;  but,  as  it  is  at  present  prepared,  nearly  all  the 
nutrition  is  bolted  out  of  it  for  the  sake  of  making  very  white  flour. 
This  is  a  grievous  mistake,  and  we  are  glad  to  know  that  the  de- 
mand for  unbolted  wheat  is  steadily  increasing.     A  loss  of  about 

685 


686  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

fioenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  fine  wheat  Jlour  is  incurred  in 
separatinrj  from  it  its  best  and  mo?t  nutritious  ingredients.  The 
time  required  for  digestion  is  anotlier  important  consideration, 
for  if  any  nutritious  substance  takes  too  long  to  digest  its  value 
is  impaired.  It  also  decides  what  should  be  eat  at  night,  as  it  is 
injurious  to  lie  down  for  sleep  with  undigested  food  upon  the 
stomach. 

The  following  articles  of  food  digest  in  one  hour :  Boiled  rice, 
boiled  pigs'  feet,  boiled  tripe.  In  one  hour  and  a  half,  boiled 
trout,  barley  soup,  sweet  apples,  venison  steak,  and  sago.  In 
two  hours,  tapioca,  broiled  beef  liver,  boiled  salt  codfish,  sour 
apples,  raw  cabbage  with  vinegar,  and  skimmed  milk.  In  from 
two  to  three  hours,  poultry,  lamb,  hashed  meat  and  vegetables, 
green  beans,  parsnips,  potatoes,  and  boiled  beef.  In  three  hours, 
raw  03'sters,  soft  boiled  eggs,  beefsteak,  salt  pork,  mutton,  bean 
soup,  apple  dumpling  and  corn  cake.  In  from  three  to  four 
hours,  roast  mutton,  corn  bread,  sausage,  stewed  oysters,  roast 
beef  lean,  cheese,  fresh  baked  wheat  bread,  turnips,  hard  boiled 
and  fried  eccgs,  beets,  and  boiled  corn.  In  four  to  five  hours, 
boiled  salmon,  roasted  poultry,  beef  and  vegetable  soup,  fried 
pork,  boiled  cabbage,  and  boiled  pork,  receutl}'  salted.  Roast 
pork  and  beef  suet  require  over  five  hours  to  digest.  It  will  he 
seen  here  what  a  difference  is  made  by  the  mode  of  cooking. 
Pigs'  feet  soused  and  boiled  digest  in  one  hour,  while  roast  pork 
requires  five  hours  and  a  quarter.  Raw  cabbage  and  vinegar  will 
digest  in  two  hours,  while  if  the  same  cabbage  is  boiled  it  requires 
four  hours  and  a  half  to  be  digested.  The  three  most  desirable 
general  articles  of  food,  in  strict  accordance  with  these  conclu- 
sions, are  venison,  which  contains  nearl}^  the  largest  per  cent,  of 
strength  producing  substance  and  3'et  digests  in  one  hour  and 
thirty  minutes ;  rice,  which  contains  a  very  large  proportion  of 
heat  producing  substance  and  digests  in  one  hour;  and  milk, 
which  contains  both  and  digests  in  two  hours  and  fifteen  minutes. 
Upon  these  articles  of  food,  life  and  health  can  be  maintained  as 
long  as  upon  any  other  three  known.  But  as  venison  cannot  be 
supplied  in  large  quantities,  beef,  mutton,  poultry  and  eggs  must 
supply  its  place.  In  addition  to  the  substances  named,  the  system 
requires  lime,  potash,  and  bone  forming  material,  and  it  is  merci- 
fuU}-  provided  that  a  wide  range  of  both  animal  and  vegetable, 
food  is  provided  for  us.  The  roast  fresh  pork,  of  which  most  of! 
us  are  .so  fond,  is  proven  to  be  an  indigestible  and  unnecessary 
dish,  while  salt  fat  pork  is  essential  to  the  working  man  who  iu 
cold  weather  is  exposed  to  the  cold  air.  Grain,  frui't  and  vegeta- 
bles, with  mutton  and  beef,  are  much  better  for  summer  consump- 
tion than  pork  in  any  shape.  "Wheat  bread  and  milk  are,  abova 
all  things  else,  the  proper  food  for  growing  children,  supply- 
ing phosphates  for  the  bones,  muscular  power,  and  brain  pro 
ducing  material.     Ripe  fruits  and  berries,  eaten  with   the  regular 


i 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY  AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  687 

meals,  are  most  ^vliolesome  and    useful   iu   the   economj-  of  the 
system. 

Cooking  Meats. — Beefsteaks  should  never  be  fried,  but  always 
broiled  on  a  gridiron  with  narrow  bars.  A  bed  of  coals  is  easil}' 
made  by  burning  round  sticks  of  hard  wood.  The  heat  should 
always  be  intense  when  the  steak  is  first  put  over  the  fire  and 
be  gradualh"  reduced,  either  l\v  withdrawing  the  meat  or  sprink- 
ling ashes  over  tlie  coals.  Rare  done  beef  is  much  more  nutri- 
tious and  digestible  than  when  the  red  color  is  all  cooked  out  of 
it.  The  fibre  of  beef  is  worthless  ;  it  is  only  the  juice  that  is  of 
any  aA'ail  in  nourishing  the  body.  Roast  beef  requires  a  slow, 
stead}',  but  not  too  hot  fire.  Beef  for  soup  should  be  out  in  small 
pieces  and  put  over  a  slow  fire  in  cold  water ;  let  it  stand  over  the 
fire  for  four  hours  without  boiling,  then  add  your  vegetables  and 
seasoning,  and  let  them  boil  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour. 

Stuffed  Beefsteak. — Prepare  a  dressing  of  bread  scakied 
soft  and  mixed  with  !>' -'iUy  of  butter,  a  little  pepper,  salt,  sage,  a 
little  onion,  and  an  egg.  Lay  it  upon  one  side  of  a  round  of  steak, 
cover  with  the  other,  and  baste  it  down  with  needle  and  thread. 
Salt  and  pepper  the  other  side  of  the  steak  and  place  in  a  drip- 
ping pan,  with  half  an  inch  of  water.  When  baked  brown  on  one 
side,  turn  and  bake  the  other.  Watch  closely  that  it  does  not 
burn. 

A  Beef  or  Veal  Pie. — Take  the  cold  pieces,  after  baking,  and 
make  a  light  crust,  like  tea-biscuit,  only  a  little  shorter,  lay  the 
crust  around  the  dish,  not  on  the  bottom ;  then  season  your  meat 
with  salt  and  peppei",  and  buWer  between  each  layer ;  add  water 
to  make  it  moist  with  gravy,  then  lay  on  the  cover,  and  bake 
three-quarters  of  an  hour.     It  makes  a  fine  dish  occasionally. 

Savory  Beef. — Take  a  shin  of  beef  from  the  hind  quarter,  saw 
it  into  four  pieces,  put  it  in  a  pot,  and  boil  until  the  meat  and 
gristle  drop  from  the  bones ;  chop  the  meat  ver}-  fine,  put  in  a 
dish  and  season  it  with  a  little  salt,  pepper,  clove,  and  sage,  to 
your  taste ;  pour  in  the  liquor  iu  which  the  meat  was  boiled,  and 
place  it  away  to  harden.     Cut  in  slices  and  eaten  cold. 

To  Prepare  Mince  Meat. — Housekeepers  may,  if  they  choose, 
prepare  their  meat  for  mince  pies  for  the  winter's  use  at  one 
time,  and  that  time  may  be  when  they  are  making  sausage  and 
headcheese,  and  doing  up  the  other  work  after  butchering. 

Boil  your  meat  tender — I  think  oue  part  of  pork  to  two  of 
beef  is  a  good  proportion ;  when  cold  chop  fine,  and  season  with 
nutmeg,  cloves,  cinnamon,  and  alspice.  Put  in  some  boiled  cider 
ind  molasses,  and  sugar  enough  to  make  it  fit  for  use.  Set  it  ou 
the  stove  and  let  it  simmer  half  and  hour,  stirring  it  occasion- 
illy.  Then  remove  from  the  fire  and  put  it  into  a  stone  jar ; 
30ver  closely  and  set   iu  a  cool   place.     When  wanted  for  pies 


(588  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FAEM    PAY.  i 

♦akc  one-third  of  (his  prepn.re(V  meat,  and  two-thirds  chopped 
apples,  and  water  and  unboiled  cider  enough  to  make  the  mix- 
ture as  moist  as  you  v.ish.     And  chopped  suet  if  you  like. 

When  your  mince  meat  is  thus  prepared,  it  is  no  more  work  to 
make  mince  pies  than  any  other  pies.  Mrs.  E.  S.  Sandford. 

Roast  Mutton  requires  about  an  hour  and  a  half  to  cook 
well ;  it  should  be  basted  with  the  drippings.  To  boil  a  leo;  of 
mutton,  dust  it  with  flour,  wrap  it  in  a  towel,  throw  it  in  boiling 
water  with  a  little  salt,  pepper  and  herbs,  and  move  it  occasion- 
ally while  boiling.  Broiled  chops,  should  be  sprinkled  on  both 
sides  with  pepper  and  salt,  dipped  in  melted  butter,  laid  on  the 
gridiron  over  a  hot  bed  of  coals,  and  turned  two  or  three  times 
while  cooking.  As  will  be  seen  by  the  table  on  a  succeeding 
page.  Mutton  is  more  nutritious  than  any  other  flesh,  and  quite 
digestible. 

To  Fry  CniCKEXS. — Cut  up  the  chickens  and  let  them  lie  in 
salt  and  water  twenty  minutes,  drain  and  season  with  salt  and 
pepper ;  prepare  six  eggs  well  beaten,  and  five  crackers,  rolled 
fine,  stir  well  together ;  roll  each  piece  in  this,  and  fry  brown  in 
hot  lard. 

To  Roast  Turkey. — Wash  the  turkey  very  clean,  and  let  it  lie 
in  weak  salt  and  water  over  night.  When  ready  to  put  to  roast, 
rub  it  dry  in  the  inside,  and  sprinkle  in  a  little  pepper.  Make  a 
stuffing  of  two-thirds  wheat  bread  and  one-third  corn  bread, 
rubbed  fine,  and  softened  with  butter  and  beaten  3'olk  of  egg, 
and  seasoned  with  salt,  pepper,  parsle}^,  and  celery.  Mix  the 
stufiing  well  together,  and  fill  the  turkey.  Rub  the  breast  of  the 
turkey  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.  Tlave  water  and  lard  in 
your  dripping  pan,  and  baste  often.  It  will  require  three  hours 
to  roast.  Pea  fowl  and  Guinea  fowl  are  roasted  and  dressed  in 
the  same  wa^-.  Cranborr}^  sauce  is  almost  indispensable  with  this 
dish.    Celery,  too,  usually  accompanies  it. 

Fried  Liver  and  Bacon. — Cut  the  liver  rather  thin,  say 
about  half  an  inch  thick,  but  first  soak  it  in  warm  water  aljout 
one  hour  ;  chop  a  quantity  of  parsley,  season  it  with  pepper,  and 
lay  it  thick  upon  the  liver ;  cut  slices  of  bacon  and  fry  both 
together,  but  put  the  bacon  first  into  the  pan;  add  a  little  lemon 
pickle  to  the  gravy  made  by  pouring  the  fat  out  of  the  pan . 
flouring,  and  adding  boiling  water. 

To  M.VKE  Sandwiches. — Rub  a  teaspoonful  of  mustard  flod 
into  half  a  pound  of  sweet  butter  ;  spread  this  mixture  upon  thii 
slices  of  bread.  From  a  boiled  ham  cut  very  thin  slices,  anc 
place  a  slice  of  ham  between  two  slices  of  bread  prepared  as  above; 
cut  the  sandwiches  in  a  convenient  form  and  serve.  Some  cho} 
the  trimmings  of  the  ham  or  any  other  cold  meat  very  fine,  anc 
lay  them  between  the  .slices  of  prepared  bread.  This  is  a  gooC 
lish  for  lunch  or  evening  entertainments. 


DOMESTIC   ECOXOMY   AXD   FAMILY   EECIPES.  689 

Chicken  Pie. — Cut  up  the  chickens  iuto  joints,  and  season 
them  with  salt,  pepper,  and  parsle3\  If  thej^  are  old,  paiboil 
them  a  few  minutes,  and  save  the  water  to  put  in  the  pie.  Make 
rather  a  rich  paste,  and  cover  the  bottom  and  sides  of  a  deep  dish 
v,'ith  it.  Then  put  in  alternate  layers  of  chicken,  six  hard-boiled 
eggs  cut  in  slices,  butter,  pepper,  celer^^,  and  a  little  flour  from 
your  dredging  box.  Fill  the  dish  two-thirds  full  of  cold  water, 
and  add  half  a  teacup  of  cream  or  milk.  Put  on  a  top  paste,  and 
close  the  pie  around  the  edge,  and  make  an  opening  in  the  middle 
with  a  knife. 

Recipes  for  Cooking  Tripe. — We  find  in  the  "  Utica  Herald''^ 
the  following  recipes  for  cooking  tripe — a  dish  which  is  greatly 
relished  in  some  lamilies. 

1st.  Make  an  egg  batter  the  same  as  for  pancakes,  oniy  a  little 
thinner ;  take  some  pickled  tripe,  cut  it  in  pieces  four  or  five  inches 
square;  lay  it  in  the  batter  while  you  are  preparing  the  spider  or 
griddle  with  butter  or  pork  fat ;  when  sufficiently  hot,  drop  the  pieces 
of  tripe  in  ;  cook  brown  on  both  sides  ;  season  according  to  taste 
while  cooking ;  when  mcel}'  browned  it  is  done.     Served  up  hot. 

2d.  Take  pickled  or  fresh  tripe,  roll  in  Indian  meal ;  prepare  the 
griddle  or  spider  the  same  as  No.  1 ;  brown  it  nicely  on  both  sides; 
season  to  taste,  and  serve  it  up  the  same  as  above. 

3d.  Broiled  Trijoe. — Broil  the  same  as  you  would  beefsteak ; 
season  with  butter,  pepper,  salt,  etc.  You  can  use  either  Irosh  or 
pickled  tripe  for  this. 

4th.  Take  fresh  tripe,  place  it  in  an  earthen  jar,  and  pour  over 
it  new  sour  buttermilk  ;  covqi-  it  up  ;  let  it  stand  t\vent3^-four  hours ; 
take  it  out  and  cook  either  in  batter  or  Indian  meal,  or  some 
prefer  it  fried  without  either,  with  the  exception  of  a  little  butter, 
seasoning  nicel3^ 

5th.  Tripe  Stexo. — Take  fresh  or  pickled  tripe,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  then  slice  up  some  onions,  potatoes  and  turnips ;  put 
all  in  a  pot  together,  with  sufficient  water  to  cover ;  boil  slow  and 
season  to  the  taste  while  cooking ;  when  the  vegetables  are  done 
take  it  out  and  serve  up  hot. 

6th.  Spiced  Tripe. — Take  fresh  tripe,  cut  it  up  in  pieces  four  or 
five  inches  square ;  take  an  earthen  jar,  put  in  a  layer  of  tripe, 
then  sprinkle  a  few  cloves,  allspice  and  peppers  (whole)  over  it ; 
then  another  layer  of  tripe,  then  spice,  and  so  on  till  the  jar  is 
full ;  take  good  cider  vinegar,  scald  it,  pour  over  it,  filling  the  jar 
full ;  cover  it  up  and  stand  it  away  in  a  cool  place  for  a  few  days 
until  it  tastes  of  the  spice,  then  serve  it  up  cold  for  supper  or  any 
other  meal  you  wish.     It  is  an  excellent  relish. 

Pigs'  Feet. — Boil  four  pi^'s'  feet  until  the  bones  drop  out.  Draw 
out  the  long  bone  and  place  them  in  a  dish  to  cool.  Split  each 
foot,  take  the  liquor  in  which  it  is  boiled,  add  the  juice  of  a  lemon 
and  some  salt,  and  turn  over  the  feet.  They  may  be  dipped  in 
batter  and  fried  in  salt  pork. 


690  nOU'   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

MiMCED  Fowl. — Take  the  remains  of  a  roast  fowl,  and  cut  oflF  aii 
the  white  meat,  whicli  mince  finelj',  Avithoiit  an}'  skin  or  bone ;  but 
put  the  bone,  skin  and  et  ceteras  into  a  stewpaii,  with  an  onion,  a 
l)lade  of  sage,  and  a  handful  of  sweet  herbs  tied  up  ;  add  nearly  a 
pint  of  water ;  let  it  stew  for  an  hour,  and  then  strain  and  pour  off 
tlie  gravy,  putting  in  a  teaspoonful  of  sauce.  Take  two  hard- 
l>oilcd  co'gs  and  chop  them  small ;  mix  them  with  the  fowl;  add 
salt,  pepper,  and  sage,  according  to  taste ;  put  in  the  gravy ;  also 
half  a  le^^spoonfal  of  finely-minced  lemon  peel,  one-table  spoonful 
of  flour,  made  into  a  smooth  paste  with  a  little  cold  water,  and  let 
the  whole  just  boil.  To  every  twelve  pounds  of  meat  take  three 
tablespoontiils  of  salt  not  much  heaped,  three  tablespoonfuls  black 
pepper,  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  sage,  and  a  teaspoon  half  fall  of  red 
pepper. 

To  Make  S.\usages. — Thirty  pounds  of  chopped  meat ;  salt,  eight 
ounces ;  pepper,  two  and  a  half  ounces ;  two  teacups  of  sage,  and 
one  and  three  quarter  cups  of  sweet  mai'joram.  Pass  the  two  last 
through  a  fine  sieve.  Thyme  and  summer  savory  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  latter. 

Preserving  Sausage  Meat. — Pack  the  meat  in  a  jar  until 
nearly  full,  then  fill  the  jar  up  with  melted  lard ;  cover  with  a 
linen  cloth,  then  tie  a  brown  paper  over  the  top. 

To  Make  a  Pot-Pie. — Make  your  sponge  as  3'ou  would  for 
biscuit,  only  shorter;  when  3'OU  do  it  up  let  it  get  just  liglit,  put- 
ting into  the  batter  a  little  saleratus  and  salt ;  when  light  take  it 
on  to  the  board,  and  cut  it  in  pieces  like  biscuit,  only  let  them  lie 
and  rise  without  kneading  them  at  all.  When  the  meat  is  tender 
there  should  be  enough  water  to  come  just  over  the  meat.  Season 
it  well  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  dissolve  flour  in  cold  water,  and 
stir  in  enough  to  thicken  it  well.  If  the  meat  is  very  lean  fry  it 
in  butter,  and  when  boiling  hot  lay  the  crust  in  over  the  surface 
and  shut  it  up  close,  and  not  allow  it  to  be  opened  again  in  half 
an  hour,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  the  table,  and  as  light  and  nice 
as  sponge. 

Oyster  O.melets. — Allow  for  every  six  large  oysters  or  twelve 
Rmall  ones,  one  egg.  Remove  the  hard  part,  and  mince  the  remain- 
der of  the  oyster  very  fine ;  take  the  yolk  of  eight  and  the  whites 
of  four  eggs,  beat  them  until  very  light,  then  mix  in  the  oysters, 
with  a  little  pepper,  and  beat  all  up,  thoroughly  ;  put  in  the  frying- 
pan  a  gill  of  butter,  and  move  it  about  until  "it  melts ;  when  the 
butter  boils  in  the  pan  .skim  it  and  turn  in  the  omelets,  stir  it  un 
til  it  begins  to  stiften,  fry  it  a  light  brown,  lift  the  edge  carefully 
and  slip  a  round-pointed  knife  under;  do  not  let  it  be  overdone, 
but  as  soon  as  the  underside  is  a  light  brown  turn  it  on  to  a  very 
hot  plate ;  never  fold  this  omelet  over,  it  will  make  it  heavy.  If 
you  want  to  brown  it  highly  you  can  hold  a  red-hot  shovel  over  it* 

Eggs  And  Potatoes — Remove  the  skins  from  some  boiled  Irish 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY  AXD   FAMILY   RECIPES  691 

potatoes,  and  when  perfectly'  cold  cut  them  up  in  small  pieces 
about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  corn,  and  season  with  salt  and  pepper. 
To  a  quart  of  potatoes  thus  prepared,  take  the  yolks  of  six  eggs, 
and  the  whites  of  three,  and  beat  them  well  together.  Have 
some  butter  in  a  frying-pan,  and  when  it  is  melted,  put  in  the  po- 
tatoes. When  the}'  are  quite  hot,  stir  in  the  eggs,  and  continue 
stirring  so  as  to  mix  them  well  with  the  potatoes,  and  until  the 
eggs  are  set.     Then  pepper,  and  stad  them  to  table  in  a  hot  dish. 

A  Bengal  Omelet — Take  half  a  dozen  fresh  eggs,  beat  the 
whites  and  yolks  up  well  together  in  a  clean  basin;  chop  half  a 
dozen  young  onions  fine,  a  little  fresh  parsley,  and  add  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  catsup.  Mix  it  all  together,  and  fiy  them  after  the 
form  of  a  pancake.  When  done  brown  take  a  fork,  roll  them  up, 
and  send  to  table. 

How  TO  Make  Egg  Balls. — Boil  four  eggs  hard,  take  out  the 
yolks  and  pound  them,  add  to  them  a  few  bread  crumus,  and  pep- 
per and  salt,  and  the  yolk  of  one  raw  egg  ;  mix  them  all  well  to- 
gether, take  them  out,  and  with  flour  on  your  hands  roll  them  into 
balls  ;  boil  them  two  minutes. 

Ego  Toast. — Soak  some  slices  of  stale  bread  in  cream  or  milk, 
but  not  long  enough  to  become  soft ;  then  dip  them  in  beaten  egg 
with  a  little  salt,  and  fry  brown. 

Fish  gives,  generally  speaking,  about  two-thirds  as  much  nutri- 
ment as  meats,  but  having  no  juice  like  meat,  is  not  a  muscle  pro- 
ducing diet.  It  is  more  appropriate  for  women,  students,  and 
those  who  waste  but  little  muscle.  To  cook  fish,  a  wire  broiler 
that  folds  together  is  absolutely  essential,  and  such  a  broiler  is 
much  the  most  convenient  of  any  for  broiling  steak  or  chops,  and 
for  toasting  bread  or  crackers. 

To  Broil  Fresh  Fish,  rub  on  them  a  little  butter  and  salt,  and 
hold  them  over  a  quick  bed  of  coals,  as  for  beefsteak,  so  as  to  crisp 
the  outside  quickly  without  burning.  Squeeze  a  few  drops  of 
lemon  juice  over  them  before  eating.  The  small  fresh  water  fish 
are  best  fried.  Cut  slices  of  pork,  and  let  them  soak  over  night. 
When  the  fish  is  to  be  cooked  fry  the  pork  crisp,  roll  the  fish  in 
corn  meal,  wheat  flour,  or  powdered  crackers,  and  lay  them  in  the 
pan.  As  soon  as  one  side  is  crisp  either  reduce  the  fire  or  sprinkle 
a  little  ashes  over  it.  Nothing  but  the  best  pork  fat  is  suitable  to 
fry  brook  fish  in. 

Salt  Mackerel  should  be  soaked  two  days  in  cold  water  with 
the  flesh  side  down.  Just  previous  to  cooking  lay  it  in  a  dish, 
and  cover  it  with  hot  milk.  Rinse  it  with  cold  water  and  wipe 
dry  with  a  cloth.  Broil  the  same  as  fresh  fish,  and  squeeze  a 
lemon  over  it  just  before  eating. 

To  Cook  Salt  Codfish. — Cut  into  pieces  two  or  three  inches 
s([unre,  dip  the  pieces  in  batter,  and  fry  with  butter.  The  batter 
i.s  made  by  mixing  two  eggs  with  grated  crackers.  Another  and 
42 


092  now   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

very  simple  way  to  cook  salt  codfish  is  to  pick  it  up  into  small 
))icces  nt  niijht,  and  allow  it  to  soak  over  night.  In  the  morning 
rinse  with  fresh  water,  ami  set  it  over  the  lire  just  covered  witli 
coM  water.  Just  before  this  water  boils  turn  it  off,  and  put  milk 
in  its  jilace.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  hot  stir  into  it  wheat  flour, 
or  grated  cracker  and  butter.  When  these  have  boiled  a  few  min- 
utes stir  in  beaten 'eggs,  from  one  to  six,  according  to  the  amount 
of  fish. 

To  Make  a  Chowder. — Lay  four  or  five  slices  of  salt  pork  in 
the  bottom  of  the  pot ;  let  it  cook  slow  that  it  may  not  burn ; 
when  done  brown,  take  it  out,  and  lay  in  fish  cut  iu  lengthwise 
slices,  then  a  la^'er  of  crackers,  sliced  onions,  and  ver}''  thin  sliced 
potatoes,  with  some  of  the  pork  that  Avas  fried,  and  then  a  la3'er 
of  fish  again,  and  so  on.  Strew  a  little  salt  and  pepper  over  each 
layer;  over  the  whole  pour  a  bowl  full  of  flour  and  water  well 
stirred  up,  enougli  to  come  up  even  with  what  3'ou  have  in  the  pot. 
A  sliced  lemon  adds  to  the  flavor,  A  few  clams  improve  it.  Let  it 
be  so  covered  that  the  steam  cannot  escape.  It  must  not  be  opened  • 
until  cooked,  to  see  if  it  is  well  seasoned. — Skilful  Housewife. 

To  Cook  Oysters,  take  them  from  the  liquor,  add  to  the  latter 
if  strong  a  little  water,  and  season  to  your  taste;  or  milk  may  be 
"added  instead  of  water.  Bring  this  broth  to  a  brisk  boil,  and  then 
add  the  oysters,  letting  the  whole  boil  two  or  three  minutes  longer. 

Scalloped  Oysters Take  a  quart  of  oysters,  separate  them 

from  the  liquor,  and  crush  a  pound  of  ci'ackers.  Put  a  layer  of 
crackers  on  the  bottom  of  a  dish,  tlien  a  layer  of  oysters,  and  so 
on,  seasoning  each  layer  with  salt,  butter,  and  lemon  juice.  Pour 
the  oyster  liquor  over  the  whole,  and  bake  forty-five  minutes. 

Kmckerhockeii  Pickle,  for  Beef,  Hams,  etc. — Take  six  gallons 
of  water,  nine  pounds  of  salt,  three  pounds  of  coarse  brown  sugar, 
one  quart  of  molasses,  three  ounces  of  saltpetre,  and  one  of 
pearlash  ;  mix  and  boil  the  whole  well,  taking  care  to  skim  off  all 
the  impurities  which  rise  to  the  surface.  This  constitutes  the 
|tickle.  When  the  meat  is  cut,  it  should  be  slightly  rubbed  with 
fine  salt  and  suffered  to  lie  a  day  or  two,  that  the  salt  may  extract 
the  blo(jd;  it  may  then  be  packed  tight  in  a  cask,  and  the  pickle 
having  become  cold,  may  be  turned  upon  and  should  cover  the 
meat.  A  follower,  to  fit  the  inside  of  the  cask,  should  be  laid  on, 
and  a  weight  put  on  it  in  order  to  keep  the  meat  at  all  times 
covered  with  pickle.  In  the  spring  the  pickle  must  be  turned  off, 
boiled  with  some  additional  salt  and  molasses,  skimmed,  and  when 
cold  returned  to  the  cask. 

Corned  Beef— Put  the  beef  into  cold  water  for  twentv-four 
hours,  to  draw  off  the  blood.  Let  it  drain  well  before  putting  it 
into  the  brine.  Take  one  gallon  of  salt  to  eigjit  gallons  of  water, 
one-half  a  pound  of  saltpetre,  a  quart  of  molasses,  a  pint  of  sugar 
and  one  or  two  pods  of  red  pepper.     Boil  and  skim  it,  and  wher 


I 


DOMESTIC   ECON'OMY   AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  693 

perfectly  cold,  pour  it  over  the  beef.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  add 
one  quart  of  salt  to  the  above.  If  the  pickle  sours,  pour  it  olf, 
boil,  let  it  cool,  and  pour  over  the  meat  again.  Keep  the  meat 
under  the  brine  by  weiuhts. 

To  Keep  Meat  Fresh. — Simply  immerse  it  in  buttermilk.  This 
will  keep  it  for  several  days,  when  the  milk  should  be  changed,  and 
fresh  milk  substituted.  In  this  way  beef,  veal,  etc.,  can  be  kept  for 
several  weeks,  and  it  will  be  as  sweet  and  fresh  at  the  end  of  that 
time  as  when  first  put  in.  Our  butcher  furnished  us  with  the  receipt. 
The  whole  neighborhood  is  now  saving  its  meat  in  this  way.  It  is 
equall}''  eflicacious  in  the  hottest  weather. — F.  G.,  in  Rural  World. 

To  Keep  Meat  Fresh. — The  following  i^lan  is  recommended : 
Cut  the  meat  in  slices,  pack  in  a  jar  in  layers,  sprinkle  with  salt 
and  pepper,  just  enough  to  make  it  palatable.  Place  on  the  top  a 
thick  paper  or  cloth,  with  salt  half  an  incli  thick.  Keep  this  on  all 
the  while.  Meat,  it  is  said,  can  be  kept  three  weeks  in  the  summer 
in  this  way,  and  the  last  will  be  as  good  as  the  first. 

To  Make  Tough  Beef  Tender. — To  those  who  hare  worn 
down  their  teeth  masticating  poor,  tough  beef,  we  will  say  that 
carbonate  of  soda  will  be  found  a  remedy  for  the  evil.  Cut  the 
steaks  the  da}-  before  using  into  slices  about  two  inches  tnick,  rab 
over  them  a  small  quantity  of  soda,  wash  the  next  morning,  cut 
into  suitable  thicknesses,  and  cook  to  notion.  The  same  process 
will  answer  for  fowls,  legs  of  mutton,  etc. 

To  Preserve  Eggs. — You  have  only  to  rub  them  in  lard  while 
fresh,  making  sure  that  every  portion  of  the  surface  has  been 
smeared.  This  closes  the  pores  of  the  shell  and  excludes  the  air. 
Eggs  will  keep  all  winter  if  served  in  this  way. 

Preserving  Sweet  Corn. — Boil  the  green  ears  a  minute  oi  two, 
just  to  harden  the  milk,  then  cut  from  the  cob  and  spread  on  a 
cloth  in  the  sun  for  two  days,  taking  it  in  at  night ;  it  will  then 
keep  an3'where.  When  cooked,  it  is  better  to  soak  it  a  few  hours, 
and  boil  in  the  same  water.  In  cold  weather  all  that  is  wanted 
for  a  week  or  two  may  be  wet.  It  cooks  quicker  and  tastes  better. 
A  little  milk  and  flour  boiled  in  it  is  almost  as  good  as  cream. 

Cooking  Vegetables. — The  potato  should  be  steamed  rather 
than  boiled.  If  new  and  tender  brush  olf  the  skin  with  a  stitf 
brush;  if  old  scrape  it  off  with  a  knife;  put  them  into  a  strainer 
over  a  kettle  of  boiling  water.  The  water  must  keep  a  steady  boiling 
for  twent}"^  minutes  and  upwards,  until  the  potatoes  are  steamed 
through.  If  the  practice  of  boiling  is  still  continued,  let  the 
potatoes  stand  a  few  minutes  after  turning  off  the  water  with  a 
cloth  over  the  top  of  the  kettle.  Xever  put  a  tight  cover  over  the 
potatoes  to  keep  them  warm  ;  it  condenses  the  steam  in  them  and 
makes  them  soggy. 

Potatoes  for  Bre.\kfast. — Take  the  mashed  i)otatnes  loft  from 
I  dinner  the  day  before,  mix  them  smooth  with  a  little  hot  milk  and 


694  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAT. 

butter,  put  tliciii  l)v  spoonfuls  into  an  iron  biscuit  pan,  previously 
healed,  muiI  brown  tlioni  in  a  hot  oven.  The}'  are  very  light  and 
nice. 

FuiK.n  PoTATOKs. — Cut  in  tliree  slices;  have  hot  lard  on  a  brisk 
Ore  and  let  them  be  entirely  covered  by  the  lard  until  fried. 

Blots'  Potato  Cake. — Steam  your  potatoes  and  mash  them. 
To  ever}'  quart  of  the  mashed  potato  add  the  yolks  of  three  eggs, 
three  ounces  of  sugar,  and  a  little  grated  lemon  rind.  Stir  in  three 
ounces  of  hot  melted  butter  and  the  whites  of  the  eggs.  Put  ou 
tlie  fire  long  enougli  to  heat  the  whole  through  and  mix  thoroughly, 
then  take  it  off  and  bake  it  for  half  an  hour  in  a  hot  oven. 

Goon  Way  to  Cook  Onions. — It  is  a  good  plan  to  boil  onions 
in  milk  and  water  ;  it  diminishes  the  strong  taste  of  that  vegetable. 
It  is  an  excellent  way  of  serving  up  onions,  to  chop  them  after 
they  are  boiled,  and  put  them  in  a  stew-pan,  with  a  little  milk, 
butter,  salt  and  pepper,  and  let  them  stew  about  fifteen  minutes. 
This  gives  them  a  fine  flavor,  and  they  can  be  served  up  very  hot. 

Fried  Aspar.\gus. — Four  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  salt,  cold 
water,  stirred  together  iii  a  bowl  to  a  thick  batter.  Beat  two 
whites  of  eggs  to  a  stifi"  froth,  and  stir  in  with  the  rest.  Throw 
tht-  tops  of  asparagus  in  boiling  water,  with  a  little  suet,  till  half 
done.  Then  throw  them  in  the  batter,  hook  them  out  and  fry  with 
hot  fat. 

How  TO  Bake  Apples. — Bake  without  breaking  the  skin.  Bake 
from  three  to  five  hours.  When  the  pulp  is  perfectly  tender  break 
the  skin ;  if  that  is  silken,  like  the  cuticle  of  the  hand,  you  have 
your  fruit  done.  If  you  break  the  skin  baking,  the  heat  and 
moisture  will  escape,  and  your  apple  will  dry.  The  peel  prevents 
evaporation,  and  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat.  Bake  on  paper  and 
there  will  be  no  dishes  spoiled  or  needed  to  be  wasted. 

Cauliflowers. — Separate  the  green  part,  cut  the  stalk  close,  let 
it  soak  a  while  in  cold  water,  tie  it  in  a  cloth,  and  lay  it  in  boiling 
milk  and  water,  observing  to  skim  it  well.  When  tender,  which 
will  be  in  an  hour  and  a  half  or  two  hours,  take  it  up  and  drain  it 
well ;  send  it  to  the  table  with  melted  butter  in  a  boat.  Broccoli 
is  ccoked  in  the  same  manner. 

Asparagus. — Cut  when  two  or  three  inches  long,  wash  and 
place  the  heads  all  one  way,  and  tie  in  bundles  with  thread  or 
twine.  Have  your  water  boiling,  with  a  little  salt,  and  lay  it  in, 
keeping  it  boiling  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  according  to 
its  age.  Toast  two  slices  of  bread,  moisten  it  with  the  water  in 
which  the  asparagus  is  boiling,  season  with  salt,  and  lay  on  a 
small  platter  or  dish.  Then  drain  the  asparagus  a  moment,  and, 
laying  the  heads  inward,  spread  it  on  the  toast,  pouring  over  it 
melted  butter  and  pepper. 

Beets.— Wash  them  clean  with  a  cloth,  rubbing  them  well.  Be 
careful  not  to  cut  them,  unless  they  are  very  large,  and  then  you 


DOMJiSTIC    ECONOMY    AND   FAMILY    RECIPES.  6^0 

may  cut  them  in  two,  not  si)littin<T  them.  They  require,  wlieu  i2:r()\vn 
full  size,  three  or  four  hours,  boiling;.  When  tender  all  throui!;h, 
scrape  off  the  outside,  split  or  cut  them  in  thin  round  slices,  and 
pour  over  melted  butter,  and  sprinkle  with  pepper.  Boiled  beets 
sliced,  and  put  in  spiced  vinei^ar  until  pickled,  are  good.  The 
tops  of  beets  are  good  in  summer  boiled  as  greens.  Beets  should 
be  kept  in  the  cellar,  covered  with  earth  to  keep  them  fresh.  It  is 
said  that  they  are  nicer  roasted,  as  potatoes,  for  the  table. 

Spinach. — Pick  it  clean,  and  wash  in  several  waters.  Drain  and 
put  it  in  boiling  water,  an<l  be  careful  to  remove  the  scum,  ^\'hen 
tender,  drain  and  press  it  well.  Chop  it  fine,  and  put  it  in  a 
sauce-pan  with  a  piece  of  butter  and  a  little  pe|)per  and  salt.  Set 
it  on  hot  coals,  and  let  it  stew  five  minutes,  stirring  it  all  the  time. 
It  requires  about  ten  minutes  to  boil. 

Stuffed  Cabbage. — Take  a  large  fresh  cabbage  and  cut  out  the 
heart.  Fill  the  place  with  stufling  made  of  a  cooked  chicken  or 
veal,  which  should  be  chopped  very  fine  and  liighl^  seasoned, 
rolled  in  balls  with  yolk  of  egg.  Then  tie  the  cabbage  firmly 
together,  and  boil  in  a  covered  kettle  for  two  hours.  It  makes 
a  very  delicious  dish,  and  is  often  useful  for  using  up  small  pieces 
of  cold  meat. 

Rhubarb. — The  best  way  of  cooking  this  delicious  substitute 
for  fruit  is  to  bake  it.  Cut  up  the  stalks  into  a  pie  dish,  sprinkle 
sugar  over,  cover  with  a  plate,  set  in  tiie  oven  and  bake  filteen  or 
twenty  minutes,  just  long  enough  to  be  tender  and  retain  its  fresh 
green  color,  like  green  apples.  It  is  an  excellent  supper  dish  to 
eat  with  bread  and  butter  or  cream. 

Egg  Plant. — Boil  them  in  a  good  deal  of  water  a  few  minutes, 
to  take  out  the  bitter  taste,  then  cut  in  slices,  and  si^rinkle  a  little 
salt  on  them.  Then  fry  them  brown  on  a  griddle,  with  only 
enough  butter  to  keep  them  from  sticking. 

Broiled  Parsnip. — After  they  are  boiled  tender,  let  them  be- 
come perfectly  cold ;  slice  thin  lengtliwise,  and  broil  until  nicely 
browned ;  spread  them  with  butter,  and  season  with  pepper  and 
salt.     To  be  served  with  roast,  broiled,  or  fried  meats. 

Bean  Soup. — Boil  the  beans  for  soup  in  the  usual  way,  in  water 
oiil3%  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepi)er  to  taste.  Add  savory  herbs 
if  desirable.  Wlien  ready  to  take  up,  cut  several  large  slices  of 
light,  stale  bread  into  pieces  half  an  inch  square;  add  a  good-.sized 
lump  of  sweet  butter,  and  fry  on  the  stove  or  bake  in  the  oven  ; 
when  done  brown  and  crisp  put  it  into  the  soup  tureen ;  pour  the 
bean  soup  over  and  serve  hot. 

To  Bake  Tomatoes. — Season  them  with  salt  and  pepper ;  flour 
them  over;  put  them  in  a  deep  plate  with  a  little  butter,  and  bake 
in  a  stove. 

To  Broil  Tomatoes. — Wash  and  wipe  the  comatoes,  and  put 
them  on  the  gridiron  over  live  coals,  with  the  stem  down.     When 


696  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

that  side  is  brown,  turn  tbcm,  and  let  them  cook  through.  Put 
them  on  a  hot  dish,  and  send  them  quickly  to  the  table,  to  be 
there  seasoned  to  taste. 

Baked  Beans — Soak  the  beans  half  a  day  in  warm  water,  then 
turn  ofl'  the  water  and  boil  until  soft.  When  the  beans  are  put 
into  the  baking  dish  bury  a  piece  of  fat  salt  pork  in  the  middle. 

We  give- below  the  average  time  for  boiling  the  ordinary  veget- 
ables. Cabbage  two  hours.  Green  corn  half  an  hour.  Turnips 
and  parsnips  one  hour  and  a  half  Asparagus  twenty  minutes. 
Green  peas  half  to  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  Carrots  two  hours. 
Beets  three  hours.     Squash  one  hour.     String  beans  one  hour. 

Rice  is  one  of  the  most  edible  of  all  vegetables,  and  if  used  in 
connection  with  meat,  beef  or  mutton,  furnishes  the  best  possible 
addition  to  the  bill  of  fare. 

Rice  should  be  put  in  warm  water  to  swell,  on  the  top  of  the 
stove  or  in  a  moderate  oven,  where  it  will  not  boil,  for  an  hour  or 
-^o ;  tlien  put  to  boil  in  salted  water  for  fifteen  minutes,  afterward 
(louring  on  rich  milk,  and  a  little  butter.  It  is  better,  at  this  point, 
.o  Nnt  il  into  a  pudding  dish,  and  bake  half  an  hour.  The  addition 
iff)  lev;  raisins  or  English  currants  will  improve  it  much. 

This  should  be  eaten  with  a  thoroughly  beaten  dressing  of  butter 
«4i(l  Riipar,  flavored  with  wine  and  nutmeg  or  sweetened  cream. 

I  vice  needs  to  be  thoroughly  cooked  to  be  palatable  or  digestible, 
\)u'i.  il  overdone,  so  that  the  kernels  lose  their  shape,  it  becomes  a 
HtK-,i<y,  unsavory  mass. 

Sf.nie  enjo}^  the  old  fashioned  rice  pudding,  with  the  usual  con- 
dinnsnts  of  spices,  fruit,  eggs,  sugar,  etc.,  but  it  is  really  more  in- 
viliug  Avithout,  when  cooked  ^.ccording  to  these  suggestions. 

When  fruit  is  scarce,  rice  can  be  made  a  verj'  pretty  addition  to 
'Jie  tea  table.  Boil  in  the  morning,  and  turn  into  buttered  teacups; 
when  cold,  turn  out  the  contents  of  the  several  cups  on  to  a  platter; 
make  a  little  cavity  in  the  top  of  each  of  these  beautifully  shaped 
moulds,  placing  a  teaspoonful  of  some  kind  of  jelly  in  the  open- 
ings, and,  with  a  pitcher  of  sweetened  and  flavored  cream,  you  will 
have  a  fancy  as  well  as  nutritious  dish.  If  more  convenient,  turn 
into  a  good  sized  bowl,  and  3fOU  Avill  have  the  same  results  with 
less  trouble. 

A  beautiful  dish  can  be  arranged,  by  putting  cold  rice  on  a  plate 
with  a  layer  of  jelly,  jam,  grated  apple,  fresh  strawberries  or  rasp- 
berries on  the  top;  then  another  layer  of  rice  and  fruit,  and  so  on 
until  you  have  the  mound  as  high  as  3'ou  like, — leaving  the  rice  at 
the  top,  and  being  careful  to  trim  the  edges  neatly,  to  show  the 
stripes  of  fruit.  This  is  delicious  cold,  for  tea,  or  baked  half  an 
hour  for  dessert,  with  a  good  dressing. 

The  rice  which  may  be  left  from  dinner,  if  put  to  soak  in  milk 
over  night,  is  nice  in  griddle  cakes.  It  is  also  a  charming  variety 
to  the  breakfast  table,  mixed  with  a  little  egg  and  flour,  made  into 
patties  with  the  hand,  and  fried  in  the  skillet. 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY    AND   FAMILY   RECIPES,  697 

If  you  like  a  rice  pie,  take  care  not  to  use  too  much  rico  ;  kl  tho 
solidity  consist  in  the  cg<^s. 

IliCE  Pie. — Cut  up  a  fat  chiiki-n,  and  lioil  till  tender;  »  u<.lv  une 
pint  of  rice  in  the  water  in  which  the  chicken  was  boiled  ;  mix 
with  it  six  well  beaten  eggs,  (if  eggs  arc  plenty  you  may  j)ut 
eight,)  one  cup  of  milk,  one  tablcspoonful  of  butter,  salt  aid 
jii'ppcr  to  your  taste.  Put  into  a  baking  disii  alternate  layers  cl 
chicken  and  rice,  having  rice  last,  and  bake  slightly. 

How  TO  Hull  Cokn. — Shell  a  dozen  cars  of  ripe,  dry  corn  ;  put 
it  in  an  iron  kettle  and  cover  with  cold  water;  put  in  the  corn  a 
bag  of  two  teacupfuls  of  fresh  wood  ashes,  and  boil  until  the  corn 
looks  jcllow  and  tastes  strong  of  the  alkali ;  then  take  out  the  bag 
and  boil  the  corn  in  the  lye  over  an  liour;  then  pour  olf  the  lye, 
add  fresh  water,  and  simmer  until  the  corn  swells.  If  the  hull? 
do  not  come  olf  b}'  stirring,  turn  oil"  the  water  and  rub  them  with 
a  towel;  add  iiujre  water  and  simmer  for  three  or  four  hours,  «)fieii 
stirring  to  kci'i)  it  iVom  l)uniing;  when  it  swells  out,  and  becomes 
soft  and  white,  add  salt  to  liking,  and  let  all  the  water  simmer 
away.      Kat  warm  or  cold,  with  cream  or  milk. —  Co.  (iinllttnan. 

To  Cook  Ch.vckkd  Cokn  oh  Wiik.at,  O.vt.mk.vl  (»ii  Hominy. — Let 
the  meal  be  dry  and  a  little  warm.  Have  water  boiling  briskly; 
throw  into  it  a  small  lump  of  water  and  a  little  salt;  add  the  meal 
by  hanilfuls  until  it  is  thick,  keeping  it  lioiling  and  stirring  it  con- 
stantly. After  it  is  thick  enough,  let  it  stand  for  half  a  tlay  over 
a  slow  fire.  Cracked  wheat  and  oatmeal  require  only  a  half  to 
three  quarters  of  an  hour's  boiling;  otherwise  they  are  vooked  the 
same  as  the  corn  These  dishes  are  at  once  very  nutritive,  wiude- 
some,  and  easily  digested.  Sanq),  hominy,  and  mush,  made  in  this 
way,  are  much  more  desirable  I'or  suppers  than  meat.  They  should 
be  eaten  with  niiiiv  or  molasses  and  ereoiu. 

Bhkad  is  the  .stall"  of  life,  or  would  be,  if  the  best  i>art  <tf  it  were 
not  boiled  out  of  the  Hour  to  make  it  look  white.  .Making  bread 
is  considered  the  most  inq)oitanl  ac(pii.sition,  and  to  make  good, 
light,  sweet  L'cad  is  an  accomplishment  to  be  proud  of.  No  rulo 
can  be  set  for  it,  for  success  depends  upon  the  flour,  the  rising,  the 
heat,  and  the  moisture.  Yeast  or  yeast  cakes  sliould  be  mixed 
with  [)otatoes,  boiled  dry  and  mealy.  If  the  up|MT  surface  of  the 
loaf  is  moistene(l  with  milk  just  before  it  is  placed  in  the  oven  the 
crust  will  be  improved.  I>r.  Nichols,  in  his  Chemical  I.<«lurc«, 
gives  the  following  as  the  method  of  bread  making  ein|>loycd  in 
his  family : 

Sift  live  jionnds  of  good  Ib.nr  and  put  it  into  an  earthen  pan 
suitable  for  mixing  and  kneading.  Have  ready  a  feruu'ut  of  yeast, 
prepared  as  follows: — Take  two  potatoes  the  siie  of  the  fist,  boil 
them,  mash,  ami  mix  with  half  a  pint  of  i)oiIing  water.  A  fresh 
yeast  cake,  of  the  size  common  in  tin-  market,  is  dissolved  in  water, 
and  the  two  solutious  mixed  together  and  put  iu  a  warm  place  to 


698  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

ferment.  As  soon  as  it  commences  to  rise,  or  ferment,  which  re- 
(juires  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  as  the  "weather  is  warm,  or  cokl, 
pour  it  into  the  flour,  and,  Avith  the  addition  of  a  pint  each  of  milk 
and  water,  f(jrm  a  dough  at  night,  and  allow  it  to  stand  until  morn- 
ing in  a  moderately  warm  place ;  then  mould  and  put  it  pans,  and 
let  it  remain  until  it  has  become  well  raised  ;  then  place  it  in  a 
hot  oven  and  bake. 

The  points  needing  attention  in  this  process  are  several.  First, 
the  flour  must  be  of  the  best  quality;  second,  the  potatoes  should 
be  sound  and  raeal}'^ ;  third,  the  yeast  cake  is  to  be  freshly  pre- 
pared ;  fourth,  the  ferment  must  be  in  just  the  right  condition; 
filth,  the  .kneading  should  be  thorough  and  effective  ;  sixth,  the 
raising  of  the  dough  must  be  watched,  that  it  does  not  proceed  too 
far  and  set  up  the  acetic  fermentation,  and  cause  the  bread  to  sour; 
seventh,  after  the  dough  is  placed  in  pans,  it  should  be  allowed  to 
rise,  or  puff  up,  before  placing  in  the  oven;  eighth,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  oven,  and  the  time  consumed  in  baking,  have  much  to 
do  with  the  perfection  of  the  process. 

Jennie,  F.  Haze.n,  a  newspaper  correspondent,  describes  the  fol- 
lowing as  the  method  by  which  her  mother  made  bread ;  it  is  new 
to  us : 

She  took  an  earthen  pitcher  and  put  into  it  a  pint  of  new  milk, 
a  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  one  of  ginger,  a  little  soda  and  salt;  then 
poured  out  of  the  teakettle  into  this  a  half  pint  of  boiling  water. 
When  it  was  cool  enough  to  hold  lier  finger  in  it  comfortably,  she 
stirred  in  flour  enough  to  make  a  thick  batter,  set  it  in  a  kettle  of 
warm  water,  and  put  the  kettle  where  it  would  keep  warm.  After 
it  had  stdod  two  or  three  hours,  she  atlded  two  large  spoonfuls  of 
flour  and  stirred  it  rapidly  for  five  minutes.  When  the  rising  was 
up  to  the  top  of  the  pitcher,  she  warmed  three  quarts  of  good  sweet 
milk,  turned  the  rising  into  it,  and  stirred  in  flour  to  make  a  sponge. 
Covering  it  closely  and  setting  it  where  it  was  warm,  she  left  it  to 
rise  again,  which  it  proceeded  to  do  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  she  kneaded  it  into  loaves  and  set  it  to 
rise  for  the  last  time.  When  it  was  baked  the  crust  was  of  a  rich 
golden  brown,  and  we  considered  it  the  treat  of  treats  to  liave  it 
broken  while  it  was  hot,  and  to  receive  from  her  hand  a  great  piece, 
well  buttered. 

Bread  by  Steam. — A  choice  loaf  of  bread  may  be  made  by  pre- 
paring  the  dough  in  the  usual  way,  and  then  setting  the  loaf  to  be 
baked  into  a  steamer,  and  bake  in  this  manner  by  steam  for  fifty 
minutes.  When  taken  out,  dry  a  few  moments  in  the  oven,  and  it 
is  then  as  bciiutiful  a  loaf  of  bread  as  need  be  eaten, — being  with- 
out  crust.  We  need  hardly  add  that  the  dough  must  be  good,  or 
the  bread  will  not  be.  ' 

Potato  Bread. — Sift  four  pounds  of  flour  into  a  pan  ;  boil  onej 
pound  potatoes,  skin,  and  mash  them  very  carefully  through  the 
(iolander ;  mix  this  with  equal  quantities  of  milk  and  water,  stir 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY  AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  699 

with  a  knife ;  add  a  tablespoonful  of  salt,  a  cup  of  yeast,  and  beat 
well.  • 

Brown  Bread, — Three  pints  of  coarse  corn  meal  scakkd  with 
four  pints  of  boiling  water;  when  cool  add  two  pints  of  coarse  rye 
meal  (not  flour);  mix  thoroughly;  put  in  stone  ware  pots,  cov- 
ered ovei",  and  place  in  an  oven  cool  enough  for  the  bread  to  warm 
slowly  for  two  or  three  hours;  after  which  bake  slowly  for  f<nir 
hours,  if  made  in  one  loaf;  let  the  bread  stand  in  a  cool  oven  one 
or  two  hours.  It  should  be  light,  moist,  and  sweet,  with  a  moist, 
firm  crust.  It  will  require  experience  and  skill  to  perfect  the 
milking  of  this  bread,  but  in  health  and  deliciousness  it  pays. 

Rye  and  Indian  Bread. — Mrs.  Angier,  of  Wyandot  County, 
Ohio,  tells  the  New  York  Farmers'  Club  how  her  grandmother 
made  rye  and  Indian  bread  : — Sift  the  bread  tray  half  full  ci  Indian 
meal ;  have  a  teakettle  of  hot  water  put  in  a  dipper  of  boiling  water 
to  slack  the  heat;  then  scald  the  meal,  stirring  well  with  the  pud- 
ding stick;  let  it  stand  three  hours  or  more  over  niglit,  when  the 
weather  is  cool,  then  add  one-third  as  much  coarse  rye  flour  as 
there  was  meal ;  put  in  a  quart  of  light,  sweet  hop  yeast,  mix  with 
both  hands,  using  warm  water ;  have  the  dough  stifl"  enough  to 
heap  a  little  ;  dip  the  hand  in  water,  and  smooth  the  mass  and 
sprinkle  with  flour ;  let  it  rise  till  the  surface  cracks,  then  put  in 
iron  basins;  smooth  again,  let  it  rise  for  a  few  minutes,  then  set  it 
in  the  brick  oven,  heat  it  till  you  cau  only  hold  your  hand  and 
count  three,  bake  four  or  five  hours  ;  when  taken  out  wet  a  clean 
cloth  in  water  and  cover  each  loaf. 

Graham  or  Coarse  Wheat  Bread. — Two-thirds  unsifted  wheat 
meal,  one-third  fine  flour,  a  little  molasses ;  mix  with  warm  water. 
One  large  cup  of  potato  yeast  will  make  two  good  sized  loaves 
JMix  and  rise  over  night,  and  ^-our  bread  is  ready  to  mould  and 
put  in  your  pans  before  breakfast.  Do  not  let  it  rise  too  long  the 
second  time ;  much  bread  is  spoiled  by  so  doing. 

Graham  or  Brown  Flour  Bread. — To  one  cup  of  light  wheat 
sponge  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  molasses,  one  tabk'Si)oonful  of 
melted  butter  or  lard,  half  a  tablespoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in  a 
cup  of  w^arm  milk;  lastly,  add  sufficient  brown  flour  (sifting  only 
a  part)  to  hold  tlie  spoon  upright  for  a  moment.  Set  it  in  tiie  pans 
to  rise.  Just  before  putting  it  in  the  oven  wet  the  top,  to  keep  tlio 
crust  soft. 

Brown  Bread. — Two  bowls  meal,  one  bowl  flour,  two  Itowls 
sweet  milk,  one  bowl  sour  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  threo 
tablespoonfuls  of  molasses,  and  a  little  salt.  Bake  two  or  three 
hours  in  a  moderate  oven.     This  makes  a  four  quart  loaf. 

Graham  Biscuit. — One  pint  of  sour  milk ;  two  tablepoonfuls 
of  butter  or  lard  ;  one  tablespoonful  of  molasses ;  an  even  tea- 
spoonful  of  soda,  stirred  in  the  milk;  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt; 


700  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM  PAY. 

flour  (Graham)  enough  to  make  as  stiff  as  can  be  stirred  with  a 
spoon. 

Dr.  S.  L.  Hendrick,  in  the  Western  Rural,  gives  the  following : 
Into  a  quart  of  cold  water  stir  enough  unbolted  or  Graham  flour 
to  make  a  batter  a  ver}'  little  thicker  than  for  griddle  cakes.  Have 
your  pan  heated  quite  hot  and  well  buttered  ;  fill  the  cups,  and  let 
it  stand  upon  the  stove  a  minute  or  so,  before  jiutting  it  into  a  very 
hot  oven.  They  will  bake  in  twenty  minutes.  These  may  be  eaten 
while  warm,  even  by  the  most  delicate.  i^ 

KiCE  Bread. — Boil  half  a  pound  of  rice  in  three  pints  of  water  jjl 
till  the  whole  becomes  thick  and  pulpy ;  with  this,  and  yeast,  and  I 
six  pound's  of  flour,  make  your  dough.  In  this  way,  it  is  said,  as  |f 
much  bread  will  be  made  as  if  eight  pounds  of  flour  without  rice  I 
had  been  used.  |f 

Good  Corn  Bread. — One  pint  of  wheat  or  rye  flour,  two  pints  of  j> 
corn  meal,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  tablespoonful  of  melted  u 
shortening,  one  Qgg,  and  sour  milk  or  buttermilk  enough  to  make  |K 
it  pour  easily;  steam  three  hours,  remove,  and  bake  one  hour.  ' 

Family  Indian  Loaf. — Two  quarts  of  scalding  hot  skim-milk,  \i 
one  tablespoonful  of  salt,  one  quart  of  corn  meal  stirred  in  b}-  hand-  i 
fuls,  two-thirds  pint  of  sifted  rye.  meal;  stir  thoroughly,  then  add  W, 
one  cup  of  cold  milk,  stirring  smartl3\  After  standing  twelve  min-  ^ 
utes,  bake  five  hours  in  a  cast  iron  basin  covered  with  anotlier  basin     d 

Hard  Biscuit. — Two  pounds  of  flour,  two  pounds  of  butter,  two  !»f 
eggs,  half  teaspoonful  of  salt ;  rub  the  flour,  butter,  and  salt,  then  {tf 
add  the  eggs  and  as  much  milk  as  will  mix  it  into  a  stilf  dough;  i| 
knead  well,  roll  it  out  quite  thin,  cut  with  a  round  cutter,  prick  them  |it 
with  a  fork,  place  them  on  tins,  and  balie  crisp  in  a  moderate  oven,    ia 

Biscuit. — Two  quarts  of  flour,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one  >t 
teaspoonful  of  soda,  half  teaspoonful  of  salt;  mix  with -cold  water,  f!f 
and  beat  well.  I' 

Johnny  Cake. — Bub  two  tablespoonfals  of  butter  into  a  quart  rji 
of  corn  meal :  add  a  small  teacup  of  molasses  to  a  teaspoonful  of  ^ 
brown  ginger;  pour  on  slowly  sufficient  water  or  milk  to  make  a  \'\ 
soft  dough.     13ake  in  shallow  pans,  in  a  hot  oven.  !:| 

Egg  Bread. — Three  quarts  of  milk  a  little  sour,  seven  eggs,  two  [| 
ounces  of  butter,  a  teaspoonful  of  saleratus ;  add  corn  meal  to  \i 
make  a  stifli'  batter.     Bake  by  a  brisk  fire. 

Corn    Batter   Bread. — Six  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,   three  of*:,] 
corn  meal,  and  a  little  salt ;  make  it  a  thin  batter,  with  four  eggs 
and  milk.     Bake  quickly  in  shallow  pans. 

Yictoria  Buns. — Two  ounces  of  pounded  loaf  sugar,  one  egg,j 
one  and  a  half  ounces  of  ground  rice,  two  ounces  of  butter,  one  an(^ 
a  half  ounces  of  currants,  a  few  thin  slices  of  candied  peel ;  flour. 
Whisk  the  egg,  stir  in  the  sugar,  and  beat  these  ingredients  well 
together ;  beat  the  butter  to  a  cream,  stir  in  the  ground  rice,  cur 


i 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY   AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  701 

rants,  and  candied  peel,  and  as  much  flour  as  will  make  it  of  such 
a  consistency  that  it  ma}'  be  rolled  into  seven  oreiirht  halls.  Put 
these  on  a  buttered  tin,  and  bake  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an 
hour.  They  should  be  i)ut  into  the  oven  immediately,  or  they 
will  become  heavy ;  and  the  oven  should  be  tolerably  brisk. 

New  England  Johnny  Cake. — Take  one  quart  of  buttermilk, 
one  teacup  of  flour,  two-thirds  of  a  teacupful  of  molasses,  a  little 
salt,  one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  one  egg  (beat  of  course).  Then 
stir  in  Indian  meal,  but  be  sure  and  not  put  in  too  much.  Leave 
it  thin,  so  thin  that  it  will  almost  run.  Bake  in  a  tin,  in  any  oven, 
and  tolerably  quick.  If  it  is  not  first  rate  and  light,  it  will  be  be- 
cause you  make  it  too  thick  with  Indian  meal.  Some  prefer  it 
without  the  molasses. 

Rolls. — Take  a  pint  of  milk  and  scald  it,  then  add  half  a  cup 
of  butter  while  the  milk  is  hot ;  whenthis  is  cool,  add  half  a  cup  of 
sugar,  and  half  a  cup  of  yeast.  Pour  this  mixture  on  to  two  quarts 
of  flour,  and  let  it  stand  until  the  next  morning,  thui  knead  it 
and  let  it  stand  in  the  pans  until  it  is  risen  properly. 

French  PvOLLS  or  Twist. — One  quart  of  lukewarm  milk,  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  a  teacupful  of  yeast,  and  flour  enough  to  make  a 
stiff  batter.  When  very  light  add  a  beaten  egj:,  and  two' table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter,  and  knead  in  flour  until  stitf  enough  to  roll 
Let  it  rise  again,  and  when  ver}^  light  roll  out  aud  cut  in  slvipa 
and  braid  it.     Bake  thirty'  minutes  on  buttered  tins. 

How  Good  Rusks,  which  we  find  at  first  class  hotels  are  made. 
The  recipe  is  direct  from  a  cook  in  one  of  the  best  hotels  in  the 
West. 

Two  tea  cups  of  sugar,  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  butter,  two  eggs. 
Beat  these  well  together,  add  one  pint  of  sweet  milk  and  one  of 
good  lively'  yeast,  and  flour  sullieient  to  make  a  soft  sponge.  Set 
it  where  it  will  be  warm.  Next  morning  knead  in  more  flour  aud 
let  it  rise  again,  then  mould  into  biscuits,  aud  Avheu  light  bake 
them  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Rusk. — Three  pints  of  flour,  two  eggs,  one  cup  of  sugar,  and  a 
tables])oonl'ul  of  butter.  Beat  the  eggs  and  sugar  well  together, 
and  add  the  butter  ;  mix  in  the  flour  with  warm  water,  in  which  a 
cake  of  j-east  has  been  dissolved  ;  put  in  a  place  to  rise.  "When 
well  raised,  knead  in  a  teacup  more  of  flour  and  make  in  small 
rolls.  Bake  a  light  brown.  Be  careful  not  to  burn  them,  as  the 
sugar  would  cause  them  to  burn  easil}'. 

Corn  Rusk. — Take  one  pint  of  corn  meal  and  scald  it  with  onu 
quart  of  milk,  a  half  a  teacup  of  lard  or  butter,  a  little  salt,  three 
eggs,  yeast  enough  to  make  it  raise  ;  then  stiflen  it  with  wheat 
flour ;  let  it  stand  and  raise  about  three  hours  ;  then  roll  and  let  it 
raise  again  ;  bake  it  and  eat  warm. 

Corn  Meal  Rusk. — Take  six  cupfuls  of  corn  meal,  four  of 
wheat  flour,  two  of  molasses,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus : 


702  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

mix  the  whole  togethor  and  knead  it  into  dough ;  make  two  cakes, 
bake  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

Common  Doughnuts. — Two  cups  of  sugar,  one  and  a  half  of 
milk,  two  eggs,  one  nutmeg,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar, 
one  of  soda. 

Plain  Corn  Cake. — One  quart  of  sweet  milk;  three  eggs;  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt. 

Anothe?'  Way. — Two  cups  of  sour  cream ;  two  cups  of  sweet 
milk  or  water;  one  tablespoouful  of  sugar;  one  teaspoonful  of 
salt ;  one  teaspoonful  of  soda ;  a  handful  of  flour  stirred  in  with 
the  meal. 

SteameI)  Corn  Bread. — One  pint  of  sour  milk  ;  one  half  cup  of 
hard  or  finely  chopped  suet;  one  cup  of  molasses  ;  one  teaspoonful 
of  allspice  ;  one  teaspoonful  of  salt ;  one  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Leave 
the  batter  quite  thin.     Steam  one  hour  and  bake  the  same. 

Fruit  Johnny  Cake. — Two  cups  of  sour  cream  ;  two  cups  of 
sweet  milk  ;  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar;  two  eggs  ;  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  salt ;  one  teaspoonful  of  soda ;  one  cup  of  chopped  raisins  ; 
one  cup  of  chopped  citron ;  a  handful  of  flour  stirred  in  with  the 
raeal. 

Sally  Lunn. — One  quart  of  flour,  four  eggs,  one  gill  of  3'east,  a 
little  salt ;  mix  with  milk  to  a  stiff  batter,  and  add  a  piece  of  melted 
butter  ;  pour  into  a  buttered  baking  pan  and  lot  it  rise  over  night. 
It  makes  a  delicious  warm  bread  for  breakfast  with  plentj'  of  butter. 

Indian  Meal  Cake  for  Breakfast. — Pour  enough  boiling 
water  in  a  pint  of  corn  meal,  to  make  a  stiff  dough ;  dissolve  in 
a  little  hot  water,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  and  stir  it  in 
the  meal  with  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  eggs  well  beaten,  a  table- 
spoonful  of  butter  ;  stir  the  materials  well  together,  and  bake  it  in 
tin  pans  for  half  an  hour  in  a  quick  oven.     Serve  it  hot. 

Parsnip  Fritters. — Boil  six  parsnips  tender,  then  skin  and 
mash  them ;  mix  thera  with  two  eggs  well  beaten,  and  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  flour;  make  up  in  small  cakes  and  fry  them  in  a  little 
lard  or  beef  gravy ;  make  boiling  hot  before  the  cakes  are  put  in  ; 
a  little  salt  should  be  added. 

Missouri  Corn  Cakes. — Sift  three  pints  of  corn  meal,  .,dd  one 
iublespoonful  of  lard,  one  of  salt,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  soda  in  a 
little  warm  water.  Make  it  to  a  dough  with  milk,  then  add 
gradually'  a  pint  of  hot  water,  beating  it  for  half  an  hour.  Bake 
on  a  hot  griddle. 

Pastry. — Pies  are  the  least  desirable  articles  in  our  bill  of  fare, 
as  the  pastry  is  often  indigesiible  in  spite  of  all  the  care  and  skill 
that  may  be  exercised. 

Aunt  Smith's  Recipe  for  Pie  Crust. — To  a  quart  of  flour  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt ;  measure  equal  quantities  of  water  and  lard.* 

*  In  all  cases  butter  is  preferable  to  lard  in  making  pastry. 


1 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY   AND   FAMILY   RECIPE3.  703 

Put  tlie  1. utter  into  the  flour  and  work  it  in  with  the  hand,  i^radu- 
ally  adding  the  water.  Work  in  the  flour  slowly,  and  keep  the 
paste  soft.  Another  rule:  One  pound  and  a  half  of  flour,  and 
luilf  a  pound  of  butter  wet  with  cold  water  till  it  makes  a  stiff 
paste.  Work  it  well  and  roll  it  out  several  times.  Another  rUe : 
Take  equal  weights  of  flour,  butter,  and  sugar;  rub  the  flour  and 
butter  together,  mix  in  the  sugar. 

Apple  Pie.— Stew  the  sliced  apples  in  a  very  little  water,  when 
nearly  done  add  butter,  sugar,  aud  spice.  When  cold  place  them 
in  the  paste  with  an  upper  crust,  and  bf.ke  till  the  crust  is  done. 

Squash  and  Pumpkin  Pies.— Cut  the  squash  into  pieces  the 
size  of  two  fingers,  and  stew  in  just  enough  water  to  cover  them. 
When  soft  strain  through  a  sieve.  Add  from  one  to  four  eggs, 
(as  you  have  them,)  to  each  quart  of  milk.  Sweeten  either  w?th 
sugar  or  molasses,  aud  season  with  ginger,  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  and 
a  little  salt.  Have  your  oven  hot,  and  bake  till  the  centre  rises 
up.     We  consider  these  about  the  only  pies  suitable  for  daily  use, 

Mince  Pies. — Three  and  one  half  pounds  of  chopped  beef  to 
seven  pounds  of  chopped  apples,  two  pounds  of  sugar,  one  pint  of 
best  molasses,  one  ounce  of  nutmeg,  a  pound  of  suet;  cider,  citron, 
raisins  or  currants  to  your  taste. 

Imitation  Apple  Pie. — Use  raw  pumpkin  instead  of  green  ap- 
ples; slice  thin;  add  equal  parts  of  vinegar  and  water,  thicken 
with  wheat  floui',  season  to  suit  the  taste,  and  bake  thornughl3'. 
It  requires  more  salt  and  longer  baking  than  apple  pie,  buJ,  when 
done  is  in  no  respects  inferior. 

Mock  Custard  Pie. — Take  a  heaping  spoonful  of  flour,  mix 
smooth  with  a  little  water  or  milk,  pour  on  boiling  water,  proceed- 
ing as  if  making  starch,  (corn  starch  may  be  used  instead  of  flour 
to  good  advantage ;)  make  as  much  of  it,  b}''  pouring  on  more  or  less 
water,  as  will  be  half  enough  for  your  pie;  add  a  piece  of  liutter 
the  size  of  a  walnut,  a  half  cup  of  sugar,  an  egg  well  beaten,  after 
having  cooled  the  starch  by  adding  a  half  cup  of  cold  milk  or  more. 
Flavor  highly  with  nutmeg  or  lemon.  This  '^as  the  taste  cif  a 
cream  pie  to  a  considerable  degree  A  little  practice  is  needed  to 
enable  one  to  judge  as  to  the  quantity  of  water  to  use.  When 
eggs  and  milk  are  scarce,  it  is  a  good  deal  better  than  no  cus- 
tard pie. 

Crackeu  Pie. — Eight  crackers  pounded  fine,  on  which  pour  boil- 
ing water  to  soften,  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar,  eight  of  sugar, 
one  lemon;  if  too  stiff  add  water. 

A  Good  Lemon  Pie. — One  cupful  of  boiling  water,  one  cupful 
of  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  of  corn  starch,  one  lemon ;  place  be- 
tween a  rich  paste. 

Crumb  Pie. — Mince  any  cold  meat  very  finely,  season  it  to  taste, 
and  put  it  into  n  pie  dish ;  have  some  finely  grated  bread  crumb**, 


704  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

with  a  little  salt,  pepper,  aiid  nutmeg,  and  pour  into  the  dish  any 
nice  gravy  that  may  be  at  band  ;  then  cover  it  over  with  a  thick 
layer  of  the  bread  crumbs,  and  put  small  pieces  of  butter  over  the 
top.  Place  it  in  the  oven  till  quite  hot,  and,  should  the  bread 
crumbs  not  be  sufficiently  brown,  hold  a  salamander  over  them. 

Wasiiingtox  Pie. — To  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  add  one  cup 
of  sugar,  half  a  cup  of  milk,  two  cups  of  flour,  one  egg,  one  tea- 
ipoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  half  teaspoonful  of  saleratus.  This 
i\ill  make  two  pies.  When  cold  divide  with  a  thin  knife  and  add 
-he  jelly. 

Lemon  Pie. — The  juice  and  grated  rind  of  one  lemon,  one  cup 
of  water,'one  tablespoonful  of  corn  starch,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one 
egg,  and  a  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a  small  egg.  Boil  the  water, 
wiit  the  corn  starch  with  a  little  cold  water,  and  stir  it  in  ;  when 
It  boils  up,  pour  it  on  the  sugar  and  butter ;  after  it  cools,  add  the 
egg  and  lemon  ;  bake  with  under  and  upper  crust. 

To  Make  Lemon  Pies. — Take  the  yolks  of  thi-ee  eggs,  one  and 
a  half  cups  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  water,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour, 
the  juice  and  rind  of  one  lemon ;  chop  the  peel,  stir  all  up  toge- 
ther ;  bake  as  custard ;  then  beat  the  whites  of  the  three  eggs  to 
a  froth ;  add  four  tablespooufuls  of  sugar ;  put  on  the  top,  bake 
until  done. 

Delicious  Lemon  Pies. — The  juice  and  rind  of  one  lemon,  one 
cup  of  sugar,  the  yolk  of  two  eggs,  three  tablespooufuls  of  flour, 
milk  to  fill  the  pie  plate  ;  line  the  plate  with  the  paste,  pour  in  this 
custard,  and  bake  until  it  is  done.  Beat  the  whites  of  two  eggs, 
add  four  tablespooufuls  of  powdered  sugar,  spread  over  the  pie, 
and  brown  lightly  in  the  oven. 

Lemon  Pie. — Two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  and  one  of  butter  rub- 
bed together,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one  egg,  one  tablespoonful  of  water, 
and  the  juice  and  grated  peel  of  one  lemon.  This  will  make  the 
inside  of  one  pie.  Bake  in  a  crust  of  pastry,  either  barred  across 
the  top  or  with  plain  cover. 

Cake. — The  following  are  Mrs.  Laura  E.  Lj^man's  general  di- 
rections for  making  cake : — "  First  of  all,  let  them  aterials  be  each 
in  their  kind  first  class.  Lard  is  never,  at  any  time,  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  butter ;  and  good  cake  cannot  be  made  from  poor  butter 
The  sugar  need  not  necessarily  be  crushed  loaf  or  perfectly  white 
a  good  article  of  cake  can  be  made  of  light  brown  sugar.  The 
quality  of  flour  is  of  chief  importance,  as  flour  that  will  make  pal- 
atable broad  will  not  make  good  cake.  The  eggs  should  be  well 
beaten  ;  the  fruit  should  be  carefully  prepared.  Raisins  should  be 
seeded  and  chopped  fine;  then  rubbed  in  flour  and  dried,  whicl 
will  prevent  their  sinking  to  the  bottom.  Citron  should  be  cut  ii 
small,  thin  slices.  The  materials  should  all  be  collected  in  a  wan 
room  some  time  before  mixing  together.     An  earthen  bowl  is  the 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY   AND    FAMILY    RECIPES.  705 

best  article  to  mix  cake  in.  Generally  the  butter  and  sugar  are 
stirred  together  until  white  ;  then  the  etrgs  are  added,  then  the 
flour,  then  the  spice,  then  tlie  saleratus  is  dissolved  and  added. 
The  cream  of  tartar  should  be  sifted  with  the  flour.  Put  in  fruit 
last.  Have  your  pans  well  buttered  or,  what  is  much  better,  lined 
with  white  paper  buttered.  Move  the  cake  as  little  as  possible, 
and  never  jar  it  while  baking.  Most  kinds  of  cake  require  a  quick 
oven,  but  fruit  cake  is  best  with  a  moderate  heat.  The  cake  is 
done  when  a  straw  may  be  run  into  the  heart  of  the  loaf  without 
any  dough  sticking  to  it." 

Sponge  Cake — Two  Recipes. — Take  ten  eggs, — be  sure  tliey 
are  fresh. — beat  the  whites  and  yolks  separately.  "When  llie  whites 
are  beaten  to  a  froth,  add  one  pound  of  One  white  sugar,  tliree- 
fourths  of  a  pound  of  sifted  flour,  the  grated  rind  of  one  lemon, 
and  half  the  juice.  Stir  rapidly  fifteen  minutes,  pour  into  buttere<i 
pans,  and  bake  in  a  moderatel}'^  heated  oven. 

Meatiure  Sponge  Cake. — Three  eggs,  two  small  cups  of  sugar, 
half  cup  of  cold  water  or  sweet  milk,  a  teaspoonful  of  cream  of 
tartar,  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda ;  flavor  with  lemon  extract 
or  the  grated  rind. 

Lemon  Sponge  Cake. — Take  ten  eggs,  separate  them  ;  a  pound 
of  granulated  sugar,  half  pound  of  flour,  the  grated  ".x^el  of  two 
lemons,  and  the  juice  of  one;  beat  the  yolks  with  the  jugar,  and 
the  whites  alone  ;  then  add  them,  and  sift  in  the  flour  by  degrees; 
beat  well,  and  bake  with  a  quick  heat. 

Fruit  Cake. —  One  cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of  sugar,  three  eggs, 
one  cup  of  sour  cream,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  tablespoonful 
of  ground  cloves  and  cinnamon,  half  a  nutmeg,  two  cups  of  x"aisins 
and  citron,  flour  to  make  stiff  enough. 

Tumbler  Cake. — One  egg,  well  beaten  ;  one  tumblerful  of  sugar; 
half  tumblerful  of  sweet  milk,  filled  up  with  thick  cream ;  one  tea- 
spoonful of  soda;  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar,  rubbed  iu 
two  tumblerfuls  of  flour.     Add  nutmeg  or  rose  water. 

Snow  Cake. — The  white  of  ten  eggs,  one  tumbler  and  one-half 
of  sugar,  the  same  of  flour.  Mix  one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tar 
tar  in  the  flour.     Flavor  with  rose. 

White  Cake. — One  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  butter,  one-half 
cup  of  sweet  milk,  whites  of  five  eggs,  two  cups  of  flour,  one  tea- 
spoonful of  cream  of  tartar,  and  one  of  soda. 

Tea  Cake. — One  pint  of  new  milk,  two  pints  of  flour,  two  eggs, 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one  tablespoonful  of  soda,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  cream  of  tartar. 

Raisin  Cake.— One  pound  of  sugar,  half  pound  of  butter,  one 
and  a  half  pounds  of  flour,  four  eggs,  half  pint  of  thick  milk,  one 
teaspoonful  of  soda,  same  of  cream  of  tartar,  one  nutmeg,  half 
pound  of  raisins,  half  pound  of  currants. 


706  now   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    TAY. 

Lemon  Cake. — One  cup  of  butter,  three  cups  of  sugar,  four  cups 
of  flour,  five  eggs,  one  cup  of  thick  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda, 
the  rind  and  juice  of  two  lemons.     Bake  in  bread  dishes. 

Molasses  Cake. — One  quart  of  molasses,  half  pint  of  thick  milk, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  quarter  pound  of  shortening,  butter  and 
lai'd,  ginger  and  cloves  to  taste,  flour  sufficient  to  roll  out. 

Tea  Cake. — Three  and  a  half  cups  of  flour,  two  of  sugar,  one 
of  butter,  four  eggs,  teaspoonful  of  soda  in  tablespoonful  of  milk, 
grated  nutmeg.     Bake  carefully. 

Coffee  Cake. — Five  cups  of  flour,  one  cup  of  made  coflee,  one 
cup  of  sugar,  half  cup  of  molasses,  one  cup  of  butter,  teaspoonful 
of  soda,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cinnamon,  one  of  clove,  raisins  or 
currants. 

Puff  Cake. — Three  cups  of  flour,  two  and  a  half  cups  of  sugar, 
one  of  milk,  three  eggs,  piece  of  butter  large  as  an  egg,  one  tea- 
spoonful cream  of  tartar,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  half  a  tea- 
spoonful of  salt. 

Cup  Cake. — One  cup  of  butter,  two  of  sugar,  three  of  sifted 
flour,  and  four  eggs.  Beat  the  eggs  and  sugar  well  together,  add 
the  butter,  and  lastly  the  flour ;  a  small  teaspoonful  of  soda  dis- 
solved in  a  very  little  of  buttermilk.  Soft  ginger  cakes  made  by 
the  same  recipe,  only  using  molasses  or  syrup  instead  of  sugar, 
and  measuring  the  flour  before  sifting  instead  of  after.  Add  a 
tablespoonful  of  ground  ginger. 

Plain  Cake. — One  cup  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  cream,  one  egg,  one 
cup  of  English  currants,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  nutmeg ;  stir  to 
stitr  dough  and  bake  slowly. 

Pound  Cake. — One  pound  of  flour,  three-quarters  pound  of 
sugar,  one-half  pound  of  butter,  three  eggs,  one  glass  I'ose  water ; 
bake  immediately. 

Graham  Tea  Cake. — One  cup  of  cream,  one  egg,  one  teaspoon 
ful  of  salt,  one  saltspoonful  of  soda,  one  cup  of  sugar ;  istir  to  the 
consistency  of  soft  gingerbread  and  drop  on  tins,  or  in  rings. 

Rye  Drop  Cake. — One  cup  of  cream,  one-half  cup  of  sweet  milk, 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  eggs,  a  pinch  of  soda  ;  drop  on  tins, 
or  in  cups.  By  adding  one  cup  of  sugar  to  the  above  they  are  a 
very  nice  tea  cake. 

Coffee  Cake. — One  and  a  half  cups  of  sugar,  one  of  molasses, 
one  of  cold  coffee,  four  of  flour,  one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar, 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  of  cloves,  one  of  cinnamon,  three 
eggs. 

French  Loaf  Cake. — Three  cups  of  light  bread,  two  cups  of 
white  sugar,  one  cup  of  butter,  three  eggs,  one  nutmeg,  one  small; 
teaspoonful  of  soda  ;  rub  the  butter  and  sugar  together,  then  work] 
in  the  eggs,  and  lastly  the  bread  and  fruit.     Bake  in  a  loaf  one! 
hour  and  a  half. 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY   AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  707 

Marble  Cake. —  Wiite.  One  cup  of  butter;  three  cups  of  \vhitc 
sugar;  four  cups  of  flour;  half  cup  of  sweet  milk;  whites  of  nine 
eggs ;  flavor  with  lemon. 

Marble  Cake. — Dark.  One  cup  of  butter;  two  cups  of  brown 
sugar;  one  cup  of  molasses;  one  cup  of  sour  milk;  one  teaspoon- 
ful  of  soda  ;  five  cups  of  flour;  yolks  of  nine  eggs  ;  one  whole  one  ; 
spices  of  all  sorts.  Put  in  pans  first  a  layer  of  dark  cake,  then  a 
Itiver  of  white,  and  so  on,  finishing  with  a  layer  of  dark.  Bake  in 
a  moderate  oven. 

Plain  Cake. — One  cup  of  sour  cream  ;  one  cup  of  sugar  ;  one 
teaspoonful  of  salt;  one  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Form  the  batter 
thin,  and  bake  quickly. 

Cream  Cake. — Break  two  eggs  in  a  coff'ee  cup  and  fill  the  cup 
with  sour  cream  ;  one  cup  of  sugar,  one  and  a  half  cups  of  flour, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  of  cream  of  tartar;  to  be  baked  in 
layers,  whipped  cream  or  frosting  to  be  put  between  each  laytf. 

Railroad  Cake. — One  cup  of  sugar,  one  of  flour,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  melted  butter,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  milk,  throe  ego-s, 
one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  one  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda; 
flavor  with  lemon. 

Queen  Cake. — Mix  one  pound  of  dried  flour,  tho  same  of  sifted 
sugar,  and  of  washed  currants  ;  wash  one  pound  of  butter  in  rose 
water,  beat  it  well,  then  mix  with  eight  eggs,  3'olks  and  whites 
beaten  separatel}^,  and  put  in  the  dry  ingredients  by  degi'oes  ;  lieat 
the  whole  an  hour;  butter  little  tins,  teacups  or  saucer.s,  filling 
ihem  only  half  full;  sift  a  little  fine  sugar  over  just  as  you  put 
;hem  into  the  oven. 

Pluxm  Cake. — Five  cups  of  flour,  one  of  butter,  two  of  sugai. 
>ne  of  sour  milk,  one  of  molasses,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Cinna- 
Dou,  cloves,  allspice,  mace,  one  or  all,  as  3'ou  fancy.  One  iialf 
)Ouud  of  chopped  raisins,  or  same  of  Zante  currants ;  two  ounces 
)f  citron  sliced  thin,  if  you  like  it,  but  it  is  very  good  without. 
Phis  is  a  good  cake,  and  it  will  keep  moist  a  long  time. 

Molasses  Pound  Cake. — One  cup  of  butter,  one  of  brown 
ugar,  one  of  molasses,  three  eggs,  one  tablespoouful  of  ginger, 
wo  tablespoonfuls  of  cinnamon,  a  cup  of  cream,  of  tartar,  and 
our  enough  to  make  batter  about  like  pound  cake.  Bake  in  a 
oaf. 
Cottage  Cake. — One  cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of  sugar,  tliroe 
ups  of  flour,  three  eggs,  one  cup  of  milk,  one  and  a  half  nutmeg 
rated,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  the  same  of  cream  of  tartar, 
oth  of  which  dissolve  in  the  milk. 

Portugal  Cake. — Put  one  pound  of  sugar,  one  pound  of  fiesb 
utter,  five  eggs,  and  a  little  mace  in  a  bread  pan;  beat  it  with 
our  hands  till  it  is  very  light  and  looks  curdling,  then  put  in  a 
ound  of  tlour,  and  half  a  pound  of  currants  very  dry;  beat  them 
)gether,  fill  the  pans,  and  bake  them  in  a  slow  oven. 


I 


43 


70S 


HOW    TO    MAKE    THi:    FARM    PAY. 


Nut  Cake — Beat  two  cups  of  sugar  and  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of 
butter,  and  two  epgs  together  for  fifteen  minutes.  Mix  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar  in  three  cups  of  flour,  and  add  it  to 
the  sugar,  butter  and  eggs.  Then  dissolve  a  small  tcaspoonful  of 
saleratus  or  soda  in  a  cup  of  milk,  and  stir  it  all  well  together. 
Pour  it  into  a  broad  pan  thnt  has  been  well  buttered.  Sil't  sugar 
over  it,  and  then  cover  it  with  the  meats  of  walnuts.  Bake  it 
twenty  minutes. 

CocoANUT  Cake. — Peel  the  cocoanut  and  cut  into  thin  slices 
cut  these  again  crosswa^'s  into  threads  half  an  inch  long;  put  ai 
pound  and  a  quarter  of  brown  moist  sugar,  a  teacuprul  of  cold  Avater 
and  the  sliced  cocoanut  into  a  saucepan,  and  boil  for  some  tini( 
over  a  slow  fire,  stirring  frequently  to  prevent  it  burning.  Wrincj 
out  a  coarse  kitchen  cloth  in  cold  Avater,  and  lay  it  over  a  larg«j 
dish,  drop  a  tablespoonful  of  the  mixture  at  intervals  on  the  daraj 
cloth.  This  is  the  way  cocoanut  cakes  are  made  in  Jamaica,  an( 
they  are  extremely  nice. 

Chocolate  Cake. — One  pound  of  sugar,  one  of  flmir,  and  hall 
a  pound  of  butter;  four  eggs  beaten  separately  until  very  light 
half  a  pint  of  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  and  two  of  cream  o: 
tartar.  Bake  in  tAvo  cakes.  Beat  three  cups  of  powdered  suga 
with  the  whites  of  three  eggs,  add  chocolate  to  taste;  spread 
layer  of  this  icing  between  the  cakes  and  on  the  top  and  side! 
Cocoanut  cake  can  be  made  in  the  same  manner  by  substitutin 
half  a  grated  cocoanut  for  the  chocolate  in  the  icing. 

Delicate  Cake. — One  and  one  half  cups  of  white  sugar,  or 
half  cup  of  butter  ;  rub  these  to  a  cream  ;  add  one  half  cup  of  swet 
milk,  in  which  dissolve  one  half  teaspoonful  of  soda,  and  tAvo  cuj 
of  flour,  in  Avhich  rub  one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar  ;  add 
little  salt  and  flavor  with  vanilla,  lemon,  or  nutmeg.  Beat  tl 
whites  of  four  eggs  to  a  stilf  froth,  and  add  last.  Bake  slow 
an  hour  in  a  moderate  oven.  The  recipe  Avill  make  a  tv/o  qua 
basin  loaf,  and  if  the  proportions  are  folloAved  exactlj^  a  beautif 
cake  will  be  the  result. 

Cocoanut  Cup  Cake. — Two  cups  of  rolled  white  sugar,  one  ai 
a  half  cups  of  butter,  one  cup  of  milk,  oi.e  teaspoonful  of  so< 
dissolved  in  a  little  hot  water,  four  eggs  well  beaten,  nutmeg 
rose  water,  the  aa  hite  part  of  one  cocoanut,  grated  ;  flour  to  make 
stiff  batter;  beat  it  well,  and  put  it  in  buttered  pans  an  inch  tlii 
in  a  quick  oven.     When  done  frost  it,  and  cut  in  pieces. 

Ice  Cream  Cake. — Tavo  cups  of  white  sugar,  tAvo  cups  of  fld 
^ix  eggs,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar,  one  teaspoonful 
soda  dissolved  in  tAvo  tal)lespoonfuls  of  hot  water.  Stir  the  flo 
.^ngar,  and  cream  of  tartar  Avell  together ;  1  reak  the  eggs  in  tl 
mixture,  then  the  soda  and  Avater.  Beat  them  Avell  together  ab( 
fiA'e  minutes. 

For  the  cream,  take  one  pint  of  milk,  one  and  a  half  cups 


'h 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    AND    FAMILY   RECIPES,  70U 

sugar,  half  a  cup  of  flour,  two  eggs.  Boil  the  milk,  beat  together 
the  sugar,  eggs,  and  flour,  stir  in  a  little  millc,  when  the  milk  boils 
stir  in  this  mixture.     Salt  a  little,  and  flavor  to  the  taste. 

Let  both  the  cake  and  cream  get  perfectly''  cold,  then  cut  the 
cake  open  and  spread  the  cream  between. 

Tricolored  Cake. — Take  one  spoonful  of  finel.y  powdered 
white  sugar,  nearly  half  a  cupful  of  butter,  half  a  cupful  of  sweet 
milk,  the  whites  of  five  eggs,  a  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  half 
a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  and  orange-flower  water  to  flavor.  Beat 
the  sugar  and  butter  together  until  it  is  creamy;  mix  the  cream 
of  tartar  with  a  cupful  of  flour,  stir  it  gradually  with  the  mixture, 
alternatel}'-  a  little  flour,  then  a  little  milk,  (leaving  only  about  a 
thimbleful  of  milk  to  mix  the  soda  in,)  until  the  whole  is  well 
mixed  ;  have  the  whites  beaten  to  a  firm  froth  ;  mix  evenly  ;  at  the 
same  time  put  in  the  flavor;  and,  for  the  last  thing,  stir  in  the 
soda,  dissolved  in  the  reserved  milk.  The  mixture  should  be  as 
stiff  as  batter  for  muflins.  Butter  two  square  tin  pans,  put  paper 
inside,  after  they  are  buttered  ;  then  put  in  the  mixture  evenly, 
and  bake  as  quick  as  possible  without  scorching.  Take  just  half 
of  the  above  measure,  substituting  brown  sugar  in  the  place  of 
white  sugar,  and  flavor  with  the  juice  of  half  a  lemon  and  the 
peel  of  the  half  lemon  grated,  or  extract ;  bake  this  in  one  pan. 
Xow  take  five  yolks,  light  brown  sugar  in  the  same  proportion  as 
for  the  Avhite  cake,  and  have  two  or  three  ounces  of  sweet  almonds 
lilanched  and  chopped  fine  ;  mix  smoothly,  and  bake  in  two  pans 
the  same  as  above.  When  all  is  done,  and  the  cake  is  cold  and 
firm,  shave  the  tops  of  the  cake  smoothly  and  evenly,  with  a  sharp 
knife,  (the  bottoms  of  the  cake  will  not  need  shaving  unless  they 
are  too  brown  to  look  well  without ;)  put  them  together  with  fine 
jelly,  so  that  they  will  stick  firm — the  pink  cake  in  the  centre,  and 
the  yellow  at  the  top  and  bottom — and  frost  if  you  like.  Cut  it 
in  any  form  ;  it  is  the  prettiest  cut  in  finger  pieces  ;  that  is,  cut  it 
in  slices  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  then  in  squares. 

Dried  Apple  Cake. — Three  cups  of  dried  apples  soaked  over 
night.  Chop  the  apples,  and  simmer  them  fifteen  minutes  in  two 
•ups  of  molasses.  Then  add  one-third  of  a  cup  of  butter,  two 
-'Ligs,  half  a  cup  of  sugar,  five  cups  of  flour,  half  a  cup  of  milk, 
wo  teaspoonfuls  of  soda — spice  to  your  taste.  Allow  the  apples 
ind  molasses  to  cool  before  adding  the  rest. 

Rice  Cake. — Quarter  of  a  pound  of  ground  rice,  quarter  of  a 
•ound  of  finely  powdered  white  sugar,  five  eggs.  Beat  all  well 
(igether  till  it  froths;  pour  quickly  into  a  tin  lined  with  buttered 
Kiper.     Bake  three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  a  moderate  oven. 

SoTTR  Milk  Cake. — One  cup  of  butter,  two  of  sugar,  two  of 
our  milk,  half  a  cup  of  molasses,  five  of  flour,  one  teaspoouful  of 
oda  ;  raisins  and  spice. 


fe 


"^iO  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PA^. 

Tongue  Toast. Take  a  cold  smoked  tongue  that  has  been  well 

boiled,  and  grate  it  with  a  coarse  grater,  or  mince  it  fine  ;  mix  it 
with  cream  and  beaten  yolk  of  egg,  and  give  it  a  simmer  over  the 
fire-  havino-  first  cut  off  all  the  crust,  toast  very  nicely'  some  slices 
of  broad,  and  then  butter  them  rather  slightly ;  lay  them  in  a  fiat 
dish  that  has  been  heated  before  the  fire,  and  cover  each  slice  of 
toast  thickly  with  the  tongue  mixtm-e  spread  on  hot,  and  send 
them  to  the  table  covered.  This  is  a  nice  breakfast  or  supper  dish. 
For  tongue  you  may  substitute  cold  ham  finely  minced. 

Soft  Molasses  Gingerbread. — Dissolve  two  teaspooufuls  of  soda 
in  a  half  pint  of  milk,  add  a  teacup  of  butter  or  lard  ;  mix  with  a 
pint  of  molasses,  a  tablespoonful  of  ginger,  a  pint  of  flour,  and  a 
couple  of  beaten  eggs.    Fresh  lemon  peel,  cut  very  fine,  imi)roves  it. 

Ginger  Cake. — One  "•'d  of  molasses,  one  cup  of  sugar,  two- 
thirds  of  a  cup  of  butter,  one  cap  of  sweet  or  sour  milk,  two  eggs, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  ginger  to  suit  your  taste.  Make  your 
l»atter  as  thick  as  a  common  cup  cake. 

Hard  Gingerbread. — Two  cups  of  flour,  one  of  chopped  suet, 
one  of  raisins  or  any  other  dried  fruit,  one  egg,  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  molasses,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  cup  of  new  milk,  spice 
to  suit  the  taste.  Steam  one  and  a  half  hours.  Eat  with  liquid 
sauce. 

Ginger  Crackers. — One  pint  of  molasses,  one  cup  of  sugar, 
six  ounces  of  butter,  cloves  and  ginger  to  taste,  flour  enough  to  roll 
out  and  cut. 

Rich  Gingerbread. — Melt  together  three-quarters  of  a  pint  of 
molasses  and  a  half  pound  of  butter,  and  pour  them  hot  on  a 
pound  of  flour  mixed  with  half  a  pound  of  sugar  and  three-quar- 
ters of  an  ounce  of  ginger.  When  the  paste  is  quite  cold,  roll  it 
out  with  as  much  more  flour  as  will  prevent  its  adhering  to  the 
l^oard,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven. 

Ginger  Cookies. — Two  cups  of  molasses,  two-thiixls  of  a  cup 
of  butter  or  lard,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  teaspoonful  of  alum, 
dissolved  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  hot  water  and  one  teaspoonful 
of  ginger.    Add  the  alum  after  stirring  in  all  the  other  ingredients. 

To  Ice  a  Cake. — ^For  a  good-sized  cake  use  eight  ounces  of 
finely  sifted  sugar,  put  it  into  a  mortar  with  four  spoonfuls  of 
rose-water  and  the  whites  of  two  eggs,  beat  and  strain  it  well,  and 
whisk  it ;  then,  when  the  cake  is  nearly  cold,  lay  on  the  icing 
evenly  with  a  feather.     Put  it  in  the  oven  to  harden. 

Hard  Molasses  Gingerbread. — One  cup  of  molasses,  half  a 
eup  of  butter,  a  large  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  a  little  salt,  a  tea- 
spoonful of  ginger,  same  of  cinnamon  ;  roll  it  about  an  inch  thick ; 
bake  quickly.     This  is  not  really  hard,  but  it  is  good. 

Sweet  Potato  Custard. — One  pound  of  potato  mashed  and  sifted 
tine,  one-half  pound  of  sugar,  a  small  cup  of  cream,  and  one-fourth 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    AND    FAMILY    RECIPES.  1l[ 

pound  of  butter  ;  four  eggs  ;  nutmeg  and  lemon  to  suit  the  tistf 
If  you  have  no  cream,  put  half  pound  of  butter.     This  makes  two 
large  custards. 

Cookies,  No.  1.— One  cup  of  sugar,  one  eg^,  one-half  cup  of  but- 
ter, one  half  cup  of  lard,  one-half  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one-fourth 
teaspoonlul  of  soda,  and  flour  to  harden.  Roll  thin,  bake  quickly 
and  sprinkle  with  sugar.  *  ' 

Cookies,  No.  2.— Three  cups  of  sugar,  three  and  a  half  cups  of 
;  cream,  one  cup  of  water,  three  eggs,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus; 
salt  and  season  to  taste. 

'  Cookies,  No.  3— (A  superior  article.)— One  teacup  of  white  su- 
gar, half  a  teacup  of  butter,  one  egg,  two  table  spoonfuls  of  butter- 
milk, one  teaspoouful  of  soda,  with  nutmeo-. 

Soft  Gingerbread.— One  egg,  one  cup  of  cream,  one  cup  of  mo- 
lasses, one  teaspoouful  of  soda.     Mix  quite  soft. 

Boston  Gingerbread. — One  pound  of  butter,  one  pound  of 
sugar,  one  pint  of  molasses,  one  pound  of  flour,  six  eggs,  one  gill 

of  cold  water,  one  teaspoouful  of  soda,  one  quart  of  fruit citron 

and  raisins. 

Drop  Cake  for  Breakfast. — Half  pint  of  milk,  four  eggs,  one 
pound  of  flour,  and  add  a  little  salt. 

Apple  Cake. — Two  cups  of  stewed  dried  apples  boiled  in  two 
cups  of  molasses.  Drain  off  the  molasfees  (for  the  cake)  from  the 
apples,  add  two  eggs,  two  teaspoonfyls  of  soda,  four  cups  of  flour, 
one  cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  sour  milk.  Spice  of  all  kinds.  Then 
add  the  apple  (which  was  drained  as  above).  The  apples  shuuu' 
be  soaked  the  night  before  stewing  for  the  cake. 

Orange  Snow  BallSi — Wash  well  half  a  pound  of  Carolina  rice, 
put  it  in  plenty  of  water,  and  boil  it  rather  quickly  for  ten  min- 
utes, drain,  and  let  it  cool.  Pare  four  or  five  small  oranges,  and 
clear  from  them  entirely  the  thick  white  inner  skin,  spread  the 
rice  in  as  many  equal  portions  as  there  are  oranges  upon  some 
pudding  or  dumpling  cloths;  tie  the  fruit  separately  in  tiiese,  and 
boil  the  snow  balls  for  an  hour  and  a  half.  Turn  them  carefully 
on  a  dish,  and  strew  plenty  of  sifted  sugar  on  them. 

Cinnamon  Cakes. — Beat  up  six  eggs  with  three  tablespoonfuls 
of  rose  water,  put  to  it  a  pound  of  sifted  sugar,  a  dessertspoonful 
of  powdered  cinnamon,  and  enough  flour  to  form  it  into  a  paste  ; 
roll  it  out  thin,  and  cut  it  into  any  shape  you  please.  Place  them 
on  paper  and  bake  them.  Remove  them  from  the  paper  wh.'u 
done,  and  keep  dry. 

Peppernuts.— Take  four  eggs  and  beat  them  light  with  one 
'jound  of  sugar;  then  take  half  a  pound  of  butter,  beat  it  up  with 
<^Rgs  and  sugar;  one  gill  of  milk,  one  nutmeg,  half  an  ounce  of 
saJeratus,  and  flour  enough  to  make  a  dough  sti.f  to  roll  out. 


712  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY.  ^ 

Marvels. Dissolve  one  teaspoonfal  of  soda  or  saleratus  in  a 

cup  of  milk.  Season  with  nutmeg  or  cinnamon.  Make  it  slift' 
with  flour.  Roll  it  very  thin.  Cut  them  round,  as  large  as  a 
cookey,  and  fry  them.     Sift  sugar  over  them  while  hot. 

MuDGE  Cakes. — Three  eggs,  half  a  pound  of  sugar,  one  cup  of 
butter,  one  pint  and  a  half  of  flour,  rolled  thin  in  sugar. 

Doughnuts. — One  cup  of  sugar,  two  eggs,  three  teaspoonfiils 
of  melted  lard,  one  cup  of  sweet  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream 
of  tartar,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt ;  add  a 
little  nutmeg.     Knead  all  together  and  fry  in  hot  lard. 

Apple  Custard. — One  pint  of  good  stewed  apples,  half  a  pint 
of  cream,  the  eggs  beaten  light,  sugar  and  grated  nutmeg  to  taste. 
Stir  the  ingredients  together,  and  bake  in  a  sliif  paste  in  a  mode- 
rate oven. 

Bread  Cakes. — Break  the  bread  in  small  pieces  and  soak  in 
cold  milk;  Avhen  soft,  add  one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  one  "^f 
salt  and  flour,  for  a  good  batter. 

CoRX  Starch  Cake,  No.  1. — One  cup  of  corn  starch,  one  of 
butter,  one  of  sweet  milk,  two  of  sugar,  the  wliites  of  six  eggs, 
one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  and  a  half  teacupful  of  soda. 
Flavor  with  lemon  or  vanilla. 

CoRX  Starch  Cake,  No.  2. — One  cup  of  butter,  two  of  sugar, 
two  of  flour,  one  of  cornstarch,  one  of  sweet  milk,  whites  of  seven 
eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  two  of  cream  of  tartar.  Mix  tlie  but- 
ter and  sugar  well  together,  put  the  soda  in  the  milk,  the  cream 
of  tartar  in  the  corn  starch,  add  them  to  the  butter  and  sugar,  then 
put  in  the  flour  and  eggs,  stir  ten  minutes,  and  bake  in  a  moderate 
OA'eu. 

Straavberry  Shortcake,  No.  1. — Mix  some  dough  precisely  as 
3'ou  would  for  biscuit.  Bake  in  one  cake,  on  a  round  tin.  When  it  is 
baked,  split  it  open  and  butter  it  well.  Have  your  berries  pre- 
pared with  sugar,  and  cream  also,  if  3''ou  like  ;  pour  them  upon 
the  lower  crust  of  your  cake  and  place  the  upper  one  over  them. 

Strawberry  Shortcake,  No.  2. — One  cup  of  sour  cream,  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  soda,  flour  sufficient  to  make  a  stifl'  dough.  Roll  it 
out  large  enough  to  cover  a  large  pie  tin.  Bake  it  in  a  quick  oven. 
When  baked,  split  it  open  and  spread  it  with  butter ;  take  a  pint 
of  strawberries,  cover  them  with  sweet  cream,  sweeten  them  to 
your  taste,  spread  them  on  the  lower  crust,  and  put  the  upper 
crust  over  them— and  you  have  a  dish  fit  for  a  wedding. 

Waffles. — One  quart  of  sour  milk,  one  cup  of  cream,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  melted  butter,  three  eggs,  and  a  little  salt.  Let  the 
irons  be  well  heated  before  baking. 

Buttermilk  Waffles. — One  quart  of  buttermilk,  two  eggs,  one 
small  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  one  large  teaspoonful  of  soda, 
and  flour  to  make  a  batter. 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    AND    FAMILY    RECIPES.  713 

Eaised  Waffles.— One  quart  of  milk,  two  eggs,  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  lard,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  (or  two  of  butter),  one-half 
teacup  of  corn  (or  of  Graham)  meal,one-half  teacup  of  yeast,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  and  flour  enough  to  make  a  batter  ;  bake  when  light. 

Aywther.—Oue  quart  of  milk,  five  eggs,  one  and  a  quarter  pou^ids 
of  flour,  one  half  pound  of  butter.  Beat  well  together.  If  you  make 
before  time  to  bake,  put  in  one  spoonful  of  yeast.  Sift  on  cinnamon 
and  sugar  ;  one-half  teaspoonful  of  soda,  and  one  teaspoonful  of 
cream  of  tartar.  Bake  immediately.  AVaffles  should  be  wet  with 
milk  or  sauce  as  fast  as  baked. 

Plum  Pudding. — One  pound  of  raisins,  one  pound  of  currants, 
one  pound  of  suet,  and  two  and  a  b-i.lf  pounds  of  flour,  with  one 
pound  of  sugar,  three  eggs,  and  a  tab.espoonful  of  ground  allspice, 
one  ounce  of  candied  lemon,  one  ounce  of  orange" ^eel.  Prepare, 
these  ingredients  as  usual,  and  boil  this  pudding  at  least  seveu 
hours.  Always  place  an  old  plate  at  the  bottom  of  a  saucepan 
in  Avhich  a  pudding  is  to  be  boiled,  and  do  not  imagine  that 
a  plum  pudding  can  be  overboiled.  We  never  knew  any  in- 
stance of  this,  but  we  have  known  many  a  pudding  perfectly 
dry  in  the  centre  for  want  of  a  sufticient  quantity  of  water,  or  too 
small  a  saucepan  in  which  to  boil  it ;  and  we  have  also  known  a 
rich  plum  pudding  appear  at  table  in  the  form  of  a  ver}'  thick 
soup,  for  lack  of  being  firmly  tied  when  put  into  the  pudding 
cloth  for  boiling.  Never  omit  to  dip  your  pudding  into  a  pail  of 
clear,  cold  water  for  about  throe  minutes,  when, taking  it  up  for 
being  dished  ;  this  renders  it  firm,  and  prevents  the  cloth  adhering 
to  it. 

Bread  Pudding. — Take  light  white  bread  and  cut  in  thin 
slices.  Put  into  a  pudding  shape  a  layer  of  any  kind  of  preserve, 
then  a  little  slice  of  bread,  and  repeat  until  the  mould  is  almost 
full.  Pour  over  all  a  pint  of  warm  milk,  in  which  four  well-beaten 
eggs  have  been  mixed ;  cover  the  mould  with  a  piece  of  linen, 
place  in  a  saucepan  with  a  little  boiling  water,  let  it  boil  twenty 
minutes,  and  serve  with  pudding  sauce. 

Country  Pudding.— (Easily  made.)— Put  a  layer  of  stale  bread 
crumbs  in  the  bottom  of  your  pudding  dish,  then  a  layer  of  tart 
apples,  sliced  thin.  Sprinkle  a  little  sugar  over  the  apples,  add 
another  layer  of  bread  crumbs,  and  another  of  apples,  until  your 
dish  is  full.  Crumbs  should  form  the  top  layer;  pour  a  custard 
(made  same  as  for  pies)  over  it,  and  bake  one  hour.  Eat  wiiu 
sweetened  cream. 

Poverty  Pudding.— Soak  your  bread  in  milk  the  night  before 
usino- ;  when  ready,  butter  your  pudding-dish,  and  place  in  a 
layer  of  the  bread.  Have  a  dozen  apples  pared  and  sliced,  and 
place  a  layer  of  apples  on  the  bread,  another  layer  of  bread,  then 
of  apples,\and  so  on,  till  your  dish  is  filled.  Let  the  last  layer 
be  bread   aud  bake  it  an  houi.     To  be  eaten  with  sauce. 


7U  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

Minute  Pudding. — One  quart  of  milk,  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
Hour,  stirred  up  with  a  little  milk,  then  stirred  into  the  boiling 
milk.  Take  from  the  fire  and  pour  into  a  dish ;  beat  four  eggs 
and  stir  in  while  hot.  After  it  becomes  a  little  cool,  sprinkle  over 
the  top  one  cup  of  white  sugar,  and  a  little  grated  nutmeg  ;  pour 
over  that  one  cup  of  wine. 

Blackberry  or  Huckleberry  Pudding. — Dissolve  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  soda  in  half  a  teacupful  of  very  warm  w^ater,  stir  in  one  pint 
of  molasses,  a  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon,  one  of  allspice,  a  quart 
of  huckleberries  ;  then  stir  in  flour,  and  make  it  quite  thick, 
about  as  thick  as  pound  cake.  Tic  in  a  pudding  bag,  and  boil 
two  hours  and  a  half;  serve  with  wine  sauce. 

Baked  Apple  Pudding. — Two  ounces  of  butter,  quarter  pound 
of  pulverized  white  sugar,  quarter  pound  of  boiled  apples, the  yolks 
of  three  eggs,  the  whites  of  two  eggs,  the  rind  and  juice  of  one 
lemon.  Mix  the  whole  well  together,  and  bake  it  in  a  pulf  paste 
one  hour. 

Sweet  Potato  Pudding. — One  pound  of  sweet  potatoes,  boiled 
and  mashed  fine,  or  grated  while  hot;  six  eggs  well  beaten,  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar,  the  same  of  butter,  a  grated  lemon 
rind  and  nutmeg,  a  wine  glass  of  brandy ;  line  the  dish  with 
paste.     When  baked  sprinkle  the  top  with  fine  sugar. 

Rice  Pudding. — Soak  three  ounces  of  rice  in  cold  water  for  an 
hour  ;  then  throw  away  this  water.  Cover  again  with  fresh  water, 
place  on  the' stove,  and  let  it  soak  until  quite  soft;  then  add  one 
ounce  of  sugar,  two  eggs  well  beaten,  and  then  gradually  mix 
with  three-quarters  of  a  pint  of  milk  and  half  an  ounce  of  butter. 
Mix  all  well  together,  and  bake  in  a  gentle  oven. 

Rice  Pudding. — Half  a  pint  of  rice  boiled  ;  drain  off  the  water, 
and  let  the  rice  get  cold  ;  two  ounces  of  butter,  four  ounces  of 
sugar,  one  quart  of  rich  milk,  five  eggs  beaten  very  light,  a  table- 
spoonful  of  nutmeg  and  cinnamon.     Stir  all  togetlier. 

Baked  Chicken  Pudding. — Cut  up  two  j-oung  chickens  ;  season 
them  with  popper  and  salt  and  a  little  mace  and  nutmeg.  Put 
them  into  a  saucepan  with  two  large  spoonfuls  of  butter,  and 
water  enough  to  cover  them.  Stew  them  gently,  and  when  about 
half  cooked,  take  them  out  and  set  them  away  to  cool.  Pour  off 
the  gravy,  and  reserve  it  to  be  served  up  separateh^  In  the 
mean  time  make  a  batter,  as  if  for  a  pudding,  of  a  pound  of  flour 
stirred  gradually  into  a  quart  of  milk,  six  eggs  well  beaten,  and 
added  by  degrees  to  the  mixture,  and  a  very  little  salt.  Put  a 
layer  of  chicken  in  the  bottom  of  the  pie  dish,  and  i)our  over  it 
some  of  the  batter  ;  then  another  layer  of  chicken  and  some  batter, 
and  so  on,  having  a  cover  on  the' top.  Bake  it  till  it  is  brown. 
Break  an  egg  into  the  gravy  which  you  have  set  away,  give  it  a 
>)oil,  and  gend  it  to  the  table,  in  a  sauce  tureen,  to  eat  with  the 
l)uddiug.     This  is  a  rather  expensive  dish  for  people  of  moderate 


DOMESTIC   ECOXOMY   AND    FAMILY   RECIPES.  715 

means  to  indulge  in,  but  it  is  presented  to  all  to  use  or  not  u^e 
as  they  may  see  proper.  "    ' 

Baked  Indian  PuDDiNG.—Eoil  a  quart  of  milk,  stir  into  it 
gradually,  three  gills  of  Indian  meal  and  half  a  pint  of  molissc*' 
and  let  it  cool.  Butter  a  dish,  put  into  it  half  a  pound  of  I.ecf 
suet,  chopped,  and  a  spoonful  of  salt ;  then  turn  in  the  puddin^r 
and  a  quart  of  cold  milk.  Stir  it  up  well,  add  a  pint  of  cold  milk! 
Bake  four  or  five  hours. 

Lemon  Custard.— The  lemons  grated,  one  pound  of  suo-nr. 
eight  eggs,  a  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a  walnut,  Beat  the  yolks, 
sugar,  lemons,  and  butter  together,  the  Avhites  to  a  froth,  which 
are  not  to  be  added  until  ready  for  the  oven.   Bake  on  pie  crusts. 

Solid  Custard.— Half  a  box  of  gelatine  boiled  in  one  quart  of 
milk,  and  pour,  while  boiling,  over  eight  eggs  and  tight  spoonfals 
of  sugar  well  beaten  together.  Flavor  to  taste,  and  put  in  moulds 
in  ice.     To  be  eaten  with  cream  and  sugar. 

Apple  in  Jelly. — Peal  and  quarter  some  good  apples,  and 
take  out  the  core  ;  cook  them  with  just  enough  water  to  cover 
them,  some  slices  of  lemon  and  clarified  sugar,  until  they  are  soft. 
Take  out  pieces  of  apple  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to  break  them, 
.and  arrange  them  in  the  jars  ;  then  boil  the  sirup  until  it  will 
jelly,  and  pour  it  over  the  pieces  of  apple. 

Lemon  Butter — Fine. — One  pound  of  powdered  white  sugar: 
six  eggs,  leaving  out  the  whites  of  two  ;  the  juice  and  grated  rind 
of  three  lemons  ;  one  quarter  of  a  pound  of  fresh  butter.  Boil 
these  together  till  as  thick  as  honey.  One  teaspoonful  is  enough 
for  a  tart  or  cheese.  Will  keep  well  if  tied  up  in  jar.^,  covered 
with  paper  dipped  in  the  white  of  eggs. 

Canning  Fruit. — This  we  call  a  very  simple  process  when 
rightly  understood.  We  always  have  an  abundance  of  the  small 
fruits  put  up  in  glass  jars.  We  think  the  trouble  less,  the  fruit 
better,  and  less  expensive,  than  by  the  old  process  of  preserving  in 
sugar,  pound  for  pound.  We  use  the  Spencer  jar  with  a  japanned 
cover,  and  a  rubber  ring  around  its  edge.  We  heat  the  fruit  to  a 
boil  in  a  bright  tin  pan;  have  the  jars  filled  with  quite  warm 
(almost  hot)  water  to  warm  them ;  pour  out  the  water,  and  dip  the 
boiling  fruit  rapidly  into  the  jar,  until  it  comes  slightly  above  the 
shoulder  in  the  inside  of  the  neck  of  the  jar.  The  end  of  a  string, 
.about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  dropped  inside  on  the 
fruit,  retaining  the  other  end  in  the  hand.  Now  crowd  in  the 
cover  down  on  to  the  shonUler,  at  same  time  withdrawing  string, 
nnd  the  work  is  done.  Any  extra  juice  or  air  will  follow  oat  with 
the  string. 

Those  who  fail  in  putting  up  fruit  to  keep,  do  not  exclude  the 
air.  This  is  done  by  having  the  fruit  hot,  and  by  being  sure  to 
fill  the  jar,  so  that  when  the  cover  is  pushed  down  a  little  of  the 
juice  will  be  pressed  out  with  the  string.     You  may  sweeten  the 


716 


HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 


fruit  or  not,  just  as  you  please.  It  is  not  necessary  in  order  that 
it  may  keep.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  put  the  fruit  jnto  the  jars 
to  boil.  It  necessitates  extra  trouble,  and  often  loss,  by  the 
breakage  of  the  jars. 

Different  Methods— Peaches,  Apricots,  and  Pears. — As  yon 
peel,  halve  and  seed  them — drop  them  into  cold  water  to  prevent 
discoloration ;  then  fdl  jour  jars  as  full  as  they  can  be  filled  ; 
prepare  j'our  sirup  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  white  say:ar 
to  a  quart  of  Avater ;  boil  j'our  sirup  five  minutes,  then  pour  it  on 
your  fruit;  let  the  jars  he  filled  with  the  sirup  up  to  the  neck  ;  as 
soon  as  each  jar  is  filled,  screw  on  the  cap  agaiust  the  rubber,  so 
that  all  air  maj'  be  excluded  ;  then  place  3'our  jars  in  the  boiler 
with  cold  water  to  the  neck  of  the  jars,  and  then  let  them  boil 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  (keep  your  jars  from  striking  each  other 
when  boiling) ;  then  take  them  out,  screw  down  the  cap  firmly 
with  the  baud,  and  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has  cooled,  the  wrench 
should  be  applied  ;  theu  put  them  away  in  a  cool  place. 

Another  Way  to  do  I'eaches. — Place  your  sirup  on  the  fire, 
and  throw  in  j^our  fruit,  after  preparing  as  above.  Let  it  reniaiu 
in  the  hot  sirup  until  it  is  thoroughly  heated  tlu'ough;  tlieu  fill 
your  jars  ;  be  sure  your  jars  are  warm  before  putti)ig  in  tlie  hot 
fruits;  then  pour  on  the  sirup  (screw  tliem  up  immediately,  each 
one  as  you  fill,  as  firmly  as  you  can  with  the  hand),  and  as  they 
cool  off  apply  the  wreiicii ;  then  place  them  in  a  cool  place. 

Strawberries,  llAsrBERRiES,  Blackberries,  and  Cherries. — 
Sirup  same  as  peaches  ;  let  the  sirup  be  cold  befoi'e  pouring  it  on 
the  fruit ;  then  fill  your  jars  with  berries  as  full  as  possible  ;  pour 
on  the  sirup,  if  cold,  to  the  neck;  screw  the  cap  down  to  the 
rubber  ;  place  the  jars  in  the  boiler  with  cold  water  up  to  the  neck, 
and  boil  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  ;  then  take  them  out ;  screw  the 
cap  firmly  with  the  hand  (as  the  fruit  cools  apply  the  wrench). 

Plums  and  Currants. — Sirup,  two  pounds  of  white  sugar  to 
one  quart  of  water;  boil  five  minutes  (plums  are  best  with  tlie 
skins  taken  off)  ;  have  your  jars  warm,  then  fill  them  up  with  the 
fruit;  pour  on  the  hot  sirup;  screw  on  the  cap  firmly  with  the 
hand  as  soon  as  you  fill  each  jar,  and  as  they  cool  oil"  apply  tlie 
wrench. 

Quinces. — Sirup  one  and  a  quarter  pound  of  sugar  to  one  quart 
of  water ;  parboil  them  in  water  soft  enough  to  run  a  broom  whisk 
through  theui ;  fill  your  jars  with  them;  pour  on  the  sirup  while 
hot ;  screw  down  the  cap  when  cool ;  place  them  in  a  boiler  of  cold 
water  up  to  the  neck,  and  boil  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  ;  take 
them  out ;  screw  the  cap  firmly  with  the  hand  ;  *wheu  cool  apply 
the  wrench.  The  water  that  tlie  quinces  are  parboiled  in  may  be 
used  for  jelly. 

Tomatoes.— may  be  prepared  as  for  stewing;  let  them  boil 
twenty  minutes;  fill  your  jars  (have  the  jars  warm  before  you  fill 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY   AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  717 

them  ;  screw  on  tlio  cap  firmly  with  the  hand  as  you  fill  each  jar  • 
as  they  cool  ai)ply  the  wrench.  Do  not  season  them  until  thev  -mv 
used  for  the  table. 

Preserved  Strawberries.— Pick  oflT  all  the  stems,  and  to  everv 
quart  of  fruit  add  a  quart  of  sugar;  mix  well  with  the  sufjar  anil 
put  them  over  a  slow  fire  till  the  sirup  commences  to  fonn.  then 
pour  them  over  a  hot  fire,  and  let  them  boil  quickly  for  fifteen 
minutes,  skimming  it  well.  Put  them  boiling  hot  into  stone  jars, 
seal  up  tightly. 

Preserved  Apple.— Core  and  pair  a  dozen  good  sized  apples 
and  cut  into  eighths ;  make  a  syrup  of  a  pound  of  sugar  to  a  half 
a  pint  of  water;  let  it  boil,  and  put  in  as  much  apple  as  can  be 
boiled  without  breaking;  remove  them  carefully  when  tender; 
after  all  are  done,  add  a  little  more  sugar,  boil  up^  and  flavor  with 
vanilla  or  lemon,  and  turn  over  the  apple. 

Preserved  Cherries. — The  bright  red  cherry  is  the  best.  Do 
not  take  off  the  stems  ;  wash  and  drain  them,  weigh  them,  and  allow 
three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  cherries  ;  put  them 
into  wide  mouthed  bottles,  cork  them  tightl}^,  place  the  bottles  in 
a  kettle  of  water,  cold,  (keep  the  bottles  apart  to  prevent  them 
fi'om  striking,)  put  tlie  kettle  on  the  range,  and  let  it  boil  for 
nearly  three  hours.  As  the  water  boils  away,  replenish  it ;  after 
the  bottles  are  taken  from  the  water  and  cooled  a  little,  cement 
the  corks  closel}'  and  put  in  a  dry  place. 

Marblehead  Preserved  Peach. — Take  a  peck  of  ripe  peaches, 
stone  and  pare  them,  allow  a  bowl  of  white  sugar  to  a  bowl  of 
peach;  put  a  layer  of  peach  into  the  stone  jar,  then  a  layer  of 
sugar,  and  so  on  till  they  are  used  up.  Let  them  stand  for  two 
days ;  drain  off  the  sirup,  boil  and  skim  and  turn  over  the  i)cach, 
let  them  stand  for  two  days;  drain  off  the  sirup,  scald  and  skim, 
and  again  return  to  the  peach,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Preserved  Quinces. — A  pound  of  sugar  to  each  pound  of 
quince  (after  paring  and  quartering) ;  take  half  of  the  sugar  and 
make  a  thin  sirup ;  stewing  a  few  of  the  quinces  at  a  time  till  all 
are  finished,  make  a  rich  sirup  of  the  remaining  sugar  and  pour 
over  them. 

To  Seal  Preserves.— Beat  the  white  of  an  egg;  take  good 
white  paper  (tissue  is  the  best),  cut  it  the  size  you  require,  and 
dip  it  in  the  eag,  wetting  both  sides.  Cover  your  jars  or  tumblers, 
carefully  pressfng  down  the  edges  of  the  paper.  When  dry  it  will 
be  ti^ht  as  a  drumhead. 

Apple  Jam.— Weioh  eaual  quantities  of  sugar  and  good  sour 
apples;  pare,  core  ami  chop  them  fine;  make  a  sirup  of  the  sugar, 
clarify  thoroughly;  then  add  the  apples,  the  grated  P^^^-^l  «»  ^7  or 
three  lemons,  and  a  few  pieces  of  white  ginger,  l^oil  till  the 
apples  look  clear  and  yellow.     This  resembles  foreign  sweetmeats ; 


718  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM   PAY. 

the  ginger  is  essential  to  its  peculiar  excellence ;  it  will  keep  nice 
for  years. 

Apple  Sweetmeats. — To  twelve  pounds  of  sweet  apples  add 
four  pounds  of  sugar,  one  pint  of  vinegar.  Put  the  vinegar  and 
sugar  together  to  dissolve,  then  put  in  the  apples,  with  lemon, 
ginger  root,  cloves,  etc. 

Pie  Plant. — The  pie  plant  may  be  dried  for  winter  use  like  any 
other  fruit.  Prepare  as  for  cooking,  and  set  in  a  moderately  warm 
oven  or  near  a  fire  till  thoroughly  dried.  To  prepare  for  use,  scald 
in  two  waters,  and  cook  the  same  as  dried  peaches. 

Apple  Sauce. — Let  your  stock  of  apples  be  picked  over  several 
times  in  the  course  of  the  winter,  and  all  the  defective  ones  taken 
out.  Let  the  good  parts  of  these  be  pared,  and  if  not  used  for 
pies,  be  made  into  apple-sauce.  Boil  it  in  a  preserving  kettle,  and 
to  a  pailful  of  cut  ai)ples  put  one  sliced  lemon.  After  the  apples 
are  tender,  add  a  pint  bowl  of  brown  sugar,  and  boil  them  gently 
fifteen  minutes  longer.  Toward  spring,  when  apples  become 
tasteless,  a  teaspoonful  of  tartaric  acid,  dissolved  in  a  little  water, 
should  be  added  to  this  quantity  of  apple. 

Currant  Jelly. — Pick  fine  red,  but  long-ripe  currants  from  the 
istems  ;  bruise  them  and  strain  the  juice  from  a  quart  at  a  time 
through-a  thin  muslin:  wring  it  to  get  all  the  liquid  ;  put  a  pound 
of  white  sugar  to  each  pound  of  juice  ;  stir  it  until  it  is  all  dissolved  ; 
set  it  over  a  gentle  fire  ;  let  it  become  hot,  and  boil  for  fifteen 
minutes;  then  tr}'  it  by  taking  a  teaspoonful  into  a  saucer;  when 
cold,  if  it  is  not  quite  firm  enough,  boil  it  for  a  few  minutes  longer. 

Black  Currant  Jelly. — Boil  the  currants  till  the  juice  flows, 
then  strain  through  a  jelly  bag,  and  set  it  over  the  fire  for  twenty 
minutes,  after  which  add  half  a  pound  of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  juice, 
and  boil  for  about  ten  minutes. 

Raspberry  Jam. — Pick  them  carefully,  take  equal  quantities  of 
berries  and  sugar,  stir  it  continually  ;  put  the  fruit  first  into  a 
sauce-pan,  and  when  the  v/atery  particles  are  evaporated  add  the 
sugar,  simmer  slowl}'-  fifteen  or  twent}^  minutes. 

Boiled  Cider  Jelly. — To  each  pint  of  boiled  cider  add  one 
pound  of  sugar  and  boil  ten  minutes.  Tiiis  will  make  a  beautiful 
jell}'  for  tarts. 

Currant  Wine. — Take  perfectly  ripe  currants,  mash  and  strain  ; 
to  each  quart  put  two  of  water  cdid  three  of  sugar  ;  stir  the  whole 
well  together,  and  let  it  stand  twenty  four  hours  without  stirring  ; 
then  skim  and  set  in  a  cool  place  where  it  wUl  ferment  slowly. 
When  it  becomes  clear  it  is  fit  to  bottle.  This  will  be  good  in  the 
course  of  six  months,  but  is  much  improved  by  being  kept  two  or 
three  years.  I  have  currant  wine  two  years  old,  made  according' 
to  the  above  recipe,  which  is  far  preferable  to  Madeira  in  sickness. 

Raspberry  Wine. — Bruise  the  finest  ripe  raspberries  with  the 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    AND    FAMILY   RECIPEs  "  I M 

back  of  a  spoon  ;  strain  them  throngli  a  flannel  bag  into  a  stout; 
jar  ;  allow  one  pound  of  fine  powdered  loaf  sugar  to'one  qnart  of 
juice;  stir  these  well  together  and  cover  the  jar  closely.     Let,  it 
stand  three  days,  stirring  up  the  mixture  every  day  ;  then  pour  off 
the  clear  liquid  and  put  two  quarts  of  sherry  wine  to  each  quart- 
of  juice  or  liquid.     Bottle  it  oflT,  and  it  wilf  be  fit  for  use  in  a 
fortnight.     By  adding  cognac  brandy  instead  of  sherry  the  mix- 
ture will  be  raspberry  brandy. — Germantoicn  Telegraph. 

Blackberry  Wine. — To  one  quart  of  juice  add  two  quarts  of 
water  and  three  pounds  of  sugar ;  the  berries  to  be  mashed  cold, 
and  the  juice  expressed  and  strained  ;  the  sugar  dissolved  in  the 
water  and  strained.  The  whole  then  mixed  in  kegs  and  placed  in 
a  cool  cellar;  the  bung-hole  to  be  left  open  until  fermentation 
has  nearly  ceased,  then  closed  tight  and  left  standing  until  the 
ensuing  April,  when  it  should  be  carefully  drawn  and  bottled. 

Raspberry  Tineg.\r. — Pick  the  raspberries  and  place  them  in 
vinegar  over  night,  sufficieiit  to  cover  them.  Then  strain  tlirouo-h 
a  cloth,  adding  one  pound  of  sugar  to  one  pint  of  the  juice.  Boil 
•.ind  skim  until  clear;  and  when  cool  bottle  and  coik,  setting  in  a 
cool  place. 

Black  Currant  Vinegar. — Pour  three  pints  of  vinegar  on 
five  pounds  of  very  ripe  black  currants,  stir  them  twice  a  day  for 
three  days,  then  squeeze  and  strain  off  the  juice,  boil  it  ten  minutes, 
add  one  pound  of  loaf  sugar  to  cver}^  pint  of  juice,  boil  and  drain 
it  about  twent}'  minutes  longer,  and  bottle  it  when  cold. 

To  Make  Good  Vinegar. — One  pint  of  strained  honey  and  two 
gallons  of  soft  water.  Let  it  stand  in  a  moderately  warm  place. 
In  three  weeks  it  will  be  excellent  vinegar. 

Pickles, — Mrs.  W.  T.  Warrensville,  Ohio,  gives  the  following 
directions  for  preserving  pickles  from  scum  :  Pack  the  cucumbers, 
or  whatever  is  to  be  pickled,  in  a  jar  or  tub,  pour  a  weak  brine 
upon  them,  and  let  it  remain  three  daj's.  Pour  off  the  brine,  ami 
pour  on  boiling  hot  vinegar  enough  to  cover  the  pickles,  and  let 
them  stand  twenty-four  hours.  Pvcboil  the  vinegar,  and  pour  on 
as  before.  Do  this  three  times,  letting  the  pickles  stand  twenty- 
four  hours  each  time.  Then  throw  this  pickle  away,  and  add 
enough  fresh  vinegar  to  cover  the  cucumbers,  or  whatever  is  to  be 
pickled.  Add  a  small  lump  of  alum  the  size  of  a  marble^  to  a 
gallon  of  pickle  ;  half  pound  of  sugar  and  spices  to  taste.  Bring 
to  a  boil,  skim,  and  then  turn  upon  the  pickles  while  hot.  Let 
them  stand,  well  covered,  for  ten  days,  and  they  are  ready  for  use. 
Peaches,  pears,  sweet  apples,  etc.,  are  served  in  the  same  way.  ex- 
cepting the  use  of  brine.  The  author  of  this  recipe  has  pickles 
two  years  old,  preserved  in  this  way,  as  free  from  rot  and  scum 
as  when  first  put  down. 

Pickled  Cabbage.— A  correspondent  of  the  Country  Gentle-^ 
man  says  :     "  Jn  response  to  the  inquiry,  '  how  to  pickle  cabouge  . 


720  HOW    TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

I  send  the  following,  which  my  folks  have  tried  several  3-ears,  and 
I  know  to  be  good,  and  is  liked  b.y  those  who  have  eaten  it.  It 
keeps  well  a  year,  and  how  mnch  longer  it  would  keep  I  am  unal)le 
to  say.  If  one  is  not  over  nice  in  regard  to  the  form  in  wliich  it 
is  served,  I  think  it  will  suit  the  palate  of  any  who  are  fond  of  the 
like  pickle.  Take  any  quantity  of  well  formed  cabbage  heads,  and 
thick-meated  squash,  or  bell-peppers,  and  chop  them  fine  and  mix. 
Use  about  one-third  pepper,  and  two-thirds  or  more  of  cabbage 
after  being  chopped  ;  for  each  gallon  take  one  heaping  teaspoonfnl 
of  ground  cloves,  about  half  the  quantity  of  ground  cinnamon, 
half  a  teacupful  of  whole  mustard  seeds,  and  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  fine  salt;  mix  thoroughly  and  place  it  in  a  stone  jar,  and  pour 
over  it  scalding  hot  cider  vinegar;  cover  and  set  in  the  store 
room,  where  it  will  keep  cool  and  not  freeze.  It  will  answer  to 
use  after  twenty-four  hours.  Small  green  tomatoes  or  other  vege- 
tables may  be  added,  if  desired,  and  pickled  whole.  One  who 
does  not  like  to  be  at  the  ti'ouble  of  stulfing  peppers  wdll  here  find 
an  excellent  substitute.  The  vinegar  should  not  rise  above  the 
cabbage,  only  well  saturate  the  mass. 

Sweet  Cucumber  Pickles. — Take  cucumbers  when  fully  ripe, 
pare  them,  cut  lengthwise,  and  take  out  the  seed.  Put  them  into 
weak  brine  over  night.  In  the  morning,  drain  them,  boil  till  ten- 
der in  weak  vinegar  and  water,  drain  again,  and  put  into  jars, 
and  turn  over  them  the  sirup,  hot.  For  the  sirup,  or  "  sweet 
pickle,"  allow  to  each  pound  of  fruit  (?)  half  a  pound  of  sugar; 
and  one  pint  of  vinegar  to  each  four  pounds  of  fruit.  Boil  the 
vinegar  and  sugar  a  few  moments,  then  add  mace,  cinnamon,  and 
cloves,  to  3'our  taste ;  let  it  boil,  and  skim  well.  This  pickle  is  as 
good  for  cantelopes,  peaches,  or  other  fruit  as  for  the  above. 

To  Pickle  Beet  Root. — This  vegetable  makes  an  excellent 
pickle,  and  from  the  brightness  of  its  color  has  a  very  pretty 
effect  in  a  glass  pickle-dish  or  jar.  AVash  the  beet  perfectly;  do 
not  cut  ofi"any  of  the  fibrous  roots,  as  this  would  allow  the  juice 
to  escape,  and  thus  the  coloring  would  be  lost.  Put  into  sufficient 
water  to  boil  it,  and  when  the  skin  will  come  off  it  will  be  suffi- 
ciently cooked,  and  may  be  taken  out  and  laid  upon  a  cloth  to 
cool.  Having  rubbed  off  the  skin,  cut  the  beet  into  thick  slices, 
put  it  into  a  jar,  and  pour  over  it  cold  vinegar,  prepared  as  fol- 
lows :  Boil  !i  quart  of  vinegar  with  an  ounce  of  wdiole  black  pep 
per  and  an  equal  weight  of  dr}'  ginger,  and  let  it  stand  until  quite 
cold.     The  jar  should  be  kept  closely  corked. 

Cauliflower  Pickles. — Break  them  into  neat  branches,  put 
them  in  a  white  cloth,  (nothing  stains  more  easily  ;)  boil  them 
very  slightly  in  salt  and  water.  Spread  them  to  cool.  Pack  them 
in  jars,  and  pour  over  them  vinegar,  prepared  as  follows,  and  then 
seal  up  tight.  Grind  three  ounces  of  coriander  seed,  and  one  ounce 
of  white  mustard  seed;  pound  and  then  grind  one  ounce  of  white 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY   AND    FAMILY   EEGIPES. 


r2i 


ginger  root.  Boil  the  whole  in  three  quarts  of  the  best  cider  vinecrar 
m  a  porcelain  or  bright  tin  kettle,  and  strain  over  the  cauliflo\\^V. 

Pickled  Eggs.— Boil  the  eggs  until  done;  when  cold  shell 
them  and  cut  them  in  halves  lengthwise  ;  lay  them  carefully  in 
large  mouthed  jars,  and  pour  over  them  scaldin^r  vinc'rar  \vell 
seasoned  with  whole  pepper,  allspice,  a  few  pieces°of  mn^ev  and 
a  few  cloves.  Wben  cold  tie  up  clo.scly,  and  let  them  'Itund  -i 
month.  Ihey  are  then  fit  for  use.  Uith  cold  meat  they  are  a 
most  delicious  and  delicate  pickle. 

Tomatoes  For  Winter  Use.— After  skinning  perfectly  ripo 
tomatoes,  cut  out  any  green  around  the  base.  I  think  leaving  in 
this  hard  green  core  is  the  immediate  cause  of  the  loss  of°the 
fruit.  Place  them  in  a  bell-metal  kettle  over  the  fire;  season  with 
salt  as  if  for  immediate  use ;  then  allow  them  to  coM)e  to  a  boil  ; 
while  hot,  put  in  stone  cans  or  small  mouthed  gallon  jars,  cork 
and  seal.  If  proper  judgment  be  exercised  you"' will  liover  lose 
one  jar.     Do  not  use  tin. 

Tomato  Catsup.— Scald  and  peel  your  tomatoes;  then  place 
them  in  a  kettle  to  boil.  When  done,  cool  and  strain  them 
through  a  sieve  ;  then  add  pepper,  salt,  and  cloves.  Scald  them 
again,  and  add  one  tablespoonful  of  brandy  to  one  i)int  of  the 
catsup  ;  place  in  bottles,  cork  and  seal  while  hot,  setting  it  in  a 
cool  place. 

To  Pickle  Pears. — Steam  your  pears  until  quite  done ;  then  to 
three  pounds  of  pears  add  one  pound  of  sugar,  and  vinegar 
enough  to  cover  them.  Put  the  vinegar  on  cold.  Mace,  cloves, 
and  cinnamon  to  3'our  taste. 

Keeping  Cider  Sweet. — When  fermentation  begins  in  a  barrel 
draw^  oflf  the  liquor  into  another,  straining  through  flannel.  Pnt 
into  the  cider  three  quarters  of  an  ounce  of  the  oil  of  sassafras 
and  the  same  of  the  oil  of  wintergreen,  well  shaken  up  in  a  pint 
of  alcohol.  But  one  difficulty  is  found,  and  that  is — tiiat  it  is  so 
palatable  that  people  will  not  let  it  keep  long. 

To  Make  Summer  Drinks. — To  make  root  beer,  take  a  quan- 
tity of  sarsaparilla  roots  and  sassafras  bark  and  some  liops,  and 
boil  till  the  strength  is  extracted.  To  three  gallons  of  liquor, 
after  it  is  strained,  add  one  quart  of  molasses  and  a  cup  of  yeast. 
After  standing  in  a  warm  place  eight  or  ten  hours,  strain  again 
and  bottle.     It  will  be  fit  for  use  the  following  day. 

For  Ginger  Beer,  take  one  pint  of  molasses  and  two  spoonfuls 
of  ginger,  put  into  a  pail  to  be  half  filled  with  boiling  water ;  when 
well  stirred  together,  fill  the  pail  with  cold  water,  leaving  room 
for  one  pint  of  yeast,  which  must  not  be  put  in  till  lukewarm. 
Place  it  on  the  warm  hearth  for  the  night,  and  bottle  it  in  the 
morning. 

For  Spruce  Beer,  take  three  pounds  of  sugar,  iour  gallons  ot 
water,  one  ounce  of  ginger,  a  little  lemon  peel,  or  essence  of  lemon, 


722  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY, 

and  a  little  essence  of  spruce  to  give  it  a  flavor.  Stir  all  togetber 
warm  it  a  trifle  ;  add  a  cupful  of  good  yeast.  When  fermented, 
bottle  up  close. 

Mead  is  made  by  dissolving  one  part  of  honey  in  three  of  boil- 
ino-  water,  flavoring  it  with  spices,  and  adding  a  portion  of  ground 
malt,  a  piece  of  toast  steeped  in  yeast,  allowing  the  whole  to  fer- 
ment. 

Washing  Made  East. — Hub  the  clothes  in  two  waters,  use 
plenty  of  soap ;  then  after  wringing  dry,  place  in  a  tub,  and  pour 
on  clear  boiling  water  to  cover  tliem.  Let  them  remain  until  cool 
enough  to  bear  the  hand  ;  wring  and  put  out  to  dry,  using  no  hard 
water  about  them.  This  saves  nearly  half  the  usual  work,  besides 
the  steam  from  boiling,  which  is  very  unpleasant,  especially  in 
winter. 

Bar  soap  should  be  cut  into  pieces  of  a  convenient  size,  and 
laid  where  it  will  become  dry.  It  is  well  to  keep  it  several  weeks 
before  using,  as  it  spends  fast  vtdien  it  is  new. 

Good  soft  soap  can  be  made  in  the  following  manner:  To  one 
pound  of  saponifier  (to  be  had  at  the  groceries  or  drug  store) 
add  three  gallons  of  rain  water.  Set  it  boiling  and  then  put  in 
four  pounds  of  soap  fat,  (any  ofi'al  fat  saved  in  the  kitchen,)  or 
tallow.  When  the  solution  is  clear  and  the  fat  all  combined, 
which  is  seen  by  the  disappearance  of  all  latty  eyes  or  spots  in 
the  liquid,  add  twelve  gallons  of  soft  rain  water,  and  when  cold 
your  soap  is  read}'^  for  use.  The  "  saponifier,"  being  concentrated 
lye,  is  better  than  wood  ashes  and  potash,  and  is  by  no  means  dear. 

Arthur's  Home  Magazine  saj's  that  a  little  alum  dissolved  in 
hot  water  and  thrown  into  a  tub  of  soapsuds,  will  precipitate  the 
soap  and  dirt  to  the  bottom,  and  leave  the  water  clear  and  soft 
enough  to  be  used  again.  Or  the  alum  may  be  put  into  boiling 
suds,  permitting  the  scum  to  boil  over  and  leave  the  water  clear, 
soft,  and  as  useful  for  washing  clothes  as  it  had  originally  been. 

A  Thousand  Dollar  Recipe. — Take  one  pound  of  sal  soda  and 
half  a  pound  of  unslacked  lime,  put  them  in  a  gallon  of  water  and 
boil  twenty  minutes  ;  let  it  stand  till  cool,  then  drain  off  and  put 
it  in  a  stone  jug  or  jar.  Soak  your  dirt^'-  clothes  over  niglit  or 
till  they  are  well  wet  through,  then  wring  them  out  and  put  on 
l)lenty  of  soap,  and  to  a  boiler  of  clothes  well  covered  with  water 
add  one  teaspoonful  of  washing  fluid.  Boil  half  an  hour  briskly  ; 
then  wash  them  thoroughly  through  one  suds  and  rinse  well  in 
water,  and  your  clothes  will  look  bettor  than  the  old  way  of  wash- 
ing twice  before  boiling.  This  is  an  invaluable  remedy,  and  we 
want  every  poor,  tired  woman  to  try  it. 

To  Remove  Stains.— Table  linen  or  any  white  clothes  that  have 
coflee  or  fruit  stains  on  them,  before  being  put  into  soapsuds, 
should  have  boiling  water  turned  on  them,  and  remain  in  it  till 
the  water  is  cold.     If  they  are  put  into  soapsuds  with  the  stains 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY   AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  723 

on  they  will  be  set  by  it  so  that  no  subsequent  washin-^  ^vlll  re 
move  them.  ° 

To  Wash  Calicoes.— Put  wheat  bran  in  a  bag,  boil  and  take 
half  the  water  to  wash  in.  half  to  rinse  in  ;  use  no  soap.  This  will 
cleanse  without  fading,  and  stiffen  them  without  starch.  Iron  on 
the  wrong  side  and  they  will  look  as  if  just  out  of  the  store. 

To  Clean  Cloth  Garments. —Upon  the  collars  and  wristbands 
of  coats  rub  benzine  plentifully,  and  after  'some  ten  minutes  ruh 
on  goap.  Have  ready  some  hoi:  water  and  a  sponge  ;  wash  tho- 
roughly, and  rinse  in  warm  water.  Then  get  some  clean  suds, 
and  with  a  brush  go  over  the  whole  garment,  brushin--  it  in  the 
right  way  of  the  cloth.  Pull  and  stretch  them  into  sliape,  and 
hang  them  up  to  dry. 

Washing  Scarlet  Flannel.— A  handful  of  flour  mixed  with  a 
quart  of  cold  water  and  boiled  ten  minutes.  Add  it  to  the  water 
you  have  ready  to  wash  in.  The  articles  will  require  many  rin- 
sings in  clean  water  after  being  washed  in  this  mixture  ;  but  if 
carefully  don"*,  the  most  brilliant  scarlet  will  lose  none  of 'its 
brightness.  If  flannel  is  soaked  in  pure  cold  water  before  making 
it  up,  it  never  shrinks  at  all.  Get  a  washing  trough  fdled  from 
the  pump,  and  in  this  the  flannel  is  placed.  As  soon  as  it  sinks  to 
the  bottom  it  is  taken  out  and  hung  up,  without  any  squeezing. 
It  drains  itself,  and  does  not  lose  the  appearance)  of  new  flannel 
when  dry. 

To  Starch  Cuffs  and  Collars. — To  make  them  look  glossy  as 
when  first  bought,  add  to  the  starch  a  little  gum  arable  dissolved 
in  warm  water.  Iron  wet,  with  a  cloth  over  them.  To  prevent 
the  iron  from  sticking,  stir  a  little  salt  in  the  starch  while  hot. 

A  Clothes  Line  Keel  is  a  great  convenience,  and  easily  made. 
A  strong  box  nailed  to  the  end  post,  or  against  the  building,  with 
a  crank  through  it,  is  all  that  is  required.  P\asten  one  end  of  the 
line  to  the  crank  in  the  box,  and  you  can  always  have  your  lii.e  in 
good  shape  when  washing  day  comes. 

Preserving  Furs. — Ladies  are  often  anxious  about  keeping  fur? 
free  from  moths  during  the  summer  months.  Darkness  is  all  that 
is  necessary.  The  "miller,"  from  whose  eggs  moths  are  hatched, 
only  moves  in  light;  the  moths  themselves  work  in  darkness. 
Hang  the  furs  in  a  very  dark  closet,  and  keep  the  door  shut ;  keep 
It  always  dark  and  you  can  have  no  trouble.  But,  as  closet  doors 
are  sometimes  left  open,  the  better  way  is  to  enclose  the  articles 
loosely  in  a  paper  box;  put  this  in  a  pillow  case,  or  wrap  around 
with  cloth,  and  hang  up  in  a  dark  closet.  Camphor,  si^ices,  or 
perfumes  are  of  no  use;  continual  darkness  is  suflicient.  And  do 
not  take  out  the  furs  in  June  or  July  to  give  them  an  "airing," 
for  even  then  cometh  the  enemy,  and  it  may  be  that  in  fifteen  min- 
utes after  exposure  it  has  deposited  a  hundred  eggs.  If  you  cou- 
44 


724  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

sider  an  airing  indispensable,  give  tlie  furs  a  good  switching  and 
put  them  quickly  back. — Country  Gentleman. 

How  TO  Wash  Furniture. — Mahogany  may  be  washed  in  vei-y 
weak  suds  made  of  hard  soap,  and  immediately  rinsed  and  rubbed 
dry  with  a  clean  cloth.  Some  think  water  must  never  touch  fur- 
niture, but  once  or  twice  a  year  ;  this  method  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantao-e ;  it  makes  the  articles  look  as  if  newly  varnished.  White 
spots  made  by  heat,  on  varnished  furniture,  may  be  removed  by 
rubbing  with  a  flannel  cloth  saturated  with  coal  oil.  I  have  often 
done  so  with  perfect  success.  It  is  much  easier  than  the  old  hot 
paper  plan. 

How  TO  Wash  White  Paint. — As  little  soap  as  possible  should 
be  used  with  this,  and  that  in  the  water  and  not  on  the  cloth.  It 
not  only  makes  the  paint  yellow,  but,  after  a  little  while,  removes 
it  altogether.  A  friend  of  mine,  noted  as  a  housekeeper,  would 
never  allow  either  soap  or  hot  water  to  be  used  on  paint,  except 
in  case  of  grease.  Cold  water  and  a  scrubbing  brush  were  her 
weapons  of  offence  in  waging  a  warfare  with  dirt ;  but  I  should 
rather  pay  for  painting  once  in  a  while,  than  expend  as  much 
strength  and  time  as  such  a  process  requires.  However,  it  gives 
a  very  fresh  look  to  paint,  and  saves  soap  and  fire,  if  one  is  in- 
clined to  try  it.  For  greasy  spots  prefer  a  little  soda  (carbonate) 
iu  the  first  water,  to  be  immediately  rinsed  off  and  wiped  dry. 

Rust  on  Dinner  Knives — Cover  the  steel  with  sweet  oil,  well 
rubbing  it  on  ;  let  it  remain  forty-eight  hours,  and  then,  using  un- 
slacked  lime,  finely  powdered,  rub  the  knife  until  all  the  rust  has 
disappeared. 

How  TO  Clean  Tin. — Xever  use  lye  to  clean  tin ;  it  will  soon 
spoil  it.  Make  it  -clean  with  suds,  and  rub  with  whiting,  and  it 
will  look  well,  and  last  longer. 

Cleansing  Wool.  The  Maine  Farmer  gives  the  following  re- 
cipe for  cleansing  wool  of  gummy  matter : — Take  one  pound  of 
saleratus  to  twelve  pounds  of  wool,  dissolve  in  water  not  quite 
boiling  hot,  then  put  in  the  wool  and  stir  occasionally  for  one 
hour ;  take  it  out  and  squeeze  it  thoroughly,  or,  what  is  better,  run 
through  a  close  wringer,  rinse  in  cold  water,  and  spread  on  grass 
ground  to  dry.  This  process  will  remove  all  dirt  from  any  kind 
of  wool,  and  make  it  much  better  for  custom  work. 

Restoring  Color  to  Silk. — When  the  color  has  been  taken  from 
silk  by  acids,  it  may  be  restored  by  applying  to  the  spot  a  little 
hartshorn  or  sal  volatile. 

Cleaning  Windows.— If  the  sash  are  to  be  cleaned,  it  is  done 
with  a  small  brush  or  soft  cloth,  as  you  would  any  other  varnished 
or  painted  wood.  If  you  wish  to  clean  the  glass  by  washing  in 
water,  have  a  tub  of  moderate  soapsuds  and  another  of  clean  water 
beside  you.     Wash  the  window  first  in  the  suds,  and  then  riuse 


DOMESTIC   ECOXOMY   AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  725 

thoroughlj  in  the  pure  water;  set  tbe  windows  away  to  drair  and 
dry  without  wiping.  When  dry,  rub  thoroughly  with  soft  i,ai)er 
and  your  window  will  be  faultless.  If  there  are  any  spots  of  paint 
or  putty  on  the  glass,  put  strong  soft  soap,  or  soda  wet  into  paste 
for  a  few  minutes,  to  remove  it.  A  mixture  of  whiskey  and  water 
will  cleanse  glass  nicely.  Whitinor  spread  on  the  glass  wet  and 
rubbed  off  when  dry,  will  also  clean  it  well,  and  is  easily  practised 
when  you  do  not  wish  to  take  out  the  sash. 

How  TO  Wash  Graining.— Take  clear  warm  water,  a  clean  white 
cloth,  and  wash  a  small  place,  and  wipe  dry  with  another  clean 
•white  cloth.  Do  not  wet  any  more  space  than  you  can  dry  imme- 
diately with  your  cloth,  as  it  must  not  be  left  to  dry  in  tlie  atmo- 
sphere. It  must  be  rubbed  dry ;  hence  the  necessity  for  perfectly 
clean  white  cloths.  If  the  paint  has  been  neglected  until  very 
much  soiled  with  greasy  finaers,  or  specked  with  a  summer's 
growth  of  flies,  a  very  little  hard  soap  may  be  put  in  the  first 
water,  and  then  rinsed  off  with  clear  water;  "but  avoid  soap  if  you 
possibly  can. 

Family  Glue. — I  make  my  glue  in  the  following  way: — Crack 
up  the  glue  and  put  in  a  bottle  ;  add  to  it  common  whiskey  ;  shake 
up,  cork  tight,  and  iu  three  or  four  days  it  can  be  used.  It  re- 
quires no  heating ;  will  keep  for  almost  any  length  of  time,  and  is 
at  all  times  read}^  to  use,  except  in  the  coldest  weather,  when  it 
will  require  warming.  It  must  be  kept  tight,  so  that  the  whiskey 
will  not  evaporate.  The  usual  corks  or  stoppers  should  not  be 
used.  They  will  become  clogged.  A  tin  stopper,  covering  the 
bottle,  but  fitting  as  closel}'  as  possible,  must  be  used. 

Coating  for  Iron.  A  mixture  of  three  parts  of  lai-d  and  one  of 
rosin,  melted  together,  is  one  of  the  best  coatings  for  all  steel  or 
iron  implements.  The  lard  makes  the  rosin  soft,  while  the  latter  is 
a  sure  preventive  against  rusting.  The  mixture  is  good  for  i)lows, 
hoes,  axes,  and  implements,  as  well  as  knives  and  forks  packed  away. 

Preserving  Shingles.  An  "old  farmer"  recommends  sprink- 
ling shingle  roofs  once  a  year,  either  in  spring  or  fall,  with  slacked 
lime.  He  also  says  new  shingles  can  be  made  to  last  much  longer 
by  soaking  them  for  a  few  days  in  thick  lime  water,  well  stirred  up. 

Tooth  Powder. — Powdered  chalk,  half  an  ounce;  one  drachm 
of  powdered  myrrh,  the  same  of  orris  root,  two  of  powdered  bark. 
Mix  all  together.  This  dentifrice  is  good  for  both  the  teeth  and 
the  breath. 

A  Candle  to  Burn  all  Night.— When,  as  in  cast  of  sickness, 
a  dull  light  is  wished,  or  when  matches  are  mislaid,  put  finely  pow- 
dered salt  on  the  candle  till  it  reaches  the  black  part  of  the  wick. 
In  this  way  a  mild  and  steady  light  may  be  kept  through  the  night 
b}^  a  small  piece  of  candle. 

How  TO  MAKE  Good  Butter.— Good  butter  requires  cleanli- 
ness to  the  highest  degree.     Que  drop  of  water  iu  a  pan  ol  milk 


726  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY, 

causes  fermentation.  It  also  requires  intelligence.  Tlie  cream 
must  be  removed  at  just  such  a  period  of  the  fermentation  of  the 
milk.  If  taken  too  soon,  before  the  milk  has  clabbered,  it  has  a 
bitter  taste ;  if  allowed  to  stand  until  spots  form  upon  it,  it  loses 
its  sweet  flavor ;  if  left  until  it  wheys,  it  is  nearly  worthless.  So 
it  requires  a  practised  eye  to  skim  it  at  the  exact  moment,  to  re- 
tain all  its  sweetness  and  flavor.  A  dairy  containing  three  cows 
^hould  have  its  milk  skimmed  morning,  noon,  and  night. 

A  stone  pot  is  the  best  receptacle  for  the  cream,  as  tin  is  not 
easily  kept  sweet.  Every  time  fresh  cream  is  added,  stir  the 
whole  contents  from  the  bottom.  Put  a  large  tablespoonful  of  salt 
into  the  first  cream  that  goes  into  the  pot,  and  mixing  it  daily 
tends  to  keep  it  all  from  moulding.  If  possible  churn  twice  a 
week.  Churn  early  in  the  morning  before  the  kitchen  fire  is 
lighted,  or,  if  this  is  inconvenient,  churn  down  cellar,  so  that  the 
cream  will  not  become  too  warm.  Cream  should  be  at  a  tempera- 
ture below  sixty  degrees  when  put  into  the  churn,  as  beating  it 
always  increases  its  temperature.  In  the  end  much  time  and 
labor  is  saved  by  purchasing  a  small  thermometer,  on  purpose  to 
test  3^our  cream :  fifty-six  or  fift^'-eight  degrees  to  commence  Avith 
will  bring  your  butter  in  fifteen  minutes. 

Butter  making  in  our  family'  is  a  most  easy  process.  Three 
cows  are  kept.  The  butter  never  fails  to  come  in  fifteen,  often  in 
ten  minutes.  Churn,  cream  jar,  and  pans  are  all  washed  before 
breakfast ;  and  the  butter  worked  over  and  salted.  There  is  a 
great  dispute  with  good  butter  makers  upon  the  question  of  wash- 
ing butter  in  water.  I  think  that  water  washes  out  the  sugar  of 
milk,  which  supplies  all  the  sweetness  of  the  butter;  without  it 
the  butter  is  tasteless.  So  I  use  large  lumps  of  ice  which  do  not 
melt  easily.  As  soon  as  the  butter  is  thoroughly  separated  from 
the  buttermilk,  reverse  the  crank,  and  draw  on  all  the  milk,  turn- 
ing the  crank  slowl}' ;  work  it  in  this  way  twenty  minutes,  and 
the  labor  of  working  out  the  buttermilk  is  much  expedited.  Then 
put  in  small  pieces  of  ice,  which  quickly  hardens  the  butter,  so  it 
is  easil}^  removed  from  the  churn.  Have  large  pieces  of  ice  in  the 
butter-l)0wl,  lay  the  butter  on  them,  and  allow  it  to  remain  until 
cold  enough  to  work  without  sticking  to  the  hands.  Scald  the 
butter-paddle,  then  put  it  on  the  ice  for  a  while,  and  work  the  but- 
ter thoroughly  with  it.  "Work  the  butter  until  the  little  water 
melted  from  the  ice  runs  clear  ;  then  add  salt  to  suit  the  taste.  A 
tablespoonful  heaping  full  of  salt  to  each  pound  is  a  good  rule ; 
but  tastes  differ. 

For  keeping  butter  one  j^ear  sweet  and  good,  take  two  pounds 
best  Ashton  dairy  salt,  one  pound  of  white  granulated  sugar,  one 
pound  of  saltpetre  finely  powdered,  sifted  through  a  muslin  sieve. 
Mix  all  these  well  together,  keep  in  a  jar,  and  put  one  and  a  half 
large  tablespoonfuls  to  one  pound  of  butter;  mix  this  well  with 
the  butter,  and  it  will  keep  perfectly.     There  is  nothing  deleter!- 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY  AND   FAMILY   RECIPES.  727 

ous  in  this  compound.  The  saltpetre  is  in  too  small  quantities  to 
prove  injurious;  but  it  prevents  the  butter  from  turning  raiuid. 
While  the  sugar  supplies  the  required  sweetness,  the  salt  rulains 
its  flavor,  and  the  result  is  the  best  of  butter  the  following  May. 

In  the  summer  season,  if  it  is  wished  to  keep  butter  perfectly 
Bweet  and  fresh,  make  it  in  balls,  print  them  both  sides,  (if  large,") 
then  put  a  layer  hardened  in  ice  into  the  butter  crock,  place  over 
it  a  clean  cloth,  dipped  in  ice  water ;  then  another  layer  of  butter 
cakes,  another  cloth  wet  in  ice— so  on  until  the  crock  is  filled. 
Make  a  brine  of  two  quarts  of  water,  two  pounds  of  Ashton  salt, 
one  pound  of  granulated  sugar,  one  pound  of  saltpetre;  dissolve, 
and  strain  it  through  a  cloth  to  remove  all  impurities.  Fill  the 
crock  to  the  brim,  put  a  plate  over  the  upper  cloth,  and  a  very 
clean  stone  on  the  plate.  Then  cover  tight,  and  the  butter  will 
be  as  good  in  six  weeks  or  two  months  as  the  first  day.  Indeed, 
if  not  used  daily  it  will  keep  till  next  August.  If  you  do  not  fill 
the  crock  the  first  time,  pour  otf  all  your  brine,  put  another  layer 
of  cakes,  another  of  cloth,  until  filled,  then  strain  the  brine 
through  a  sieve  into  the  crock.  It  must  be  kept  filled,  or  moist- 
ure and  mould  w^ould  gather  on  the  sides.  The  advantage  of  the 
cloth  layer  is,  that  each  layer  of  cakes  is  kept  from  tlie  air,  and 
not  disturbed  until  the  upper  layer  is  removed.  Prepare  the 
brine,  keep  it  in  a  stone  jar, — be  sure  to  keep  the  plate,  with  a 
stone  for  weight,  on  top  of  it, — and  your  butter  will  keep  sweet 
for  weeks.  The  brine  will  not  need  renewing  for  a  long  time; 
■when.it  does,  boil  it,  and  skim,  and  it  is  again  ready  for  use. 
Large  bunches  of  sweet  clover  tied  up  and  laid  upon  the  milk 
shelves,  or  hung  in  the  windows  of  the  dairy,  take  away  any  musti- 
ness,  and  give  a  very  sweet  odor  to  the  place. 

To  put  down  butter  in  firkins,  be  sure  to  select  hard  wood 
firkins,  then  soak  in  sour  milk  or  strong  brine  for  several  days. 
When  one  is  to  be  used,  rub  it  well  with  fine  salt  all  al)out  the 
inside  of  it,  and  scatter  salt  on  the  bottom  before  putting  in  the 
first  layer.  Then  pound  it  down  well, — some  use  a  pestle  to  pack 
it  tightly, — if  little  crevices  are  left  the  butter  will  not  keep  as 
•welL  If  you  cannot  fill  your  firkin  at  once,  fill  it  to  the  brim 
with  strong  brine,  pouring  it  off  when  more  butter  is  added,  and 
filling  up  again,  unless  the  butter  fills  the  firkin.  Put  a  cloth 
tightly  over  it,  scatter  salt  over  the  cloth,  and  pour  on  brine.  If 
salted  with  the  saltpetre  compound,  your  butter  is  good  for  one 
3'ear. 

If  in  winter,  when  the  cows  feed  chiefly  on  hay,  a  little  colornig 
is  needed  to  take  away  the  tallowy  look  of  the  butter,  carrots  wdl 
impart  it,  and  they  are  sweet  delicious  food.  Take  two  large 
sized  carrots,  clean  thoroughly,  then  with  a  knife  scrape  oil  the 
yellow  exterior,  leaving  the  white  pith,  soak  the  yellow  part  m 
boilincr  milk  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.     Straiu  boiling  hot  into 


728  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

the  cveam  ;  this  gives  the  cream  the  desired  temperature,  colors  it 
nicely,  and  adds  to  the  sweetness  of  the  butter. 

Packing  Butter  in  the  Summer. — A  Yermont  butter-maker 
writes  to  the  New  York  Fanners'  Club,  concerning  packing  butter 
to  keep :  Pack  it  in  well  soaked  tubs  or  firkins ;  put  a  little  damp 
salt  in  the  bottom  and  place  it  in  a  cool  dry  cellar,  on  a  bench  of 
wood  eiohteen  inches  from  the  cellar  bottom  and  the  same  from 
the  wall.  Stone  or  earthenware  does  not  keep  butter  well,  as  the 
moisture  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere  in  warm  weather,  con- 
denses on  such  vessels  and  soon  effects  the  butter.  Put  no  salt 
on  or  between  the  layers.  Fill  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  top. 
Place  a  clean  wet  cloth  over  the  butter,  pack  the  edges  down  with 
a  knife,  and  then  spread  thinly  wet  salt  over  the  cloth.  Having 
made  and  dealt  in  butter  for  some  time,  I  can  say  the  above  mode 
of  packing  and  keeping  butter  will  be  useful  to  many,  and  cause  a 
smile  of  delight  to  the  buyer. 

To  Deodorize  Milk. — It  frequently  occurs  in  the  Spring,  when 
the  farmers  are  feeding  their  cows  upon  ruta-bagas,  or  turnips, 
that  the  milk  becomes  so  strongly  impregnated  by  their  disagreea- 
ble taste  and  odor  as  to  be  unfit  for  butter  making.  To  obviate 
this,  put  a  pinch  of  finely  powdered  saltpeter  into  every  gallon  of 
cream.  A  little  saltpeter  worked  into  butter  that  has  become 
sour,  or  rancid,  will  render  it  sweet  and  palatable. 


I 


CHAPTER  XXni. 

THE     F  A  M  I  L  Y    P  H  Y  S  IC  I  A  N. 

iISEASE  comes  alike  to  all,  and  many  friendly  forms,  are 
hurried  away,  that  with  the  knowledge  of  some  simple 
remedies  might  have  been  spared  to  us. 

When  first  attacked  by  disease,  some  simple  remedy  will 
accomplish  what  a  few  hours  later  the  most  powerful  medi- 
cine xcill  fail  to  effect. 
The  treatment  therefore  prescribed  in  this  chapter  will  be  first, 
preventive,  or  such  as  shall  tend  to  prevent  attacks  of  disease  ; 
second,  arrestive,  or  such  as  shall  arrest  disease  in  its  first  stages ; 
and  lastly,  curative. 

We  consider  the  first  the  most  important  of  all.  The  preven- 
tion of  disease  should  be  the  study  of  the  parent  and  the  teaclier, 
as  the  cure  of  the  disease  is  the  study  of  the  physician. 

The  foundations  of  disease  are  often  laid  in  infancy,  and  with 
infancy  we  shall  commence  our  instructions.  The  care  of  tin; 
infant  is  the  loving  task  of  the  mother,  and  we  are  therefore  sure 
that  we  have  only  to  show  what  is  the  right  course  to  be  pursued 
and  it  will  be  joyfully  taken. 

The  mother  is  willing  to  sacrifice  any  thing  or  everything  foj 
her  children,  and  yet  few  mothers  take  the  time  and  trouble  to 
study  the  causes,  nature  and  treatment  of  the  simple  diseases  of 
infancy  and  childhood.  It  is  the  testimony  of  every  physician 
with  whom  we  have  met  that  tens  of  thousands  of  little  ones  are 
lost  through  the  ignorance  of  the  mothers ;  mothers,  too  many  of 
them,  who'^were  accomplished  in  music,  languages,  literature,  and 
the  teachings  of  the  schools,  but  ignorant  in  that  highest  and 
most  sacred  trust  ever  imposed  upon  woman,  tlie  care  of  cliildron. 
And  it  is  not  so  difficult  a  thing  as  may  be  supposed  ;  there  is  no 
unfathomable  mystery  about  the  little  form,  but  the  laws  ot  its 
life  and  well  being  are  so  plain  that  every  woman  of  ordinary  in- 
telligence may  master  them  by  a  few  hours'  careful  study  each 

"  The  youncr  mother  falls  into  that  very  natural  and  frequent 
error  of  supposing  that  the  first  sign  of  discomfort  that  a  babe 

1^9 


730  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM   PAY. 

exhibits,  the  first  wail  that  comes  from  the  darkened  chamber,  is 
an  indication  of  hunger,  and  crams  the  little  stomach  with  food 
not  supplied  by  nature.  Does  she  in  this  commit  the  simple  error 
of  over  feeding  the  child  ?  Far  graver  is  the  mistake.  Within 
the  first  three  days'  when  the  infant  requires  scarce  any  thing 
but  sleep  and  quiet,  she  may  lay  the  foundation  for  an  infancy 
tormented  bj'^  colic  and  a  mature  life  cursed  with  dyspepsia. 
Every  physician  who  has  been  much  in  families  will  testify  that 
where  one  has  during  these  first  days  of  life  siiflTered  for  lack  of 
nourishment,  ten  have  been  injured  by  over  feeding." — Li/man^s 
Ph.ilo.'<ophy. 

Dr.  King's  twenty-five  rules  are  very  simple,  minute,  and  the 
result  of  a  life-long  practice.  We  therefore  introduce  thtm  here 
with  very  little  modification  : — 

1.  Let  the  child  be  put  to  the  breast,  if  the  mother  is  able  to  bear 
the  fiitigue ;  but  if  it  cannot  procure  any  milk  it  should  be  with- 
drawn, and  fed  very  sparingly  upon  a  thin  infusion  of  slippery 
elm,  until  milk  can  be  had  from  tiie  breasts. 

2.  Let  no  mother  refuse  to  nurse  her  own  child,  unless  the 
reasons  for  doing  so  are  insurmountable. 

3.  Never  permit  the  babe  to  be  fed  so  long  as  you  can  supply  it 
suflicient  nourishment  from  your  own  breasts,  and  to  secure  this 
point  you  should  pay  constant  attention  to  your  diet,  airing,  and 
exercise. 

4.  Dress  the  neck  and  arms  of  the  child  in  flannel,  and  make 
all  its  clothing  subservient  to  health  and  comfort,  rather  than 
to  fashion. 

5.  The  be]l3^-band  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  child's  dress, 
and  should  always  be  of  flannel,  cut  bias,  and  tight  enough  not  to 
compress  the  stomach. 

6.  Protect  the  child  carefully  against  all  unnecessary  wet,  and 
when  it  is  discovered  to  be  in  this  condition,  it  should  be  changed 
as  quickly  as  possible  ;  and  it  is  desirable  that  the  diaper  should 
be  not  simply  dried,  but  waslied  and  dried  before  it  is  applied 
again. 

7.  Use  as  few  pins  as  possible. 

8.  Exercise  in  the  open  air  as  soon  as  your  health  and  the 
weather  will  permit. 

9.  Never  subject  yourself  to  partial  exposures,  but  remain  in- 
doors until  you  can  go  out  or  be  taken  out  of  the  house. 

10.  Confine  your  diet  to  such  things  as  do  not  affect  you  un- 
favorably,— for  when  any  kind  of  food  perfectly  agrees  with  you, 
if  will  seldom  or  never  disagree  with  your  babe. 

11.  As  soon  as  you  find  any  articles  to  disagree  with  j^ou,  stop 
using  them  at  once,  as  whatever  disagrees  with  you  will  surely 
disagree  with  your  child. 

12.  The  child  in  health  should  sleep  in  a  bed  or  crib  by  itself, 
during  the  ui^ht. 


THE   FAMILY   PHYSICIAN-.  73;^ 

13.  In  case  of  illness  of  the  mother,  or  a  failure  ol  the  breast 
milk,  feed  the  child  from  a  bottle  rather  than  a  spoon. 

14.  To   o-ive  uniform  distention  to  the  stomach,  a 


and  thus  to 

l> 
or 


obviate  indigestion  and  gripes,  keep  the  infant  in  as' nearly  an  u 
right  position  as  possible  while  feeding  either  from  the  breast 
bottle. 

15.  Take  the  child  from  the  breast  frequently  while  suckin^r 
holding  it  away  for  a  minute  or  two.  °' 

16.  Expose  the  child  as  early  as  possible  to  the  fresh  air-  if 
properly  clothed  in  flannels  the  air  will  only  do  good.  ' 

It.  Do  not  keep  the  room  at  an  excessive  heat,  and  then  take 
the  infant  from  it  into  cold  air,  but  let  the  air  Ijlow  freely  into  an 
adjoining  room,  then  close  it  up  and  take  the  babe  into  "it. 

18.  Wash  a  strong  child  in  cool  water,  and  a  weak  one  in  tepid 
water. 

19.  Keep  the  child  perfectly  clean,  and  as  quiet  as  possible. 

20.  Never  make  the  infant  laugh  heartily.  It  is  very  pretty  to 
see  the  baby  laugh  and  hear  its  giggle,  but  it  is  also  dangerous. 

21.  Place  the  infant  on  its  right  side  when  asleep. 

22.  Rub  a  young  child  all  over  night  and  morning  with  the 
hand,  to  promote  the  circulation. 

23.  Encourage  the  child  to  stretch,  and  thrust  out  its  limbs, 
and  to  crawl  about,  thus  promoting  the  circulation  and  strenirth. 

24.  When  the  child  is  in  good  health,  and  has  cut  four  teeth, 
wean  it  at  nine  months  old,  but  if  after  weaning  it  should  be 
attacked  with  an3^  serious  disease,  it  may  require  the  breast  again. 

25.  Avoid  frights,  tight  bandages,  patent  medicines,  frequent 
feeding  in  the  night,  close  air,  and  sudden  changes. 

Teething  is  usually  accompanied  by  more  or  less  inflammation 
and  other  troubles.  If  the  bowels  are  closed,  give  a  little  castor 
oil.  Let  the  diet  be  lessened  and  diluted  ;  if  the  child  is  sucking, 
the  mother  should  take  little  beside  liquids,  gruels,  etc.  If  the 
gums  are  red,  swollen,  and  painful,  lance  them.  The  cut  will 
soon  heal,  and  will  in  thousands  of  cases  prevent  convulsions  or 
other  serious  consequences.  Difficulty  in  passing  water  at  any 
time  may  be  overcome  by  flaxseed  tea.  For  sore  e^^es,  use  a 
wash  made  of  equal  parts  of  slippery  elm  and  peach  leaves. 

Thrush. — The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are,  Avhite  specks  upon 
the  tongue  and  lips,  with  dribbling  of  saliva,  hot  mouth,  disa- 
greeable breath,  etc.  These  specks  increase,  fall  off',  and  show 
ulcers.  The  pain  often  prevents  sucking,  the  child  grows  emaci- 
ated, and  of  course  fretful.  Wash  the  mouth  with  a  decoction  of 
golden  seal,  sweetened  with  honey,  and  sprinkled  with  powdered 
alum.  If  the  golden  seal  is  not  at  hand  give  sage  instead.  If  the 
bowels  are  loose  give  Prescription  No.  1.  For  chafing,  wash  the 
parts  With  Castile  soa]?  and  dust  with  powdered  starch  or 
slippery  elm  flour.  For  stoppages  of  the  nose,  rub  some  animal 
oil  about  the  roots  of  the  nose. 


732  ■  HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    FARM    PAY. 

Convulsions  or  Fits. — When  the  child  is  in  a  fit,  unfasten  the 
clothes,  raise  the  head,  and  do  not  let  it  lean  back  or  fall  forward ; 
give  fresh  air,  rub  the  body  with  the  hand,  place  the  child  in  a 
warm  bath,  at  the  same  time  applying  cloths  wet  in  cool  water  to 
the  head  and  face.  Give  an  injection  of  molasses  and  warm 
water ;  repeat  this  injection  several  times  at  intervals  of  fifteen 
minutes.  Every  family  should  have  a  syringe.  Elastic  syringes 
are  the  best,  and  cost  not  over  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents. 

Worms, — The  certain  evidences  of  the  presence  of  worms  in 
children  are,  paleness,  itching  of  the  nose,  starting  and  grinding 
of  the  teeth  during  sleep,  irregular  appetite,  fetid  breath,  hard 
swelled  belly,  swollen  upper  lip,  sore  mouth  and  nose,  one  cheek 
Jlushed,  itching  of  the  anus,  drowsiness,  and  nervous  starts.  The 
treatment  should  be  both  to  remove  the  worms  and  give  vigor  to 
the  stomach.  The  best  remedy'  to  have  always  on  hand  is  pre- 
pared as  follows  : — Take  of  fresh  black  alderberries  one  pint,  cedar 
or  juniper  apples  (recent)  one  pound,  bruise  them,  and  soak  in  a 
quart  of  alcohol  for  fourteen  days,  then  strain  and  add  one  pint 
of  molasses.  Give  a  teaspoonful  three  times  a  day  to  children 
upwards  of  one  year  old.  As  soon  as  purging  is  accomplished, 
reduce  the  dose,  and  continue  for  two  or  three  weeks  as  a  tonic. 

Summer  Complaints  are  best  treated  by  Prescription  No.  1 ; 
but  often  nothing  has  been  provided  beforehand,  and  this  neg- 
ligence renders  other  expedients  necessary.  Pain  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels  is  evidence  of  the  possibility  of  some  severe  attack, 
and  something  had  best  be  given  the  sufierer.  Ginger  is  always 
at  hand.  Pour  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water  upon  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  ginger ;  add  sugar  and  milk,  and  let  the  patient  drink  it 
hot.  Or  two  tablespoonfuls  of  gin  may  have  a  tumblerful  of  hot 
water  and  a  little  sugar  mixed  with  it.  At  the  same  time  flannels 
wrung  out  in  hot  water  and  laid  over  the  stomach  and  bowels 
will  assist  in  the  relief.  The  trouble  with  us  as  a  people  is  that 
we  let  all  slight  aff"ections  go,  and  think  we  cannot  spend  time  to 
be  doctored  for  a  cold,  a  colic,  or  a  diarrhoja.  By  this  foolish 
course  many  valuable  lives  are  lost,  many  hours  of  pain  and 
wretchedness  are  endured,  and  injured  constitutions  and  impaired 
powers  are  the  result.  We  therefore  rank  arreative  treatment 
as  next  in  importance  to  preventive.  To  arrest  the  progress  of 
disease  in  its  first  stages  is  wisdom.  A  diarrhoea  is  readily  ar- 
rested in  its  first  stage  by  a  few  doses  of  "  chalk  mixture,"  to  be 
obtained  of  any  druggist,  or  even  by  a  dose  of  ginger  and  molasses, 
but  if  left  to  run  on,  it  may  soon  become  dysentery  and  death. 
The  diet  should  be  reduced  at  once  when  cholera  morbus,  colic, 
or  diarrhoea  are  present.  Take  some  simple  remedy  to  check  the 
disorder,  reduce  the  diet  suflicient  to  give  the  stomach  an  opix)r- 
tunity  to  recover,  and  the  chances  are  as  nine  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  to  one  that  you  will  be  saved  further  trouble.    Cherry  brandy 


THE   FAMILY   PHYSICIAN.  733 

and  all  decoctions  of  the  black  cherry,  and  also  of  the  hlackherrv 
are  good  in  summer  complaints.  When  there  is  a  constant  aripina 
in  diarrhea,  an  injection  is  better  than  physic.  Make  an  iiij^c" 
tion  of  a  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil,  two  of  molasses,  and  a  pint 
of  warm  water.  '■ 

Infantile  Remittent  Fever  is  distinguished  by  its  appearance 
at  night  and  disappearance  during  the  day.  Give  the  child  a  little 
rhubarb  and  magnesia,  bathe  the  skin  in  warm  water,  keep  the  feet 
warm  and  the  head  cool,  and  for  a  regular  drink  give  an  infusion 
of  slippery  elm  and  peach  leaves.  Roast  onions  for  a  foot  draught 
is  usually  better  than  any  otlier,  and  always  readily  obtain'ed. 
Prescrij)tion  No.  1  should  be  given,  if  the  bowels  are  very  much 
out  of  order.  Give  catnip  tea  when  the  fever  is  on,  and  ai)ply 
onion  poultices  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach  for  vomiting,'  giving  also 
parched  corn  or  oatmeal  coffee. 

Scarlet  Fever,  or  ''Canker  Eash,'^  is  one  of  the  most  fatal  of 
all  children's  diseases,  and  all  symptoms  should  be  carefully 
watched,  so  that  the  most  prompt  action  can  be  taken  on  its  lirst 
appearance.  The  mother  who  gives  over  the  care  of  her  children 
to  another  may  have  this  disease  in  full  force  before  she  is  aware 
of  it.  "  It  commences  with  chilliness  succeeded  by  heat,  quick 
pulse,  languor,  thirst,  more  or  less  headache,  redness  of  the  eyes, 
and  sore  throat,  with  some  difficulty  of  swallowing.  In  two  or 
three  days  numerous  specks  or  patches  of  a  fieiy  red  color  appear 
about  the  face  and  neck;  within  twenty-four  hours  this  red  erup- 
tion extends  over  the  whole  body.  In  about  four  days  a  gentle 
moisture  appears  on  the  skin ;  the  eruption  gradually  disajipears, 
and  the  scales  fall  off.  But  often  the  above  symptoms  are  more 
violent,  and  vomiting,  pains  in  the  back,  wildness,  ulcers  in  the 
throat,  and  difficult  breathing  accompany  them.  The  first  thing 
to  be  done,  when  the  spmj^toms  are  plainly  discovered,  is  to  give 
an  emetic.  The  eruption  cannot  be  mistaken  for  measles,  on  ac- 
count of  its  fiery  color.  For  an  emetic  for  children  we  consider 
nothing  equal  to  Frescription  No.  2.  A  mixture  of  the  sirup  of 
ipecac  and  the  sirup  of  squills  is  also  effective;  but,  if  these  are 
not  at  hand,  boneset  tea,  thoroughwort  tea,  or  any  herb  tea  that 
will  produce  nausea  and  vomiting,  should  be  resorted  to  at  once. 
The  next  step  is  to  produce  a  profuse  perspiration.  Sometimes 
the  hot  drinks  given  for  an  emetic  will  accomplish  this ;  if  not, 
give  sage  or  catnip  tea,  or  any  warm  drink  that  will  force  out  the 
perspiration.  Hot  water  to  the  feet,  sides,  etc.,  will  assist  in  pro- 
curing perspiration.  After  it  is  secured,  and  while  the  i)aticnl  is 
still  sweating,  give  a  cathartic,— castor  oil,  senna,  mandrake,  or 
any  other  catliartic,  if  these  are  not  to  be  obtained.  If  these  reme- 
dies do  not  break  up  the  fever,  they  must  be  repeated  the  next  day. 
For  the  sore  throat  in  scarlet  fever,  use  sweet  oil  and  camphor  in 
equal  parts,  bathing  the  throat  with  it  three  or  four  times  a  day, 


784  HOW  TO    MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

wrapping  the  throat  in  flannels  wrung  out  in  hot  water  after  "bath- 
ing it.  The  room  should  be  frequently  purified  with  chloride  of 
lime,  by  turning  on  a  little  vinegar.  Scarlet  fever  is  infectious, 
and  children  should  be  kept  away  from  the  sick-room. 

Measles. — Symptoms.  Chills,  fever,  and  other  fever  symptoms ; 
quick  breathing,  hoarseness,  drj^  cough,  flushed  face,  eyes  red  and 
watery,  sneezing  and  discharge  from  the  nose.  In  three  or  four 
days  red  spots  appear,  usually  on  the  head  first,  and  extend  over 
the  body.  Give  an  emetic,  and  a  constant  drink  of  slipper}'  elm 
tea  and  hone3^  If  the  eruption  does  not  appear  within  the  time 
specified,  give  a  gin  or  whiskey  toddy,  and  apply  mustard  poultices 
over  the  abdomen,  feet,  ankles,  and  wrists.  If  the  bowels  are 
very  costive,  give  a  mild  warm  injection  of  Castile  soapsuds,  or 
molasses  and  water.  When  there  is  tightness  across  the  chest, 
which  the  slippery  elm  and  hone}'  do  not  relieve,  apply  a  mustard 
poultice  to  the  whole  chest.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  regu- 
lating the  diet  and  preventing  exposure  until  a  cure  is  perfected, 
for  a  relapse  is  attended  with  great  danger. 

Lung  Fever. — Symptoms.  The  usual  S3aiiptoms  of  fever,  with 
pains  in  the  chest,  constant  difficulty  in  breathing,  distressed 
cough,  swollen  cheek  or  lips,  etc.  Give  an  emetic,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, repeat  it  the  second  and  third  day.  Bathe  the  body  with 
warm  water  several  times  a  day.  Apply  hops  to  the  chest  and 
mustard  to  the  feet ;  or,  in  the  case  of  infants,  apply  onion  poul- 
tices to  the  feet,  back,  and  breast.  A  constant  drink  of  slippery 
elm  or  liquorice  tea  must  be  given.  In  severe  cases  Dr.  King 
recommends  the  following:  Slippery  elm,  two  ounces;  lobelia 
leaves,  one  ounce ;  bloodroot,  two  teaspoonfuls.  Add  to  these 
one  quart  of  boiling  water,  cover  tightl}',  and  allow  it  to  keep  for 
an  hour.  When  cold,  strain  it  and  sweeten  with  honey  or  mo- 
lasses. Give  a  teaspoonful  every  hour  or  two.  Keep  the  bowels 
open. 

Croup  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  of  the  diseases  of  early 
childhood ;  and  its  appearance  is  usuall}'  first  indicated  by  the 
child  suddenly  waking  from  sleep  with  a  hoarse,  metallic  cough, 
followed  b}^  a  hissing  sound  as  he  draws  in  his  breath.  The  voice 
is  hoarse,  often  reduced  to  a  hoarse  whisper;  there  is  a  sense  of 
distress  in  the  throat,  the  child  struggles  for  breath,  the  head  is 
thrown  back,  and  the  hand  often  put  to  the  throat  as  if  to  remove 
the  obstruction.  Prompt  action  is  required,  as  death  is  the  sure 
termination  of  the  disease,  unless  checked.  Give  Prescription 
A'o,  2  every  few  minutes,  until  the  child  vomits  freely.  If  you 
have  not  this  prescription  at  hand,  give  some  other  emetic  without 
delay, — sirup  of  ipecac,  onion  sirup,  almost  any  thing  that  will 
produce  instant  vomiting.  At  the  same  time  apply  cloths  wrung 
out  in  hot  water  to  the  throat  and  upper  part  of  the  chest,  renew- 
ing them  before  they  cool.     As  soon  as  the  breathing  is  easier. 


THE    FAMILY    PHYSICIAN.  735 

smear  a  piece  of  muslin  with  lard,  sprinkle  it  with  snnff,  and  keep 
It  on  the  throat  and  upper  part  of  the  chest  until  all  the  symptoms 
are  removed,  changing  it  two  or  three  times  a  day.  Keep  up  an 
expectoration  by  giving  goose  oil  on  sugar.  During  an  attack  of 
croup  a  child  may  be  put  into  a  warm  bath  and  kept  in  it  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes.  Keep  the  feet  and  body  warm.  Through  the  day 
let  :he  drink  be  flaxseed  tea,  or  slippery  elm  tea,  and  \\1th  a  little 
lemon  juice  in  it.  Keep  the  bowels  open.  Have  every  thing  ready 
for  an  attack  the  second  night,  and  proceed  upon  tlie  first*  syinp- 
toms  of  its  return  as  directed  above. 

Hooping  Cough. — Give  an  emetic,  the  Prescription  No  2,  if  pos- 
sible ;  keep  the  bowels  open  ;  put  a  plaster  between  the  shoulders. 
Let  the  child  go  out  in  pleasant  weather,  during  the  warm  part  of 
the  day,  and  exercise  moderately.  Let  the  diet  be  the  most  nutri- 
tious that  can  be  easily  digested, — boiled  chicken,  cliicken  broth, 
beef  tea,  etc.  Let  the  sleeping  room  be  ventilated  in  some  way 
without  the  air  blowing  on  the  bed.  If  possible,  remove  the  child 
to  some  other  vicinity,  as  a  change  of  air  often  eflects  a  cure  with- 
out other  means. 

"  The  most  frequent  of  all  the  complaints  which  the  housewife  or 
mother  is  called  upon  to  relieve  is  a  cold.  This  affection,  if  taken 
in  time,  can  be  cured  with  ver}^  little  trouble  and  the  most  simple 
medicines  ;  neglected  and  allowed  to  fasten  upon  any  important 
organ  of  the  body,  the  most  disastrous  results  ensue. 

"  Colds  are  caused  by  a  check  to  the  insensible  perspiration  ; 
therefore  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  restore  perspiration.'' 
(Here  let  us  caution  all  our  readers  against  taking  cold.  We  quote 
from  the  "American  Family  Physician.^'')  ''Cold  is  uiidoubtedly 
the  most  common  cause  of  disease.  To  experience  the  injurious 
consequences  of  cold  does  not  require  that  one  should  remain  in  a 
cold  atmosphere  until  chilled  through ;  it  is  equally  })ernicious  to 
pass  suddenly  from  a  very  warm  apartment  to  a  cold  one,  espe- 
cially if  the  former  be  dry  and  the  latter  damp;  to  stand  for  a  time 
upon  a  cold  pavement  or  floor,  or  upon  snow  or  ice,  until  the  feet 
become  cold ;  to  remain  standing  in  a  cold,  damp  place  for  a  long 
time ;  to  remove  the  coat  or  vest  when  in  profuse  perspiration, 
even  in  midsummer,  or  in  winter  to  toast  the  feet  by  a  warm  fire 
and  then  to  get  into  a  cold  bed." 

One  seldom  takes  cold  while  in  active  exercise,  even  if  thinly 
clad,  in  cold  weather;  but  a  moment's  cessation  may  produce  that 
result.  One  is  not  as  likely  to  take  cold  if  the  whole  person  is 
exposed  at  once  to  the  cold  atmosphere,  as  when,  through  some 
open  door,  raised  window,  or  insidious  crack,  a  draft  comes  which 
cools  only  one  portion  of  the  body.  Children  take  cold  by  being 
taken  from  the  chair,  crib,  or  bed  and  placed  on  the  floor.  I  hero 
is  always  a  cooler  current  of  air  near  the  floor,  loung  girls  lay 
the  foundation  of  most  terrible  sufterings,  and  often  death,  by  ex- 
posing themselves  during  the  menstrual  period.     ^Ve  urge  upou 


736  HOW  TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

mothers  that,  putting  aside  all  objections,  thej^  fully  instruct  their 
youno-  (laughters  as  to  the  dangers  from  cold  feet,  wet  feet,  cold 
bathst  and°cold  draughts  at  this  time.  Flannel  under  garments 
prove  the  best  possible  protection  against  the  evil  consequences 
of  the  sudden  changes  we  have  referred  fo.  When  the  first  symp- 
toms of  a  cold  are  discovered  resort  may  be  had  to  some  active 
and  long  continued  exercise,  or  the  feet  may  be  soaked  in  warm 
water,  warm  herb  drinks  taken,  wet  cloths  applied  to  the  body,  and 
perspiration  thus  produced.  The  two  points  upon  which  we  insist 
are,  that  perspiration  shall  be  produced,  and  that,  after  having 
been  thus  sweated,  the  patient  sliall  remain  for  at  least  twenty-four 
hours  in  an  even  temperature.  To  "take  a  sweat"  at  night  and  go 
about  one's  business  in  the  morning  is  usually  a  hazardous  pro- 
ceeding. One  would  think  we  might  spend  at  least  one  day  in 
caring  a  cold,  for,  if  it  be  the  first  day,  one  will  be  amply  sutficient. 
We  can  point  to  the  cases  of  those  who  thought  they  would  wait 
till  Sunday,  but  when  Sunday  came  were  beyond  the  reach  of 
earthly  aid,  and  say,  Beware  ! 

Fevers. — Symjotoms.  The  general  symptoms  of  all  fevers  are 
prett}'  nearl}^  the  same,  thouijh  the}'  ma}^  vary  in  severity ;  they 
may  be  named  in  the  following  order : — 

1.  Languor  or  dullness  ;  perhaps  a  dull  headache  and  unplea- 
sant dreams. 

2.  Chills  more  or  less  severe,  with  more  or  less  thirst,  small 
pulse  and  quick  breathing. 

3.  White  coat  on  the  tongue;  perhaps  nausea  or  vomiting.  4. 
Fever  or  quick  pulse,  with  increased  heat  of  the  body.  5.  Thirst. 
6.  Tongue  coated  brown  or  black.  7.  Bowels  costive,  urine  di- 
minished and  high  colored. 

Tr^eatmenf.  As  a  general  rule,  all  fevers  may  be  successfully 
treated  alike  in  their  ditterent  stages.  By  the  following  treatment, 
if  promptly  and  energetically  used,  nearly  all  cases  of  fever  will 
be  broken  up  at  their  commencement,  and  the  further  services  of 
the  physician  will  not  be  required. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  give  an  emetic.  We  have  men- 
tioned several  on  previous  pages.  Continue  the  doses  until  vom- 
iting is  secured.  It  will  frequentl}'^  occur  that  this  alone  will 
break  up  the  fever,  the  pulse  will  become  natural  and  the  skin 
moist.  If  not  then,  resort  must  be  had  to  profuse  sweating,  for 
which  also  we  have  given  directions;  any  one  of  the  warm  drinks 
named  with  warm  wrappings,  hot  bricks,  bottles  of  water,  etc., 
will  bring  out  the  perspiration.  As  soon  as  the  sweating  is  pro- 
fuse give  Frescription  No.  3,  or  some  other  cathartic,  if  this 
IS  not  at  hand.  Senna,  castor  oil,  mandrake,  and  many  other 
articles  may  be  used  to  move  the  bowels.  Repeat  tlie  dose  once 
m  three  hours  until  an  operation  is  secured.  Every  thing  has  now 
been  done  that  is  likely  to  be  of  service,  and  the  "fever  is  usually 


THE   FAMILY    PHYSICIAN.  737 

broken  off,  but  if  not,  the  same  course  must  be  pursued  the  next 
day. 

Fever  and  Ague,  treated  as  above,  will  yield  in  its  first  stacres 
but  il  long  continued,  Prescrvpiion  No.  4  must  be  given  liet\\'een 
the  sweat  and  the  ne«t  chill.  Take  also  the  followino-  tonic 
To  half  a  pint  of  strong  coffee  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  lemon 
juice  and  half  a  gill  of  good  brandy  or  whiskey.  Drink  this  when 
the  chill  IS  about  to  come  on;  or  wild  cherry  bark  one  ounce, 
inner  bark  of  white  oak  one  ounce,  fresh  horseradish  root  one 
ounce,  seneca  snake  root  one  ounce;  add  cinnamon,  cloves,  and 
sulphur,  each  one  half  an  ounce,  good  cider  two  quarts  ;  steep  for 
three  hours.     Dose  when  cold  a  wine  glass  full  three  times  a  day. 

Typhus  Fever  requires  the  same  treatment  as  prescribed  for 
fevers  in  general,  the  only  additional  directions  being  that  tlie 
bowels  be  kept  regular  by  mild  injections.  Only  one  operation 
daily  is  desirable.  Give  a  tonic  as  follows:  Take  an  ounce  each 
of  white  oak  bark,  chamomile  flowers,  boneset  leaves,  and  scullap 
leaves ;  turn  on  them  a  quart  of  water,  boil  twenty  minutes ;  add 
a  pint  of  vinegar,  and  sweeten  to  the  taste,  allowing  the  patient 
to  drink  freely  of  it.  Buttermilk  is  a  harmless  and  refreshing 
drink  in  this  disease. 

Typhoid  Fever  is  treated  the  same  as  the  above. 

Brain  Fever. — The  peculiar  symptoms  of  brain  fever  whieh 
distinguish  it  from  other  fevers  are,  confusion  of  ideas,  i)ain,  full- 
ness and  heat  in  the  head,  redness  of  the  face  and  eyes,  light  and 
noise  distressing,  ringing  in  tlie  ears,  delirium,  etc.  No  delay  is 
admissible  when  these  symptoms  are  discovered,  but  a  dose  of 
cathartic  medicine  should  be  given  at  once,  the  patient  bathed  in 
warm  water,  and  a  perspiration  induced.  Keep  the  head  cool  by 
healing  lotions,  cloths  wet  in  cold  water,  or  vinegar  and  water, 
changing  them  often.  Appl)'^  mustard  poultices  to  the  feet  and 
ankles,  and  along  the  lower  part  of  the  back  bone.  Keep  the 
room  dark  and  quiet,  no  visitors  being  allowed. 

Inflammation  of  the  Eyes,  Weak  Eyes,  etc.,  will  be  relieved 
the  application  of  the  eye  wash  described  on  page  336. 

Quinsy  Sore  Throat. — Symptoms.  Flashes  of  chills  and  heat, 
difficulty  in  swallowing  and  breathing,  hoarse  voice,  swelling  of 
the  thro'at  and  almonds  of  the  ears,  swellinj^-s  in  the  throat,  which 
burst  and  discharge. 

Treatment.  As  soon  as  the  disease  shows  itself  give  an  emetic ; 
after  it  has  operated  give  a  cathartic.  In  severe  attacks  sweat  the 
patient.  Steep  some  bitter  herbs  in  equal  parts,  vinegar  and 
water,  and  allow  the  patient  to  inhale  the  vapor.  Take  equal 
parts  of  hops,  mullen  leaves,  and  Saint  John's  wort  leaves,  steep 
them  in  vinegar  and  water;  to  every  quart  of  the  decoction  add 
two  tablespoolifuls  of  salt.  Let  the  patient  inhale  tiie  vapor  from 
this  decoction,  apply  the  herbs  as  a  poultice  to  tiie  throat,  and 


738  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FAEM   PAY. 

V 

give  a  tablespoonfnl  of  the  decoction  every  two  hours.  Let  the 
patient  drink  freely  of  buttermilk,  vinegar  and  water,  lemonade, 
or  orano-e  juice.  After  the  tumors  burst  gargle  the  throat  with  a 
tea  of  sage  and  hyssop  sweetened  with  honey. 

Bronchitis  is  accompanied  by  chillines*  and  fever,  a  Tiard,  dry, 
painful  cough,  pain  and  soreness  at  the  upper  part  of  the  breast 
bone,  more  or  less  raising  of  phlegm,  and  pain  aci'oss  the  brow,  in- 
creased by  coughing.  The  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  fevers,  in 
addition  to  which  give  Prescription  No.  5,  to  relieve  the  cough 
Keep  the  patient  warm  and  on  a  light  diet.  A  drink  of 
flaxseed  or  slippery  elm  tea,  with  the  addition  of  lemon  juice  or 
vinegar  is  beneficial. 

Catarrh.  Influenza. — Symptoms.  Sneezing;  weight  and  pain 
in  the  head,  especially  the  forehead  ;  difficult  breathing  ;  stopping 
of  the  nose,  and  a  feeling  of  pressure  at  the  base  of  the  nose  ;  eyes 
red  and  watery ;  sore  throat,  dry  cough,  aching  limbs,  fever, 
phlegm  and  discharges  from  the  nose  and  eyes.  Keep  warm, 
dry,  and  quiet.  Soak  the  feet  daily  in  warm  water,  drink  warm 
lemonade,  spearmint  tea,  etc.  Reduce  your  diet  to  warm  gruels, 
and  pursue  this  course  until  cured.  You  may  thus  escape  per- 
haps those  fatal  diseases  of  the  throat  and  lungs  which  carry  so 
many  thousands  to  their  graves.  Persons  subject  to  colds  and 
catarrh  should  bathe  the  throat  and  neck,  and  create  a  friction  by 
the  use  of  a  brush  or  crash  towel,  sponging  the  whole  body  with 
salt  and  water. 

Diseases  op  the  Lungs  are  the  result  of  neglected  colds, 
catarrh  or  bronchial,  difficulties,  and  it  is  a  part  of  wisdom,  espe- 
cially with  those  who  inlierit  any  tendency  to  consumption,  to  at- 
tend scrupulously  to  any  affections  of  the  throat.  Of  late  3^ear3 
we  have  concluded  that  medicines  poured  into  the  stomach  for  the 
healing  of  the  lungs  are  seldom  of  any  benefit.  Pure  codliver  oil 
may  sometimes  be  of  temporary  service;  but  modern  medical 
science  treats  the  lungs  b}^  inhalation.  Of  course  whatever  is  in- 
haled goes  directly  to  the  lungs,  the  seat  of  the  disease.  Medi- 
cated vapors  of  various  kinds  are  superseding  the  use  of  drugs  in 
diseases  of  the  lungs.  Among  the  best  of  these  remedial  agents 
we  place  that  known  as  "  oxygenized  air.'^  Oxygen  being  the  food 
of  the  lungs,  a  large  proportion  of  it  is  inhaled,  and  the  effects  in 
all  throat  and  lung  diffiulties  are  speedy  and  favorable.  The 
writer  having  both  seen  and  experienced  its  good  effects,  confi- 
dently holds  it  up  to  inspire  the  hopes  of  those  who  feel  consump- 
tion fastening  itself  upon  their  systems.  Offices  where  this  "  oxy- 
genized air"  is  administered  have  been  established  in  all  the 
larger  cities,  and  we  trust  will  be  speedily  extended  to  every  town, 
village,  and  borough. 

Diphtheria. — Symptoms.  Intermittent  fever;  sore  throat;  de- 
pression;  difficult   breathing;    tonsils   and    other   parts   of   the 


THE    FAMILY    PHYSICIAN.  730 

throat  swollen  and  covered  with  a  white  coating;  urine  abundant  • 
bowels  constipated  at  first,  followed  by  diarrheoea.  ' 

Treatment.  An  even  temperature,  a  well  ventilated  room  and 
the  most  perfect  quiet  are  desirable.  If  the  patient  be  in  full 
strength/svhen  attaclced,  first  give  an  emetic,  but  if  weak  this 
must  be  omitted.  Move  the  bowels  lightly  with  mild  cathartics 
Cleanse  the  throat  and  apply  nitrate  of  silver  to  all  the  swollen 
parts  in  the  throat.  One  drachm  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  an  ounce 
of  water  is  the  proper  proportion.  Apply  the  solution  everv  day. 
Sprinkle  in  the  throat  often  the  following  mixture  one  'table- 
spoonful  each  of  salt  and  vinegar,  mixed  with  a  teaspoonful  of 
boiling  Avater;  this  may  also  be  injected  up  the  nostrils  when 
they  are  getting  filled  up.  Feed  the  patient  the  most  nourishing 
drinks  as  beef  or  mutton  tea,  eggs  and  wine,  wine  whey,  ale,  boiled 
milk,  etc. 

Pleurisy. — Symptoins.  Ordinary  fevei  symptoms;  pinching 
pain  on  one  side,  increased  by  breathing,  wnich  makes  the  person 
breathe  quick  and  short;  often  a  dry,  hacking  cough.  Sweat  the 
patient  profusely,  then  keep  the  affected  side  covered  with  a  hot 
fomentation  of  bitter  herbs,  changing  them  as  soon  as  they  get 
tepid.  Boneset,  tansy,  catnip,  hops,  wormwood,  hoarhound.or 
Saint  John's  wort  may  be  used  as  they  can  be  procured.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  for  several  days  to  guard  against  exposure. 
If  after  the  sweat  pain  and  difficulty  of  breathing  rema-n,  give  an 
emetic,  followed  by  a  cathartic,  If  the  cough  remains,  give  an  ex- 
pectorant of  wild  cherry  and  bloodroot,  or  Prescription  No.2. 

Inflammation  of  the  Stomach. — Gastritis. — Symptoms  burn 
ing  pain  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  increased  by  pressure  or  by 
swallowing;  nausea  and  frequent  vomiting,  thirst,  fever,  dejection, 
prostration,  and  costiveness.  ^Apply  mustard  poultices  to  the 
feet,  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  along  the  whole  course  of  the 
back  bone.  When  these  have  produced  redness  without  blister- 
ing remove  them,  and  apply  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach  hot  fomen- 
tations of  bitter  herbs,  hops,  and  lobelia  leaves,  or  hops  and  jimson 
leaves,  changing  them  before  they  become  cool.  In  addition  tc» 
this,  if  the  symptoms  should  still  continue  severe,  bathe  the  whole 
body  in  weak  lye-water,  drying  with  considerable  friction.  If  the 
bowels  are  constipated,  inject  molasses  and  water,  or  boneset  ami 
molasses ;  but  never  give  physic.  Let  the  patient  drink  freely  of 
^^um  arabic  water,  or  slippery  elm  and  pe&ch  leaf  tea,  or  barley 
\vater.  Quiet,  fresh  air,  and  an  equal  temperature  are  desiralile. 
As  soon  as  recovery  begins  give  hourly  a  teaspoonful  of  French 
brandy,  unless  it  should  prove  too  stimulating.  The  diet  sliould 
be  light  for  some  time. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels.— Symptoms  and  treatment  same 
as  above,  except  that  the  pain  is  in  the  bowels,  and  the  poultice 
must  be  applied  to  the  bowels  instead  of  to  the  stomach.  (Jive 
an  injection  at  once. 

45  ^ 


740  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAY. 

Dysentery. — Is  an  inflammation  of  the  lower  or  large  intestines, 
and  the  symptoms  are  different  from  any  other  inflammatory  dis- 
ease. Symptoms.  Frequent  bloodj^  stools  with  considerable 
ph'lef  m ;  gripings ;  bearing  down  and  a  more  or  less  constant 
desire  to  stock  or  strain  ;  natural  excrement  in  small  anft)unt  and, 
when  present,  in  hard,  small  balls ;  more  or  less  fever ;  loss  of 
appetite  ;  nausea  and  vomiting  ;  stools  ver}'  oftensive  ;  urine  scanty 
and  liigh  colored ;  and  great  prostration. 

Treatment.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  dysenter^^  can  be  cured 
by  injecting  a  quart  of  warm  water  into  the  bowels,  and,  as  soon  as 
this  has  passed,  immediately  injecting  again  a  solution  of  twenty 
grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  to  one  ounce  of  water.  This  course 
should  be  repeated  immediately  after  every  operation  from  the 
bowels ;  three  or  four  injections  generally''  effect  a  cure.  If  the 
pain  and  inflammation  are  severe  apply  mustard  poultices  and  hot 
fomentations,  as  directed  for  inflammation  of  the  stomach. 

Injections  of  slippery  elm  tea  and  laudanum,  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  the  former  to  half  a  teaspoonful  of  the  latter,  should  be  given,  if 
the  nitrate  of  silver  is  not  at  liand,  or  flaxseed  may  be  used  in 
place  of  slippery  elm.  Slippery  elm  tea  flavored  with  cinnamon 
may  be  given  for  a  drink.  The  juice  of  ripe  fruits,  cherries,  or 
blackberries  is  beneficial.  Dysentery  may  be  cured  by  taking 
moderate  exercise  dail^'^,  keeping  the  skin  clean,  using  nourishing 
but  easily  digested  food,  («ee  former  Chapter,)  keeping  the  bowels 
regular,  keeping  out  of  the  damp  night  air,  and  using  moderately 
fresh  ripe  fruits. 

Inflammatory  Rheumatism. — Symptoms.  Fever,  severe  pain, 
swelling  of  the  joints,  shifting  pains,  increased  by  moving  about. 
The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  caiise  pi-ofnse  sweating,  after  which 
a  gentle  perspiration  should  l)e  kept  up  by  the  use  of  warm  herb 
teas.  A  poultice  of  bruised  jimson  leaves  or  hops  and  lobelia 
leaves  should  be  kept  on  the  painful  parts.  Keep  the  bowels 
regular  and  open  by  mild  injections. 

Apoplexy. — A  person  struck  with  apoplexy  suddenly  falls  un- 
conscious, and  breathes  slowly  and  as  if  snoring.  Instantly  raise 
the  head  ;  remove  every  thing  from  the  neck;  if  necessary,  remove 
him  to  where  he  will  have  i)lenty  of  fresh  air,  and  while  one  person 
pours  a  stream  of  cold  water  upon  the  head  and  neck,  another 
should  rub  salt  upon  the  head  and  temples.  If  the  patient  does 
not  quickly  revive  under  this  treatment,  whip  or  rub  the  soles  of 
the  feet  so  as  to  produce  redness.     Give  a  cathartic  injection. 

Sun  Stroke  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  Give  free 
fresh  air,  raise  the  head,  and  pour  water  upon  the  head  and  neck. 
A  cloth  in  the  top  of  the  hat,  kept  Avet,  is  a  protection  against 
sun  stroke. 

Asthma  Phthisic— Persons  subject  to  asthma  should  keep  on 
!»and  jimson  leaves  wliich  have  been  soaked  in  a  solution  of  salt 


THE    FAMILY    PHYSICIAN.  74]^ 

petve  and  dried.  Smoking  these  in  a  pipe,  and  at  th»,  same  time 
toasting  the  feet  at  the  fire,  will  almost  immediately  relieve  asth- 
matic attacks. 

Hearxjjurn,  caused  by  acidity  of  the  stomach,  is  relieved  by 
taking  a  teaspoonful  of  chalk  or  saleratus  in  a  tumbler  of  water. 

Cholera  Morbus  is  usually  a  sudden  attack  of  griping  pains 
followed  by  purging  or  vomiting,  thirst,  and  heat,  succeecled  by 
cold  sweat.  Apply  a  mustard  poultice  over  the  bowels  and  the 
pit  of  the  stomach.  To  a  tumblerful  of  water  add  a  teaspoonful 
of  saleratus  and  twenty  drops  each  of  laudanum  and  spirits  of 
camphor.     After  a  little  quiet  give  a  dose  of  castor  oil. 

CosTiVENESS. — Some  persons  are  constantly  inclined  to  costive- 
ness,  which  in  time  is  the  cause  of  various  diseases.  To  such 
persons  we  must  secure  a  daily  discharge  from  the  bowels,  even  if 
at  times  they  have  to  reduce  themselves  to  a  liquid  diet.  Cheese, 
spices,  pickles,  and  other  articles  tending  to  constipation  should  be 
avoided,  and  ripe  fruits,  figs,  honey,  and  other  laxative  articles  of 
food  used  in  their  stead.  If  a  day  goes  by  without  a  passage  from 
the  bowels,  the  next  morning  inject  warm  soapsuds. 

Headache  is  most  frequently  caused  by  constipation  or  indiges- 
tion. Man}-  persons  who  now  sufli'er  almost  conscantl}^  from 
headache  would  be  relieved  if  they  would  use  the  means  described 
under  the  head  of  Costive^iess  for  keeping  the  bowels  regular.  Late 
suppers  and  also  improper  food  at  supper  is  the  potent  cause  of 
much  pain  in  the  head.  We  have  little  sympath}'^  for  headaches 
caused  by  such  foolish  indulgences.  Every  person  who  can  read 
may  know  what  food  it  is  proper  to  eat,  how  to  have  it  cooked,  and 
when  it  is  proper  to  eat  it.  An  hour  of  indulgence  at  the  table, 
followed  by  a  night  and  a  day  of  sick  headache,  is  a  sijecics  of 
enjoyment  we  do  not  appreciate.  PrescrijAion  No.  6,  if  given  as 
directed,  will  usually  relieve  sick  headache.  Nervous  headache 
requires  exercise,  cold  baths,  dieting,  regularity  in  the  bowels,  and 
some  tonic,  as  a  teaspoonful  of  French  brandy  hourly  for  a  week  01 
ten  days. 

Dyspepsia.  Indigestion.— Dyspepsia  is  attended  by  a  groat 
variety  of  unpleasant  symptoms,  such  as  oppression  in  the  stomafch, 
variable  appetite,  uneasiness,  nervousness,  low  spirits,  acidity  of 
the  stomach,  vomiting,  foul  mouth  in  the  morning,  heartburn,  an 
all  gone  feeling,  even  when  there  is  no  hunger,  a  sinking  feeling,  or 
fluttering  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  etc. 

Dyspepsia  renders  the  person  liable  to  succumb  to  the  first 
attack  of  fever  or  any  acute  disease.  The  best  cure  for  dyspepsia 
is  not  to  have  it,  which  is  accomplished  hy  ohexjing  the  plain  laws 
of  health  in  regard  to  eating,  drinking,  sleeping,  exercise,  etc. 
Eat  digestible  food  at  proper  times,  masticate  it  thoroughly, 
exercise  regularly  in  order  that  it  may  digest,  drink  moderately 
before  or  after  eating,  but  never  while  eating,  and  you  will  no^  liavo 


7'i2  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM   PAT. 

the  clyspe]  sia.  To  those  who  already  feel  its  symptoms  we  say 
exercise  daily  in  the  open  air,  eat  mutton,  fowls,  and  beef,  boiled, 
broiled  or  roasted,  but  never  fried.  Avoid  pork,  fish,  and  any  food 
that  requires  over  three  hours  for  digestion,  {see  table  in  previous 
chapter,)  eat  fresh  ripe  fruits  and  vegetables,  (baked  or  stewed 
prefe-rred,)  give  up  the  use  of  pastry,  tea,  coffee,  and  tobacco; 
bathe  the  surface  daily  with  cold  water,  seek  cheerful  society  and 
take  either  pirescription  No.  7  or  No.  8,  as  is  most  convenient  for 
you.  If  your  case  is  so  confirmed  as  to  resist  these  remedies, 
take  No.  9. 

'  Scrofula  can  be  successfully  treated  only  by  internal  remedies. 
No.  10  is  an  easily  procured  and  effectiA'e  remedy.  To  the  tumors 
that  have  not  discharged,  a  poultice  of  yellow  dock,  or  burdock, 
pounded,  and  made  with  corn  meal  and  vinegar,  may  be  applied. 
After  the  tumors  discharge,  wash  them  in  Castile  soapsuds,  to  Avhich 
a  little  whiskey  has  been  added.  Apply  to  them  an  ointment  made 
as  follows :  Scrape  a  carrot  into  fresh  cream,  beat  them  together, 
and  strain  through  a  cloth. 

Piles  are  the  result  of  a  constipated  condition  of  the  bowels, 
which  must  first  be  removed.  {See  Cosliveness.)  Mild  laxatives 
and  injections  should  be  used.  If  the  piles  descend  into  the  anus, 
frequent  sitting  in  cool  water  will  relieve  them.  Castile  soap,  added 
to  the  water  or  used  as  a  wash,  is  beneficial.  Sitting  over  a  hot 
decoction  of  bitter  herbs  and  steaming  the  parts  will  often  prove 
successful  where  other  remedies  fail.  The  ointment  prescription. 
No.  11,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  always  on  hand,  when  any  person 
in  the  family  is  subject  to  piles. 

For  any  of  the  lesser  scratches,  bumps,  burns,  bruises,  bites, 
stings,  sprains,  swellings,  etc.,  to  which  members  of  the  family  are 
liable,  we  consider  nothing  equal  to  tincture  of  arnica,  which  should 
be  kept  in  every  family,  secure  from  the  reach  of  children.  Dilute 
it  with  water,  half  and  half  In  cases  of  sprains  or  severe  inflam- 
mation, apply  wrappings  of  cotton  cloth  and  keep  them  wet  with 
the  arnica. 

To  Recover  Persons  when  Suffocated,  from  Drowning, 
Hanging,  Breathing  Gas,  or  any  Other  Cause. — Treat  the 
person  immediately,  and  in  the  open  air,  except  in  freezing  wea- 
ther. To  clear  the  body  of  water,  place  the  patient  face  down, 
with  one  arm  under  the  forehead.  To  excite  breathing,  turn  the 
body  on  to  the  side,  and  apply  hartshorn,  snuff,  or  salts  to  the  nos- 
trils. Rub  the  face  warm  with  a  towel,  then  dash  cold  water  in  it. 
To  imitate  breathing,  place  the  patient  again  on  his  face,  folding 
blankets  or  clothes  and  placing  them  under  the  chest.  Now  roll 
the  body  from  the  face  to  the  side,  repeating  these  turnings  delib- 
erately, efficiently,  and  perseveringly  about  fifteen  times  a  minute, 
occasionally  varying  the  side.  Every  time  the  body  turns  upon 
the  face  make  quick,  earnest  pressure  on  the  back,  between  and 


THE   FAMILY   PHYSICIAN  713 

below  the  shoulder-blades  on  each  side,  ceasing  the  pressure  im- 
mediately  before  turning  the  body  on  the  side.  After  breathing 
is  restored,  apply  hot  flannels,  bottles  of  hot  water,  hot  bricks,  etc 
to  the  pit  of  tlie  stomach,  armpits,  thighs,  and  soles  of  the  feet  •  rub 
the  limbs  upward  energetically  with  flannels  or  toweling.  As  soon 
as  the  power  of  swallowing  returns,  give  a  teaspoonfiil  of  warm 
water,  then  small  quantities  of  other  warm  drinks  or  spirits.  Do 
not  give  up  because  signs  of  life  do  not  at  once  appear.  Persons 
who  have  been  under  water  for  twenty  minutes  have  often  been 
resuscitated  by  a  vigorous  application  of  these  measures,  and  cases 
are  recorded  where  no  signs  of  life  appeared  for  three  hours. 

To  Keep  from  Drowning.— It  is  not  necessary  that  a  person 
should  know  how  to  swim  to  bo  able  to  keep  the  head  above  water. 
Any  persons  who  fall  into  the  water  may,  when  they  come  to  the 
surface,  keep  the  head  above  water  by  the  following"  simple  rule. 
Keep  tne  feet  in  motion  just  as  if  you  were  going  up  stairs,  and 
keep  the  hands  underwater.  You  cannot  sink  if  you  follow  these 
directions.  If  you  throw  your  hands  out  of  the  water  you  will  be 
sure  to  sink.  If  where  there  are  waves,  when  the  wave  comes 
draw  in  your  breath,  shut  your  mouth,  and  keep  up  the  treading 
until  it  has  passed  over. 

The  Use  of  Liquors. — Cider,  used  moderately  in  connection 
with  the  ordinary  meals,  is  a  refreshing  and  beneficial  beverage. 
The  same  may  also  be  said  of  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape ;  but  the 
use  of  whiske}',  gin,  brand}'^,  and  other  intoxicating  drinks,  except 
by  the  aged  and  feeble,  are  exceedingly  pernicious  to  health.  Many 
a  strong  and  vigorous  man  has  been  brought  low  by  the  use  of  ar- 
dent spirits.  Others  have  gone  safely  through  life,  boasting  that  the 
Indulgence  did  not  injure  them ;  but  the  physician  sees  the  sins  of 
tne  latner  reproduC'Sd  in  the  diseases  of  his  children  to  the  third 
and  fourth  generation.  We  add  our  voice  to  that  of  those  who 
proclaim  "there  is  death  in  the  cup." 

Exercise, — We  have  spoken  of  exercise  as  being  indispensable 
to  good  health,  for  both  men  and  women.  No  class  of  men  get 
more  or  better  exercise  than  farmers ;  and  if  they  would  attend 
diligently  to  the  other  laws  of  health,  they  might  be  longer  lived 
and  happier  men.  Many  farmers  are  subject  to  dyspepsia,  on  ac- 
count of  the  improper  use  of  food  and  drinks.  Many  are  struck 
down  with  fevers  and  inflammatory  comitlaints,  caused  by  check- 
ing the  perspiration  too  suddenly  when  engaged  in  active  exorcise. 
But  while  farmers  get  plenty  of  exercise,  farmers'  wives  and  daugh- 
ters are  apt  to  get  too  little.  It  is  true  they  get  plenty  of  hard 
work ;  but  active  out-door  exercise  is  as  necessary  for  their  health 
as  for  that  of  their  husbands  and  brothers.  Constant  conhnement 
over  the  stove,  the  wash-tub,  and  the  sewing  basket,  will  rum  the 
constitution  and  the  spirits  of  the  strongest  and  best  woman  liv- 
ing.    We  say  to  farmers'  wives  and  daughters,  get  out  of  doors 


744  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FAEM   PAY. 

daily,  if  possible.  Take  upon  yourselves  the  care  of  the  poultry 
and" the  bees.  Cultivate  tlie  kitchen  garden.  Go  to  the  pastures 
and  the  woods,  for  berries,  roots,  herbs,  and  flowers.  Take  na- 
ture's invigorator,  pure,  fresh  air. 

We  will  give  some  rules  for  exercise  especially  adapted  to 
women,  but  not  inapplicable  to  the  rest  of  mankind. 

1.  Exercise  should  not  be  carried  to  excessive  fatigue,  or  the 
object  will  be  defeated.  Persons  not  used  to  active  exercise  should 
begin  moderately  and  increase  the  amount  of  exercise  as  it  can  be 
borne. 

2.  The  clothing  worn  during  exercise  should  be  loose  and  easy; 
the  shoes  should  be  larger  than  those  worn  at  other  times. 

3.  Exercise  should  never  he  taken  upon  an  empty  or  full  sto- 
mach. If  some  time  has  elapsed  since  eating,  take  a  cracker  or  a 
piece  of  bread.  With  this  precaution,  an  hour  before  breakfast  is 
usually  the  most  beneficial  time  for  exercise.  Horseback  riding  is 
a  beneficial  exercise  for  those  who  enjoy  it,  but  walking  is,  all 
things  considered,  the  most  natural,  complete,  and  healthful  exer- 
cise. Running,  jumping,  skating,  and  swimming,  when  modera- 
tion is  exercised,  are  all  healthful  varieties  of  exercise.  Dancing 
is  one  of  the  most  delightful  and  beneficial  modes  of  exercise,  when 
conducted  in  well  ventilated  rooms  or  out  of  doors,  and  at  proper 
hours.  It  exercises  not  only  every  portion  of  the  body,  but  aifords 
pleasant  recreation  for  the  mind,  which  is  often  of  as  much  service 
as  the  former.  But  the  modern  practice  of  dancin^^,*  in  closely 
packed  and  ill  ventilated  rooms,  far  into  the  night,  is  luirtful  and 
pernicious  in  the  last  degree. 

Gymnastics  are  a  series  of  exercises  so  graduated,  as  to  bring 
in  play  every  portion  of  the  body.  Calisthenics  are  a  series  of 
/ight  gymnastics  designed  for  ladies  and  children.  But  women 
living  in  the  country  have  no  need  to  resort  to  these  contrivances 
for  exercise.  With  God's  free  air  about  them  and  the  garden, 
the  orchard,  the  hills,  and  the  woods  on  the  right  hand  and  on 
the  left,  they  have  the  means  for  health  within  their  reach,  and 
great  will  be  their  condemnation  if  they  do  not  present  themselves 
and  their  children  with  sound  bodies,  and  vigor  unimpaired. 

Steep. — Rest  is  required  for  both  mind  and  body,  and  sound 
*leep  is  the  most  perfect  rest  of  both.  For  manj^  reasons  night  is 
the  only  proper  time  for  sleep,  for  persons  in  the  enjoyment  of 
health.  Sleep  for  such  persons  during  the  day,  is  not  only  un- 
necessary but  absolutely  hurtful.  The  custom  of  taking  sleep 
after  tlie  mid-day  meal,  is  injurious.  A  state  of  quiet  ease  for  an 
hour  after  dinner  is  undoubtedly  beneficial,  but  when  ease  ia 
allowed  to  become  unconsciousness,  positive  injury  is  done. 

There  can  be  no  healthy  sleep,  night  or  day,  with  undigested 
food  upon  the  stomach,  consequently  Jio  food  .should  in  any  case 
he^laken  into  the  stomach  for  at  least  two  hours  before  retirin(j  to 
sleep.  The  violation  of  this  rule  has  been,  as  any  physician  can 
testifj'-,  the  cause  of  an  unmeasurable  amount  of  ill  health,  sutler- 


THE   FAMILY    PHYSICIAN.  745 

ing  and  death.  The  time  for  sleep  is  also  important,  from  nine  to 
live  being,  for  adults  m  health,  the  most  desirable.  Whatever  time 
IS  set  for  retiring,  none  but  the  most  ur<rent  considerations  shouM 
prevent  your  retiring  when  that  time\arrives.  Make  it  a  rule 
never  to  be  up  after  ten  o'clock,  except  upon  most  important  busi- 
ness. Never  sleep  on  the  first  floor  if  you  can  conveniently  arran^re 
so  as  to  sleep  m  the  second  story.  During  dry  days,  whether 
cold  or  warm,  allow  your  chamber  to  be  open  a  good  share  of 
the  day,  and  the  bed  clothes  to  lie  over  a  chair.  Some  housekeepers, 
in  their  anxiety  to  have  the  work  done  up,  make  the  beds  early 
in  the  morning,  before  they  havv.  time  to  air  properly.  Use 
every  means  to  keep  the  air  of  your  room  pure  at  all  times,  day 
and  night,  if  you  would  have  sound,  healthy,  refreshing  sleep. 

(Dr.  King's)  Prescriptions  No.  1.  Compound  Syrlp  of  Rhu- 
barb AND  ToTASSA.  Rhubarb  two  ounces.  Bicarbonate  of  pot- 
tassa,  two  ounces;  cinnamon,  one  ounce  ;  golden  seal,  one  ounce. 
Best  fourth  proof  brandy  one  quart.  Let  stand  two  days.  Press 
out  the  juice,  and  add  to  it  one  half  drachm  oil  of  peppermint  dis- 
solved in  a  little  alchohol.  fo  the  residue  or  cake  from  wliifli  the 
juice  was  pressed,  add  warm  water  until  the  strength  is  exhausted, 
evaporate  this  to  one  quart,  and  while  hot  dissolve  in  it  one  and 
a  half  pounds  of  refined  sugar  ;  mix  the  tincture  with  it.  This  is 
useful  in  all  diarrahosa  and  bowel  complaints.  Dose — a  table- 
spoonful  for  an  adult,  a  teaspoonful  for  a  child,  and  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  for  an  infant.  To  be  taken  every  half  hour  in  severe 
cases,  every  hour  in  ordinary  cases,  and  once  in  two  hours  for  the 
first  s^'inptoms. 

No.  2.  (Dr.  King's)  Compound  Tincture  of  Lobelia.  Lobelia, 
blood  root,  skunk  cabbage,  wild  ginger,  and  pleuri-sy  root,  each 
coarsely  powdered,  one  ounce.  Cover  with  one  pint  boiling  water. 
Cover  tightly,  and  when  cold  add  three  pints  of  alcohol.  Let  stand 
two  weeks,  press  out  the  tincture  and  filter  it.  Tliis  is  an  excellent 
emetic  in  croup,  whooping  cough,  scarlet  fever,  convulsions,  and 
wherever  an  emetic  is  required.  Dose — half  a  teaspuonful  lor  infants, 
teaspoonful  from  one  to  three  years  old,  tablespoouful  from  three 
to  six  years  old.  Mix  in  a  little  molasses  and  water  and  give  a 
dose  every  ten  minutes  until  vomiting  is  produced.  It  is  i)ficn 
supposed  that  the  emetic  is  only  to  throw  off  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  but  this  is  not  its  main  purpose.  It  rouses  the  system  to 
action  in  throwing  oflf  disease.  The  above  tincture,  in  small  (io.->.'s. 
taken  in  an  infusion  of  slippery  elm,  will  serve  as  an  ex])ectoraiit 
in  Asthma,  Pleurisy,  etc.  We  advise  every  family  to  keep  a  bottle 
of  it  on  hand  tightly  corked  or  sealed. 

No.  3.  Compound  Poivder  of  Jalap.  Senna  half  an  ounce. 
Jalap  two  drachms.    Ginger  half  a  drachm.    A  valuable  purgative. 

No.  4.  Sulphate  of  quinia  and  Prussiate  of  iron  each  three 
grains,  mix  for  a  dose.  Fever  and  ague  remedy  to  be  taken  be- 
tween the  sweat  and  chill. 


746  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

No.  5.  Mix  equal  parts  of  honey,  sweet  oil,  sweet  spirits  of 
nitre,  and  lemon  juice  or  vinegar.  Tliis  mixture  is  for  tlie  relief 
of  tightness  and  cough  in  Bronchitis,  Catarrh,  Lung  fever,  etc. 
Dose — a  teaspoonful,  to  be  given  as  often  as  required. 

No.  6.  For  sick  headache.  Super  carbonate  of  soda,  half  a 
drachm,  prepared  charcoal  one  drachm,  paregoric  one  fluid  drachm, 
water  a  fluid  ounce  ;  mix  well  together  and  give  when  the  dim- 
ness of  vision  comes  on,  and  repeat  every  fifteen  minutes  until  re- 
lieved.    Rest,  darkness,  and  quiet,  are  indispensable. 

No.  7.  Golden  seal,  black  alder  bark,  Solomons'  seal  root,  two 
tablespoonfuls  each,  boiling  water  one  quart,  mix,  steep  six  hours, 
strain,  sweeten  to  suit  the  taste.  Dose — a  tablespoonful  every 
three  hours,  or  four  times  a  da3^ 

No.  8.  Beef  gall  a  gill,  golden  seal,  boneset,  prickly  ash  berries, 
blue  flag  root,  each  a  tablespoonful  in  powder;  mix  in  one  pint  of 
whiskey,  and  let  it  stand  for  ten  days,  shaking  frequently.  Dose — 
tablespoonful  three  times  a  day,  to  be  increased  if  the  bowels  do 
not  move  regularly  every  day. 

The  above  prescriptions  are  for  indigestion,  the  former  being 
intended  for  its  first  stages,  and  the  latter  for  more  confirmed 
Dyspepsia. 

No.  9.  Blue  flag  root,  mandrake  root,  and  dog's  bane,  one 
ounce  each  in  very  fine  powder.  Blood  root  fine,  half  an  ounce, 
red  pepper  fine,  two  drachms,  saleratus  one  ounce.  Dose — half  a 
teaspoonful  in  water  three  times  a  day.  This  is  for  long  standing 
obstinate  cases  of  Dyspepsia,  in  which  costiveness  and  distress  at 
the  stomach  are  prominent  symptoms. 

No.  10.  For  Scrofula.  Fnlsegrape,  dog's  bane,  burdock  root, 
Hnd  yellow  parilla  root,  eacli  in  cof^i'^e  powder,  one  ounce ;.  sdd 
three  quarts  boiling  water ;  boil  slowly  down  to  two  quarts,  strain, 
add  four  pounds  sugar,  then  bring  to  a  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
skim  off  the  scum  that  rises  to  the  tf-;*.  Keep  in  a  cool  place  in 
tightly  corked  bottles.     Dose — half  a  gill  three  times  a  day. 

No.  11.  Ointment  for  Piles.  Take  fresh  horse  chestnuts  and 
slice  them  up  fine,  steep  them  one  hour  in  lard  just  sufficient  to 
cover  them.  Strain  out  the  lard  and  when  cool  it  is  fit  for  use. 
Rub  it  over  the  tumors  and  up  the  anus  at  night  and  morning. 

No.  12.  Slippery  Elm  Poultice.  A  tablespoonful  of  powdered 
slippery  elm,  to  which  add  hot  water  enough  to  thicken.  This  is 
a  poultice  for  boils,  tumors,  etc.  Slippery  elm  makes  an  excel- 
lent poultice  for  burns,  bruises,  and  sores  of  all  sorts. 

No.  13.  Cold  Cream  for  chapped  hands  and  lips,  cracks  and 
skin  diseases.  Spermaceti  ten  drachms,  white  wax  one  drachm, 
oil  of  almonds  two  fluid  ounces;  add  to  this  four  fluid  drachms  of 
glycerine,  in  which  three  drops  oil  of  roses  have  been  mixed;  stir 
constantly  until  cold. 


THE  FARMER'S  CALENDAR  OF  MONTHLY  WORK  ON  THE  FARM 


JANUARY  WORK. 

Prepare  for  the  coming  season  by  reading  and  laying  out  your 
plans.  Determine  what  implements,  seeds,  roots,  potatoes,  trees, 
etc.,  you  will  want  for  planting  and  order  them  in  good  season'. 
Secure  the  best  seed.  A  few  dollars  for  wheat  or  oats,  that  will 
yield  ten  bushels  more  to  the  acre  than  you  are  now  getting,  and 
heavier  at  that,  will  prove  a  good  investment  in  the  end. 

Farm  Hands. — We  have  previously  advised  that  farm  hands 
should  be  kept  the  year  round.  A  great  deal  of  work  is  neglected 
In  the  winter  for  want  of  help.  Now  is  the  time  to  cut  fire-wood 
and  get  out  timber,  fence  sLuff,  bean  poles,  etc. 

A  Work  Shop,  provided  with  the  most  important  carponter3'» 
painters',  and  metal  workers'  tools,  is  what  every  farmer  should 
have.  Let  it  contain  a  bench  with  vice,  nails,  screws,  a  hammer, 
hatchet  and  drawing  knife,  saws,  planes,  chisels,  centre  bits  and 
stock,  and  other  carpenters'  tools,  paints,  pots,  and  brushes,  of 
two  or  three  sizes ;  assortment  of  files,  cold  chisels,  monkey 
wrench  and  other  wrenches,  a  hard-wood  block  which  will  do  for 
an  anvil,  a  soldering  iron,  sh  •  "s  of  tin,  wires,  rivets,  etc.;  besides 
a  good  stock  of  boards  and  timber  of  various  kinds.  Add  to  this 
a  few  simple  articles  of  the  harness  makers'  kit,  such  as  awls,  wax, 
thread,  rivets,  with  "set"  punches,  and  leather.  Instruct  the  boys 
in  the  use  and  care  of  the  tools.  It  will  develop  mechanical  in- 
genuity. Thus  provided,  many  a  profitable  day's  work  may  be 
done. 

Bidld^'noH. — Lay  out  all  yo-:r  plans  for  new  buildings  and  alter- 
ations or  repairs  of  old  ones,  and  get  out  the  necessary  material 
to  be  seasoning.  Nothing  makes  a  worse  job  than  unseasoned 
timber.  Remember  that  manure  wintered  under  sheds  is  worth 
double  that  wintered  in  the  open  air,  and  if  you  havn't  shed  room 
enough  calculnte  to  build  more  in  the  spring.  It  is  poor  policy  to 
let  form  buildings  run  down;  keep  every  board  nailed  tight, 
foundation  stones  firm,  doors  on  their  hinges,  etc. 

Orchard.— 8ee  that  fences  and  gates  are  tight,  to  keep  out  all 
domestic  animals.  Sprinkle  young  trees  with  blood  to  keep  away 
rabbits,  and  tramp  the  snow  around  the  trees  to  prevent  the  worK- 
in^  of  mice.  Make  surface  drains  where  needed.  Cut  scions 
when  the  trees  are  not  frozen,  label  carefully,  and  keep  in  a  cool 


rpillar  are  readily 

remove  them  now  at  any  cost  or  trouble.  ^^^ 


748  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

Stoch. — Stables,  for  econora}'  of  fodder,  should  be  warm  as  pos- 
sible ;  for  the  health  of  stock  they  should  be  comfortable,  clean, 
and  well  ventilated.  Clean  out  daily,  and  sprinkle  a  mixture  of 
plaster  and  muck  over  the  floors.  Give  cows,  young  cattle,  and 
workino-  oxen  a  few  hours,  in  the  yards  in  the  middle  of  warm  days, 
and  a  foddering  while  there.  Beeves,  that  are  being  fed  for 
market,  sliould  be  less  exposed.  Clean  the  stables,  and  litter 
freshl}'  while  the  cattle  are  out  of  them.  Sheep  should  have  well 
littered  yards  and  sheds,  water  as  regularl}''  as  any  stock,  and 
regularity  in  feeding.  Tlie  flocks  should  be  so  divided  that  the 
strong  shall  not  get  more  than  their  share.  Oil-cake  is  a  safe  and 
profitable  feed  for  all  fattening  and  milK  stock.  Keep  all  stock 
well  fed  and  in  good  condition;  suppl}?^  with  water  and  salt  regu,- 
larly.  It  is  economy  to  cut  and  cook  all  food  for  stock  in  the 
winter.  It  paj's  in  keeping  up  the  stock  better.  It  pays  by  sav- 
ing at  least  one-third  the  fodder,  and  it  pays  in  the  manure.  Upon 
horses,  neat  cattle  of  all  grades,  and  swine,  the  regular  use  of  the 
curry-comb  and  card  will  be  found  to  paj''  well.  Let  no  stock  run 
clown  in  flesh.  Spring  j^oor  cattle  are  a  disgrace  to  any  farmer, 
as  well  as  a  loss.  Every  time  a  pound  of  flesh  is  lost  and  replaced 
it  costs  mone}^  Fowls  should  be  provided  with  warm,  light  quar- 
ters, and  furnished  with  powdered  shells  or  bones.  The  great 
difficulty  with  eggs  now-a-da^'S  is  their  thin  shells.  Hens  must 
have  bones  in  abundance,  and  then  the}'  will  form  thick  shells. 

Manures  should  be  deposited  with  muck  or  peat  under  cover. 
Save  all  the  liquid  manure  and  pump  it  over  the  comport.  Send 
your  men  and  teams  into  the  swamp  and  get  out  a  quantity  of 
peat  or  muck. 

FEBRUARY   WORK. 

Plannin;;;-  is  the  great  thing  now.  The  difierence  between  the 
successful  cultivator,  who  makes  his  farm  pay,  and  the  unsuccess- 
ful one  who  is  always  running  behind,  is,  that  the  one  plans  care- 
fully and  the  other  does  not.  Decide  now  what  crops  to  plant, 
and  where  to  plant  them. 

Mxick. — In  man}^  localities  peat  and  swamp  muck  can  be  dug 
out  and  hauled  now  better  than  at  any  otlier  season  of  the  year. 
Upon  many  muck  bogs  teams  cannot  go  with  safety  during  the 
summer  or  fixll,  on  account  of  their  mirj-  character  ;  but  after  the 
ground  freezes,  teams  can  go  over  them  anywhere  at  pleasure. 
It  will  pay  to  get  out  a  large  supply  now,  and' haul  it  to  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  farm  yard. 

Sledding  out  Manure  should  be  attended  to  Ijefore  the  snows 
become  too  deep.  The  farmer,  as  well  as  the  cattle,  need  to  work 
a  little  every  day,  and  whenever  everything  is  favorable  it  is 
better  to  do  this  work.  If  it  can  Avell  be  done, ^  cover  up  the 
heaps  so  made  ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  do  so.     Some  cover  with 


THE   farmer's    calendar.  749 

poor  hay  to  prevent  the  constant  freezing  and  thawm-  of  the  ma- 
nure, feand  or  loam,  if  it  can  be  obtained,  is  very  Trood  Onl, 
well  composted  manure  should  be  hauled  out,  unless  it  can' be  wel 
protected.  It  is  a  most  excellent  time,  when  there  is  snow  on  ihe 
ground,  to  haul  such  manures  on  to  the  meadows  where  wheels 
cannot  go  except  in  mid-summer. 

Drains  can  still  be  dug  to  good  advantage  in  many  places  TI.e 
ground  is  seldom  frozen  more  tlian  a  fe^^'  inches  in^deptli  and  in 
many  situations  good  work  can  be  done  in  di<Toino-  and  lavin'r 
stone  or  tde  drains.  It  may  require  some  littJc  force  to  stait 
upon  such  a  job  at  tnis  season  of  tlie  year,  but  force  is  necessary 
in  carrying  on  a  farm  successfully,  and  the  successful  farmer  takes 
advantage  of  all  times  and  opportunities,  and  knows  no  season 
but  the  best — viz. :  now  ! 

Gi-aixiring  Meadow  Land.— No  meadow  can  be  fnlly  reclaimed 
and  brought  into  the  yery  best  condition  without  being  thoroughly 
drained  and  well  dressed  with  gravel  or  sand.  Some  prefer  gi^vel 
to  sand,  but  our  experience  is  in  favor  of  the  latter.  This* work 
cannot  be  done  at  any  season  of  the  year  so  well  as  in  winter, 
when  the  ground  is  tightly  frozen,  and  still  better  if  there  comes 
after  such  freezing  a  light  snow,  just  enough  to  make  good 
slipping.  As  the  sand  bank,  especially  if  it  has  a  southern  expo- 
sure, does  not  freeze  hard,  it  can  be  worked  to  great  advantage. 

Animals. — Change  the  diet  of  all  animals,  occasionally.  Horses, 
that  are  scurfy,  and  whose  hair  is  full  of  dirt,  which  the  comb  only 
makes  worse,  usually  need  roots.  Carrots,  in  small  quantities, 
with  a  handful  of  ginger  and  one  of  wood-ashes,  daily,  are  as  good 
as  an}'  "  condition  powder."  Charcoal  dust,  mixed  with  roots  or 
meal,  is  excellent  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  Make  the  roots  last,  you 
■will  need  them  for  milch-cows  that  come  in  early,  and  for  sows, 
before  farrowing.  Feed  the  cows  well.  Those,  whose  calves  you 
mean  to  raise,  should  be  dried  off  earlier  thtni  those  kept  for  milk, 
and  whose  calves  go  for  veal.  Take  early  calves  from  the  dam  at 
birth,  and  bring  them  up  by  hand.  Milk  is  worth  too  much  to  be 
given  to  calves,  when  gruel  will  do.  Beeves. — Bullocks  and  dry 
cows  should  be  in  warm,  sunny  yard<5,.  some  hours  daily,  and  stalled 
at  night ;  litter  well ;  feed  freely,  that  they  may  fatten  rapidly. 
Give  all  animals  sunshine  in  their  stalls  or  sheds.  Keep  young 
stock  Avarm  and  grooving.  If  the  supply  of  hay  is  short,  look  out 
in  time  and  buy  corn  fodder  and  good  bright  straw,  which,  with  a 
little  oil  cake,  roots,  or  grain  will  do  well  enough.  Swine.— Kw[> 
hogs  at  work  in  the  manure.  Sows,  near  farrowing,  should  be  put 
alone  ;  kept  quiet ;  fed  raw  roots,  (potatoes  or  beets  are  best), 
and  the  pens  abundantly  littered  ;  do  not  let  them  get  too  fat. 
and  feed  no  animal  food.  Sheep.— FvovidQ  dry  and  sheltfred 
yards  and  sheds.  Hemlock,  or  other  evergreen  boughs,  fed  occa- 
sionally, are  gratefully  received.     A  run  on  the  snow  in  the  middle 


750  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

of  a  mild  day  is  exceedingly  beneficial.  And  if  the  snow  is  off,  an 
hour's  nibble  at  the  grass  will  do  more  to  keep  the  system  in  good 
condition  than  any  nostrums,  such  as  tar,  alum,  etc.  Especially 
on  the  ewes  with  "lambs  this  short  hour  of  relaxation,  whenever 
the  weather  will  permit,  is  of  incalculable  benefit 

MARCH   WORK. 

Head  loork  is  better  than  hand  icoi^k.  Head  work  often  saves 
hand  xcork.  Head  loork  always  makes  hand  work  more  efficient. 
The  difference  between  ''farmer  thrifty^''  and  "farmer  behind- 
hand^^ is  nine  times  out  often  in  head  work.  Carefully  laid  plans 
seldom  fail ;  hap-hazard  plans  seldom  succeed. 

General  Work. — Buildings  may  be  repaired  and  painted  inside 
or  ou*^^.  As  soon  as  settUc^  spring  weather  comes,  cellars  should 
be  cleaned  out  and  white-washed,  sinks  and  drains  opened  and 
cleaned,  foundations  examined  and  repaired  if  moved  by  the  frost. 
Replace  fences,  stone  walls,  foundations  of  buildings,  gate-posts, 
etc.,  heaved  b}^  the  frost.  Set  fences,  and  repair  them  wherever 
they  need  it.  Dip  posts  in  gas  tar,  and  roll  in  sand  before  setting. 
Pick  up  stones  loosened  by  the  frost ;  blast  and  haul  off  or  bury 
heavy  ones  out  of  the  way  of  the  plow.  Plow  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  dry.  Sow  spring  grains  as  soon  as  it  is  warm.  Put  in 
a  crop  of  peas,  or  peas  and  oats.  Peas  alone,  in  drills,  on  good 
soil,  will  be  off  in  time  to  plow  for  wheat,  or  for  turnips  to  follow'. 
Cut  biennial  weeds,  docks,  thistles,  etc.  Grub  up  fence  rows  and 
corners  where  shrubs  or  briers  have  got  a  start. 

If  you  have  never  done  it  before,  do  not  neglect  this  spring  to 
grade  your  barn  j-ard  to  one  corner  or  to  the  centre,  and  sink  an 
oil  butt  or  hogsaead  lo  save  the  liquid  manure  The  urine  of  your 
animals  is  worth  just  as  much  as  the  solid  droppings.  When  you 
can  afford  to  throw  these  away  then  3'ou  can  afford  to  allow  the 
urine  to  run  to  waste, 'and  not  till  then. 

Harrowing  and  Rolling  meadows  and  winter  wheat,  as  soon 
as  the  frost  is  out,  is  an  operation  that  pays.  The  ordinary  long- 
toothed  harrow  should  not  be  used,  but  a  harrow  for  this  especial 
purpose,  with  a  large  number  of  short,  fine  teeth. 

The  roots  of  grains  and  grasses  are  raised  to  the  surface  by  the 
constant  and  severe  freezings  of  winter.  By  passing  the  roller 
over  the  field  in  the  spring,  the  roots  are  pressed  down  into  the 
soil,  so  that  the}'  can  at  once  take  hold  and  grow.  It  is  frequentl}' 
the  case  that  the  use  of  the  roller  in  wheat  fields  and  meadows  in 
the  spring  will  apparently  double  the  number  and  size  of  the 
plants. 

Spring  Wieaf. — On  underdrained  land  that  has  been  thoroughly 
plowed  in  the  fall,  spring  wheat  can  be  sowed,  as  soon  as  the  frost 
IS  out,  two  or  three  inches  deep.     It  will  only  need  harrowing  and 


THE   farmer's   calendar.  75 1 

cross  harrowing.  Clover  can  be  sown  even  on  a  licrht  snow  Ashes 
operate  as  manure  upon  the  wheat,  even  in  the  limited  qnantity  of 
eight  bushels  per  acre.  They  push  the  wheat  forward  several  davs 
and  in  time  to  escape  the  hot,  sultry  days  which  often  prevail 
about  the  time  of  tlie  "heading  out"  of  the  wheat;  and  ihuy 
strengthen  the  stem,  giving  it  substance  and  solidity. 

Roads,  Drainings,  efc— March  is  the  month  to  make  and  repair 
farm  roads,  lay  culverts  of  wood  or  stone,  and  change  the  grade  of 
paths,  yards,  etc.,  while  the  ground  is  loose  from  the^coinin'^  out  of 
the  frost.  Prepare  channels  for  surface  water;  and  if  tliey  will 
wash  into  gullies,  protect  them  and  spread  the  streams  over  the 
surface.  Guard  against  washing  in  grain  fields  or  fiiU  plowed  land. 
The  location  of  springs  may  be  easily  seen  by  the  thawing  of  snow 
in  spots  in  the  fields,  and  the  places  which  most  need  underd rain- 
ing are  easily  determined.  Much  underdraining  may  be  done 
■while  the  land  is  still  too  wet  to  plow:  and  much  damage  may  be 
done  by  plowing  wet  soil. 

Stock. — Increase  the  feed  and  exercise  of  farm  horses,  and  groom 
well,  to  prepare  them  for  hard  spring  work.  Keep  all  horses,  but 
especially  mares  with  foal,  sharp  shod  for  fear  of  slipping  on  ice 
patches.  Turn  unused  horses  loose  an  hour  or  two  daily,  one  at  a 
time,  lest  in  play  they  kick  each  other.  Groom  oxen  and  cows 
and  feed  well,  to  prepare  the  oxen  for  work.  Do  not  tax  them  too 
heavily  at  first;  if  unused  during  winter  their  necks  and  feet  will 
be  tender.  Look  to  cows  at  calving  time,  giving  personal  attention 
and  aid  if  required.  Feed  some  roots  daily,  both  before  and  after 
calving.  Remove  the  calf  at  once  if  it  is  to  be  taken  away,  and 
milk  the  cow  dry;  otherwise  let  the  cow  lick  the  calf  clean,  allow 
it  to  suck,  and  then  milk  the  dam  dry  at  once.  See  that  all  cows 
are  milked  dry,  twice  a  day,  and  it  is  best  to  milk  young  cows  three 
times  a  day.  It  increases  the  tendency  to  secrete  milk.  Increase 
the  amount  of  meal  fed  to  fattening  animals,  that  they  may  ripen 
up  the  faster  as  soon  as  they  get  grass.  Throw  sods  every  few 
days  to  the  hogs  and  poultrj^'  if  confined  ;  if  possible,  let  the  latter 
run.  Keep  sows  with  young  i)igs  warmly  housed.  Isolate  breed- 
ing sows,  give  warm,  well  strawed  pens.  Feed  raw  potatoes  or 
other  roots,  sprinkled  with  a  little  meal,  daily,  to  counteract  any 
tendency  to  constipation.  Charcoal  dust  promotes  good  digestion. 
Clover  hay  is  good,  healthy  food,  and  a  few  sods  will  be  turned 
over  and  munched  with  grent  relish.  Protect  all  young  stock  from 
severe  weather,  rain,  or  wind.  Separate  breeding  ewes  and  all 
feeble  sheep  from  the  others,  and  give  extra  grain,  or  roots.  Give 
early  lambs  especial  care.  Provide  abundant  water  and  salt  lor 
all  animals,  and  watch  the  health  of  all,  removing  those  that  are  in 
any  way  ailing,  to  comfortable  but  isolated  quarters. 

If  short  of  fodder  make  it  up  by  cutting  and  cooking  what  you 
have  with  roots  and  grain. 


/52  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

APRIL  WORK. 

The  Plow,  the  Harrow,  the  Roller,  and  the  Clod  Crusher  will 
be  in  order  this  month.  The  Clod  Crusher  is  an  impleiBent  no 
farmer  would  willingly  do  without  after  he  had  once  tried  it  and 
Avituessed  its  eftects.  It  pulverizes  the  ground  more  thoroughly 
than  the  harrow  can,  and  its  use  is  often  of  as  much  benefit  as  an 
extra  coating  of  manure.  The  most  thorough  possible  pulveriza- 
tion of  the  soil  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  large  crops.  In  plowing, 
deepen  the  soil  a  little  ;  turn  sod  over  flat ;  move  the  soil  only 
wlien  dry  enough  to  crumble;  prepare  the  ground  thoroughly'  for 
crops  both  by  manure  and  tillage.  Work  no  wet  soil.  No 
amount  of  harrowing  will  restore  land  to  the  condition  it  should 
be,  if  it  be  plowed  while  wet,  and  dries  in  hard  clods. 

Spring  Grains. — The  earlier  the  spring  grains  are  put  in,  the 
bettei'.  Oats  and  wheat  should  go  into  the  ground  before  the  20th, 
if  it  is  possible  to  get  the  land  into  suitable  condition.  There  are 
great  advantages  in  drilling  in  all  grain.  However  good  condition 
the  land  may  be  in,  it  is  very  useful  to  give  it  a  top  dressing  of 
some  concentrated  manure,  like  gnano,  superphosphate,  ashes  or 
line  compost.  It  gives  the  seeds  an  earl}'  and  luxuriant  start, 
causes  a  larger  and  stronger  growth  of  root  and  of  stalk.  Apply  it 
after  the  grain  and  grass  seed  are  sown,  and  harrow  or  roll  it  in 

We  cannot  take  too  great  pains  in  la3ing  down  land,  to  get  a 
smooth  and  even  surface,  in  preparation  for  the  mowing  machine 
and  other  implements. 

Early  potatoes  on  warm  mellow  land,  a  sandy  or  gravelly  loam, 
may  be  planted  now.  Manure  well  with  well  rotted  compost.  Do 
not  cut  the  slices  too  small,  and  after  being  cut  let  them  lie  a  day 
or  two  in  the  sun  for  the  cut  surfaces  to  harden  a  little  before 
planting.  The  potatoes  iised  as  seed  for  the  main  crop  to  be 
planted  early  in  May  will  bear  cutting  finer. 

The  Garden. — If  3'ou  expect  to  sell  what  you  grow,  remember 
that  the  earlier  you  can  get  a  good  vegetable  or  fruit  into  market, 
the  more  you  will  get  for  it.  Let  j-our  aim  be,  therefore,  to  grow 
things  as  earlj^  as  possible.  But  do  not  confine  yourself  to  early 
things.  The  garden  will  furnish  more  solid  comfort  and  return 
more  money,  for  what  it  costs,  than  any  part  of  the  farm.  Now 
is  the  time  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  good  garden  to  last  during 
the  entire  season.  Deep  culture  is  the  specific  against  drought. 
Deep  culture  and  thorough  drainage  are  the  secrets  of  premium 
crops.     Remember  this  now  and  practice  it. 

Sheep. — April  is  yeaning  time,  and  the  ewes  and  lambs  require 
a  great  deal  of  attention.  Give  ewes,  at  ^-eaning  time,  warm  sheds 
and  sunny  yards,  and  be  ever  on  the  lookout  for  chilled  or  feeble 
hxmbs  ;  wrap  such  in  warm  sheep  skins,  give  a  few  spoonfuls  of 
uanii  milk-punch,  and  lay  them  near  the  kitchen  fire.    If  far  gone. 


THE   farmer's    calendar.  753 

give  a  warm  bath  with  brisk  but  gentle  rubbing  until  dry,  warmin-. 
by  the  hre  or  with  liot  bricks;  those  apimrently  neai^  aendTifi 
usually  revive  and  do  well.  When  fodder  is  scarce  it  is  a  -It 
temptation  to  many  fanners  to  turn  their  sheep  out,  for  thev  wi  1 
eat  a  great  deal  of  the  drying  grasses  that  grow  amon^  clumps  of 
bushes  m_  hedge-rows  and  among  the  stones  in  the  cow  pa^urcs 
:No  practice  can  be  worse  for  the  summer  pasturao-e  Tlie  onlv 
proper  pasturage  which  sheep  can  have  at  this  season  is  in  bu'^h 
pastures  which  were  cut  over  in  summer,  where  tlie  youn-  SDrouts 
of  the  bush  are  just  starting  fresh  and  green,  and  in  law^ns  where 
tussocks  of  orchard  grass  or  other  coars'e  tilings  disfi<rure  the  turf 
These  coarse  grasses  and  weeds  start  earlv,  and  sheep  fruits  or 
horses,  tethered  where  they  will  crop  them  close,  wil'l^'destrov 
many.  •' 

Mulching  Fruit  Trees.— If  a  mulching  is  employed  at  the  time 
of  planting  trees  they  will  never  need  watering.  Uniform  tem- 
perature and  a  constant  supply  of  moisture  are  the  prime  elements 
.  of  success  ill  fruit  culture.  Mulching  enables  us  to  accomplish 
this.  ISIulching  acts  beneficially  in  oUier  ways.  It  prevents,  to  a 
great  degree,  the  cracking  of  fruit,  and  causes  those  varieties 
which  are  generally  spotted  and  detaced,  to  become  clean  and 
covered  with  a  rich  bloom. 


MAY  WORK. 

Farm  Laborers  should  be  hired  for  the  season  now,  as  you  will 
be  likely  to  get  much  better  help  than  if  you  wait  till  later".  Most 
farmers  employ  too  little  labor  and  unskilled  laborers.  The  remedy 
is  to  employ  laborers  by  the  year  and  build  tenant  houses  for  them 
upon  the  farm.  If  every  farm  had  a  tenant  house  upon  it,  and 
laborers  were  employed  by  the  .year,  the  farming  communities 
would  be  plentifully  supplied  with  reliable  resident  laborers.  A 
farmer  having  a  tenant  house  could  employ  a  married  man,  con- 
stitute him  his  foreman,  and  entrust  him  with  the  interests  of  hi.s 
farm  operations.  He  would  thus  have  a  safe  reliance  when  he 
was  absent,  and  alwa3^s  a  leader  and  director  of  his  other  help. 

Blanure  should  all  be  worked  over  and  pulverized  as  much  as 
possible  before  hauling  into  the  fields.  If  you  apply  your  manure 
in  the  fall,  keep  the  winter  made  manure  under  cover,  haul  dirt 
and  mix  with  it,  let  the  hogs  have  constant  access  to  it,  if  possiMo, 
and  in  the  fall  it  will  be  in  prime  condition  to  haul  on  newly 
plowed  sod  and  harrowed  in. 

Preparing  the  ground  for  crops,  is  the  most  iinjiortant  work  of 
this  month,  at  the  North,  and  we  refer  to  our  remarks  of  last 
month  on  the  Roller  and  Clod  Crusher.  Give  more  attention  to 
incteasing  the  yield  of  your  fields.  Not  one  farmer  in  ten  gets 
the  yiekfhe  ought.     Don't  be  satisfied  to  secure  the  customary 


754  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE   FARM    PAY. 

yield.  Give  an  extra  harrowing  and  rolling,  extra  manure,  extra 
care  and  attention,  and  you  will  get  extra  crops.  Extra  cultiva- 
tion pays.  Put  the  same  labor  on  twenty  acres  that  you  have 
been  accustomed  to  put  on  thirty  acres  and  you  will  get  just  as' 
large  a  crop  without  going  over  as  much  ground. 

Corn  should  never  be  planted  till  the  ground  is  dry  and  warm 
.If  planted  in  cold,  wet  ground  it  will  come  up,  if  it  come  up  at  all, 
yellow  and  spiudling,  and  will  be  slow  in  taking  on  a  thrifty 
growth.  It  had  better  be  planted  late  than  in  a  soil  in  an  un- 
suitable state.  Much  corn  is  planted  on  poor  land  and  too  far 
apart,  causing  a  great  waste  of  time  and  labor.  Much  corn  is  also 
planted  too  deeply.  The  same  is  true  of  most  other  seeds.  Seeds 
must  have  air  and  heat  to  germinate.  If  they  are  planted  near 
the  surface  they  get  both.  Much  of  the  grass  seed  fails  to  germi- 
nate by  being  covered  luo  deepl}'. 

A  single  handful  of  manure  put  into  a  hill  of  coi*n,  will  often 
make  the  difference  between  four  or  five  little  "nubbins,"  and  six 
or  eight  great  plump  ears  that  will  shell  their  bulk  of  sound  corn. 
A  thousand  handfuls  count  up  heavily  in  the  autumn  corn  crib. 
How  many  handfuls  of  manure  are  daily  lost  in  your  stockyards 
that  might  be  saved  in  nice  order  by  a  little  care  in  heaping  \\\\ 
and  covering  from  washing  rain  ! 

An  Experiment  icilh  Corn. — The  following  is  the  result  of  an 
experiment  with  Indian  corn.  That  which  was  planted  at  the 
depth  of 

1  inch,  came  up  in 8i  days. 

Ir-      "  "  "  .....  Oi        " 

'^'    "        "         "  ....  10      " 

9JL    a  u  ((  111      (( 

3"    *'        "         "            .  12"     " 

3^   "        "         "            '.        '.        '.        .*        '.      13      " 
4     "        "         " 13^    ." 

The  more  shallow  the  seed  was  covered  with  earth,  the  more 
rapidly  the  sprout  made  its  appearance,  and  the  stronger  after- 
ward was  the  stalk.  The  deeper  the  seed  lay,  the  longer  it  re- 
mained before  it  came  to  the  surface.  Four  inches  was  too  deep 
for  the  maize,  and  must,  therefore,  be  for  3^et  smaller  grain 
kernels. 

Tomatoes  should  be  transplanted  into  ground  that  has  been 
thoroughly  plowed  and  subsoiled.  It  will  do  to  manure  them  in 
the  hill.  Give  generous  treatment  if  you  would  have  an  abun- 
dance of  fruit.  Let  them  stand  in  rows  five  feet  apart  each  way. 
Place  a  good  stout  stake  beside  each  one,  and  tie  them  up  as  they 
grow.     Never  let  the  fruit  or  vines  droop  over  on  the  ground. 

Sqtiashes,  Cantelopes,  Cucumbers,  and  Watermelons  plant  about 
the  15th.  Make  rich  hills,  and  be  careful  to  stick  the  seeds  into 
the  ground   point  downward;  don't  put  them  deep.     We  advise 


THE   FARMER'S   CALENDAR.  755 

our  readers  to  grow  the  lointer  squash.  They  are  nearly  as  DaK 
table  as  sweet  potatoes,  and  are  much  more  easily  kept  durin- the 
winter.  ^  Try  the  Hubbard  or  3[arroiv ;  both  are  excellentlthe 
former  is  probably  the  best. 

To  keep  bugs  from  melons,  pumpkins,  and  cucumber  vines 
mix  flour  of  sulphur  and  fine  coal  dust  together,  sprinkle  the  vines 
with  water,  and  dust  them  with  this  mixture.  It  is  deatii  to  all 
bugs. 

Beay^s  may  be  planted  by  the  middle  of  the  month.  Add  planter 
to  ji  generous  manuring.  Plant  in  rows  thirty  inches  apart,  and 
let  the  stalks  be  two  or  three  inches  apart  in 'the  drill.  Tlie  red 
and  brown  Yalentine  are  both  good.  The  six  weeks'  kinds  are 
earlier,  but  not  so  good  as  those  mentioned.  Beans  should  be 
greased  before  planting,  to  prevent  them  from  decaying,  whicli 
they  often  do,  when  not  greased.  Turning  any  kind  ol"  liquid 
grease  on  them  is  sufficient. 

Fruit  Trees. — Prepare  the  ground  thoroughly  before  trans- 
planting trees  from  the  nursery.  Do  not  dig^a  "hole  and  set  the 
tree  into  it,  as  is  often  done  ;  but  dig  a  mellow  bed  from  one  end 
of  the  field  to  the  other,  or  where  jou  expect  to  plant  your  row 
of  trees.  Now  is  a  good  time  to  scrape  off  all  the  old,  rough  bark 
from  young  fruit  trees  and  burn  it.  You  will  thus  not  only  im- 
prove the  fruitfulness,  growth,  and  appearance  of  your  trees,  but 
will  destro}'  innumerable  eggs  and  larviB  of  insects,  which  will, 
by  and  by,  attack  j'our  fruit,  if  not  destroj-ed. 

Boot  Crops. — Farmers  are  beginning  to  see  the  necessity  of 
growing  root  crops  of  various  kinds  for  feeding  stock,  and  also 
for  cleaning  and  ameliorating  the  soil,  by  alternating  them  with 
the  cereals.  The  most  valuable  root  crops  for  the  farmer  are  ruta 
bagas,  mangels,  carrots,  and  beets.  The  ruta-baga,  or  Swedish 
turnip  is  so  valuable  for  feeding  neat  cattle  and  sheep  that  every 
farmer  should  cultivate  it  extensively.  A  few  acres  of  well  pre- 
pared soil  will  yield  a  large  quantity  of  winter  food  for  animals. 
Cotswold,  Leicester  or  South  Down  sheep  cannot  be  properly 
wintered  without  ruta-bagas.  Carrots  are  so  valuable  for  horses 
that  every  farmer  should  raise  enough  to  furnish  a  few  pounds 
daily,  to  be  given  to  them  with  other  food.  Mangel  AVurtzel  and 
beets  are  plants  of  the  same  family,  possessing  similar  propertie.i- 
and  requiring  the  same  treatment.  Both  are  long  keepers,  and 
they  are  about  equally  good  for  milch  cows.  They  do  not  pos.sess 
as  good  fattening  properties  as  the  ruta-baga,  but  they  yield 
heavier  crops  per  acre. 

The  mangels  should  be  sown  this  month.     Carrots  the  last  of 
May,  or  first  of  June.     Ruta-bagas  in  June  or  July,  and  turnii)s 
not  before  July. 
46 


756  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE   FARM   PAY. 

JUNE    WORK 

Weeds. Now  is  the  time  to  fight  the  weeds.     Every  weed  takes 

up  room  that  should  be  oc^eupied  by  something  else.  Every  weed 
draws  sustenance  that  belongs  to  the  growing  crops.  I'ake  ad- 
vantao-e  of  all  dry,  hot  days,  keep  the  horse  among  the  hoed 
crops,"  thoroughly  stirring  the  soil,  to  kill  weeds.  With  good 
horse  implements,  hoeing  Iw  hand  may  be  nearly  dispensed  with 
after  a  stand  is  established.  Before  this,  hoeing  must  be  done  so 
as  to  nip  the  weeds  in  the  seed-leaf,  if  possible.  Soon  after  corn 
beo-ins  to  grow  well,  the  hand  hoe  must  be  entirely  dispensed  wfth, 
for  weeds  between  the  rows  will  be  taken  care  of  with  tlie  cultiva- 
tors and  horse  hoes  ;  and  most  of  those  in  the  rows  will  bo  killed 
by  the  earth  thrown  upon  them.  The  few  which  escape  should  be 
pulled  by  hand  when  the  corn  is  about  a  foot  high. 

Keep  the  potatoes  clear  of  weeds  ;  it  will  make  a  vast  difference 
in  the  crops.  Thorough  work  in  June  will  tell  all  the  rest  of  the 
season,  and  for  years  to  come. 

Hoeing  and  weeding  may  aff'ord  constant  employment  to  men 
and  teams  during  most  of  the  month,  when  the  ground  is  dry. 
Stirring  Avet  soil  is  not  only  a  detriment,  but  loss  of  time.  Till 
deep  before  the  roots  of  the  plants  occupy  the  soil,  but  more  .shal-" 
low  afterwards.  Toward  the  close  of  the  hoeing  season,  the  etfect 
of  running  a  subsoil  i)low  deeply  between  the  rows  of  corn,  or 
between  alternate  rows  of  root  crops,  is  very  beneficial. 

AnotJier  word  on  Boots. — Sow  beets,  mangels,  and  carrots  early, 
and  ruta-bagas  late  in  the  month.  Plow,  crossplow,  and  harrow 
at  intervals  before  sowing  ;  it  does  the  weeding  in  advance.  A 
field  thus  worked  l)efore  sowing  will  not  only  grow  more  and  bet- 
ter roots,  but  with  one-third  the  labor  of  weeding.  Cariots  can 
be  raised  by  almost  any  farmer  for  six  cents  a  bushel  after  he 
learns  the  most  economical  ways  of  doing  it.  We  judge  carrots 
to  be,  all  things  considered,  the  best  of  all  the  root  crops  for  tlie 
■soil  and  for  feeding. 

"  Catch  Grops.^^ — When  failures  occur  in  the  hills  of  corn,  rows 
of  potatoes,  or  elsewhere,  put  in  pumpkins,  if  the  ground  is  rich 
with  fnanure,  or  field  beans,  if  it  is  only  in  fair  condition.  There 
will  be  spots,  also,  here  and  there,  which  should  be  filled  with 
something  rather  than  left  to  weeds.  Kuta-bagas,  carrots,  white 
turnips,  white  beans,  and  peas  oflfer  a  choice  of  good  things. 

Haying. — Nothing  seems  more  necessar}''  to  the  farmer  at  this 
season,  than  to  secure  his  hay  crop  well,  and  it  is  best  to  begin 
early  :  1st.  because  clover  and  some  grass  is  usually  fittest  to  cut. 
Grass  cut  rather  green  makes  sweet,  palatable  hay,  and  a  good 
aftermath.  Cut  a  little  after  the  best  time,  the  hay  is  tough, 
vfiry,  and  neither  so  palatable  nor  nutritious,  while  the  meadows 
remain  bare  and  brown  until  the  fall  rains. 


THE   farmer's   calendar.  757 

2d.  Because  the  roots  sustain  less  of  a  shock;  34.  because  ^entle 
rams  are  very  bkely  to  occur  and  give  the  aftermath  a  «roocl°start 
See  remarks  about  hay-making  in  notes  for  July  work.*' 

Save  labor  by  using  the  best  implements.  Cut  with  the  mower 
when  the  clew  is  off;  stir  constantly  with  a  good  Hay  Tedder- 
rake  up  at  three  to  four  o'clock,  and  get  in  at  once,  or  cock  ui^ 
before  five,  and  house  the  next  day. 

The  true  art  of  hay-making  consists  in  curing  the  grass  jxist  up 
to  the  point  at  u-hich  it  will  do  to  put  into  the  barn,  and  no  mor,> 
Most  hay  is  cured  too  much.  If  the  barn  is  properly  ventilated 
hay  may  be  put  in  quite  green,  and  will  be  relished  like  grass  all' 
winter. 

On  small  farms  where  the  horse-fork  is  not  used,  much  hard 
labor  may  be  saved  by  building  up  one-half  of  the  hay-mow  at  a 
time.  For  instance,  with  the  first  hay  drawn,  fill  oneeiid  of  the 
bay,  up  as  far  as  the  big  beam,  then  rake  down  the  side,  and  while 
this  part  is  settling  fill  the  other  half.  The  two  parts  being  filled 
at  different  times,  will  not  settle  alike,  and  of  course  will  not  unite, 
so  there  will  be  no  use  of  a  hay-knife  in  winter.  The  principal 
benefit  of  this  plan  is  in  lessening  the  hard  labor  while  unloading. 
One-half  of  the  mow  being  lower  than  the  other,  the  top  of  the 
load  may  be  thrown  on  the  highest  part,  and  the  balance  below, 
which  saves  pitching  over  the  big  beam.  There  is  still  another 
advantage  ;  the  greatest  heat  caused  b}'  foi mentation  is  always  in 
the  centre  of  the  mow,  and  the  seam  here  gives  escape  to  the 
gasses. 

Top-Dressing  Grass  Land. — The  best  time  to  apply  manure  nf 
any  kind  to  grass  is  just  as  it  is  recovering  from  liie  shock  of 
cutting.  Carting  and  spreading  manure  on  grass  land  is  the  best 
rainjMlay  work  to  set  the  hands  at  during  the  summer  months. 

Toads  are  very  useful  in  the  garden.  'Yh&y  destroy  large 
numbers  of  insects.  A  toad  will  swallow  the  largest  specimens  of 
tomato  w'orms.  Carr^'  every  toad  you  find  about  your  premises 
into  the  garden. 

Green  Fodder. — Sow  corn  in  drills  or  broad-cast  at  intervals 
of  two  weeks.  Millet  makes  excellent  fodder.  Sow  twelve  quarts 
to  the  acre  about  the  middle  of  this  month.  Rye  and  oats  m.iy 
be  both  sown  for  fodder  to  good  advantage.  Sorghum  is  superior 
to  corn  for  green  fodder.  Sow  in  drills  two  or  three  qu.arls  t<» 
the  acre,  and  cut  just  before  bh)ssoming.  It  will  soon  spring  up 
again,  and  three  crops  may  be  cut  during  the  season.  Clover, 
corn  or  buckwheat  can  be  sown  now  to  turn  under  for  manure. 

Greasing  Wheels.— Tha  wheels  of  all  wagons,  carts,  carriages, 
mowers,  etc.,  should  be  oiled,  but  great  damage  is  often  done  by 
oilin<r  tod  plentifully.  Lard  should  never  be  used  on  a  wheel,  lor  it 
wiU  penetrate  the  hub,  and  work  its  way  out  around  the  tenons  ot 
the  spokes,  and  spoil  the  wheel.     Taliuio  is  the  best  lubricator  for 


758  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY. 

wood  axle-trees,  and  castor  oil  for  iron.  Just  grease  enough 
should  be  applied  to  the  spindle  of  a  wagon  to  give  it  a  light 
coating ;  this  is  better  than  more,  for  the  surphis  put  on  will  work 
out  at°  the  ends,  and  be  forced  by  the  shoulder-bands  and  nut 
washers  into  the  hub  around  the  outside  of  the  boxes.  To  oil  an 
iron  axle-tree,  first  wipe  the  spindle  clean  with  a  cloth  wet  with 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  then  apply  a  few  drops  of  castor  oil  near 
the  shoulder  and  end.     One  tea-spoonful  is  sufficient  for  the  whole. 


JULY    WORK. 

Watch  the  Stock  at  Pasture,  and  see  that  they  do  not  have  to 
crop  too  closely. 

Change  their  pasture  before  the  supply  gets  short,  or,  feed  green 
fodder.  Do  not  let  them  suffer  for  either  water  or  salt.  Lumps 
of  rock  salt  in  sheltered  troughs  we  consider  better  than  fine  salt. 
If  the  cattle  drink  from  a  pond  with  a  mud  bottom,  dump  in  a 
few  loads  of  gravel  at  some  accessible  point,  and  thus  make  a 
<yood  drinking  place.     Cattle  often  suck  up  leeches  from  the  mud. 

We  approve  of  yarding  all  stock  at  night  for  the  sake  of  saving 
the  manure.     Compost  the  manure  with  earth,  under  cover. 

Cows  should  be  supplied  with  abundant  and  succulent  food  if 
we  would  keep  up  the  flow  of  milk. 

Hay-making  is  the  steady  work  for  the  month  on  most  farms. 
Use  machinery  as  far  as  possible.  Cut  hay  where  orchard  grass 
and  clover  prevails,  first ;  if  Timothy  predominates,  that  usually 
comes  next.  Rep-Top  is  later,  and  should  never  be  associated 
with  the  other  grasses  or  with  clover,  except  to  come  in  as  a  pas- 
ture grass.  Cut  all  common  grass  before  the  seed  ripens,  and  if 
possible,  when  just  passing  out  of  blossom.  Clover  for  hay  is  best 
cut  in  full  bloom. 

Alsike  clover  is  much  better  adapted  for  sowing  with  Timothy 
for  hay  than  Red  clover,  because  it  matures  at  the  same  time  as 
Timothy.  Large  quantities  of  hay  are  spoiled  every  year  by  ex- 
posure to  raiu  after  being  cured.  Where  a  mowing  machine  and 
tedder  are  used,  the  hay  can  often  be  got  in  the  same  day  it  is  cut. 
No  thrifty  farmer  should  be  without  hay  and  grain  caps. 

There  is  very  little  use  in  raising  a  fine  crop  of  grass  or  clover, 
cutting  it  at  the  right  time  and  curing  it  in  the  best  condition,  if 
it  is  not  put  out  of  the  way  of  damage  from  rain,  by  housing  or 
stacking  it  as  soon  as  possible.  Stacks  of  hay  should  be  thatched 
with  straw  or  coarse  grass  to  protect  them  from  damage  from  rain. 

Manure  grass  land  with  fine  muck  compost  as  soon  as  the  crop 
is  oflT. 

The  Wheat  Crop  is  so  important  that  everything  should  be 
ready  for  harvesting  it,  and  the  moment  it  is  fit  to  cut  everything 
else  should  o;ive  wav  for  this  work.     Plow  land  for  winter  wheat 


THE  farmer's  calendar.  759 

as  soon  as  the  time  can  be  spared,  turning  under  fine  manure,  or 
muck  tliat  has  been  saturated  with  liquid  manure  in  the  barn 
yard. 

Buckwheat. — Sow  about  tlie  middle  of  the  month,  or  a  week 
earlier  or  later.  It  is  an  excellent,  paying  crop,  if  it  can  be  used 
IS  a  second  crop,  following  early  potatoes,  peas,  or  some  early 
grain  crop. 

rarnips— Sow  Strap-leaf,  Purple-top,  or  Cowhorn,  or  other 
good  varieties,  any  time  during  the  month.  If  your  corn  land  is 
in  as  good  condition  as  it  ought  to  be,  beans  or  turnips  can  be 
put  in  between  the  rows  to  good  advantage.  In  such  cases,  the 
corn  should  be  cut  up  at  the  ground  as  soon  as  it  is  glazed,  to 
let  them  have  the  sun. 

Cabbages  may  be  set  out  for  the  main  crop  both  in  the  garden, 
and  in  the  field.  They  are  excellent  winter  food  for  milch  cows, 
if  perfectly  sound. 

Soiling  crops. — Continue  to  sow  corn  for  succession,  and  feed 
the  cows  daily  at  evening,  the  stalks  having  been  cut  one,  or  even 
two  days,  to  wilt.  Millet  and  any  kind  of  grain  or  sorghum  may 
be  sown  for  fall  feed,  and  red  clover  for  feed  next  June. 

Hoed  crops. — Avoid  disturbing  the  soil  very  close  to  the  roots 
of  corn,  and  root  crops.  Work  more  in  the  middle,  between 
rows,  with  the  plow,  but  do  the  weeding  thoroughl}'^  among  the 
plants  by  hand.  Collect  the  weeds  and  gleanings  from  among 
hoed  crops,  if  abundant,  and  give  to  the  swine,  if  they  have  not 
gone  to  seed. 

Hogs  will  make  a  vast  deal  of  manure  this  month,  if  kept  in 
pens,  and  well  supplied  with  weeds  and  other  litter,  muck,  etc. 

Thinning  fruit,  is  a  work  too  much  neglected,  and  the  conse- 
quence is  the  degeneracy  of  the  fruit,  and  the  failure  of  the  tree  to 
bear  regular  crops. 

When  the  tree  sets  a  large  quantity  of  fruit,  one-half  should  be 
picked  off  by  hand. 

That  remaining  will  be  larger,  firmer,  and  often  nearly  as  great 
in  bulk,  and  will  usually  bring  more  money,  and  will  not  exhaust 
the  tree. 

Care  of  Implements.— In  buying  agricultural  machines  and 
implements,  farmers  should  endeavor  to  get  the  best,  and  then  to 
take  proper  care  of  them.  Some  persons,  after  investing  a  large 
sum  in  ao-ricultural  machines  and  implements,  take  very  little  care 
of  them  "leaving  them  "under  the  weather"  when  not  in  use, 
bleaching  and  cracking  in  the  sun,  or  rotting  and  rusting  in  the 
rain  Every  farmer  should  have  a  suitable  building  for  housing 
machines  and  implements,  and  they  should  always  be  kept  under 
cover  when  not  in  use.  A  machine  housed  and  painted  wil  last 
twice  as  long  as  one  that  is  left  out  under  the  weather  without 


760  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 

even  the  protection  of  paint.  "A  place  for  everything  and  every- 
thing in  its  place  "  should  be  the  motto  of  everj^  farmer.  Habits 
of  order  should  be  enforced,  and  nothing  allowed  to  go  to  loss 
through  carelessness  or  neglect.  Machines,  implements,  tools, 
harness,  etc.,  should  be  kept  in  their  proper  places  in  perfect  re- 
pair, ready  for  use  the  moment  they  are  needed. 

Timothy. — The  Timoth}^  crop  should  be  harvested  with  all  the 
dispatch  which  may  be  commanded,  as  after  it  reaches  the  point 
of  sufficient  maturity'  it  degenerates  rapidly  in  quality  and  loses  in 
weio-lit.  The  proper  time  is  after  the  seed  is  formed  and  is  full 
in  the  milk.  It  will  then  give  about  twenty  per  cent,  more  weight 
than  when  it  is  just  coming  into  blossom,  and  the  cattle  will  eat 
twenty  per  cent.  less,  and  keep  in  their  flesh.  The  roots  also  will 
be  better  able  to  withstand  the  drought.  It  should  be  cut  four 
inclies  from  the  ground,  as  most  of  the  Timothy  is  killed  by 
mowing  close  and  earl}^,  before  it  has  come  to  maturity. 

Fruning  Treen. — There  is  no  period  in  the  whole  year  so  suitable 
for  pruning  gum  fruit  trees,  such  as  peaches,  plnms,  etc.,  as  the 
present — up  to  say  the  25th  of  the  month.  It  is  the  period  when 
the  tree  is  at  rest  after  its  first  growth  and  before  the  second  begins. 
Wounds  made  at  this  time  hy  the  cutting  of  branches,  nicely  heal 
over  and  present  a  neat  appearance,  instead  of  producing  dead 
wood  and  perhaps  a  diseased  spot,  as  is  often  the  case  when  pruned 
in  winter  and  early  spring. 

AUGUST   WORK. 

Animals  at  pasture  must  not  lack  an  abundance  of  pure  water. 
A  light  dressing  of  plaster  and  bone-dust  ai)[)lied  before  the  feed 
gets  very  short  in  the  pastures,  will  revive  them  surprisingly  after 
the  first  rain.  If  the  feed  is  scant,  drive  liome  the  cattle  and  give 
green  fodder  at  evening.  Hogs  intended  for  earl}-  lattening, 
should  be  penned,  and  will  fatten  as  fast  on  peas  as  anything  we 
have  ever  tried. 

Soiv  your  Grass  Seed. — It  is  the  best  plan  to  sow  grass  seed 
early.  Any  time  in  August  will  do  well,  if  it  is  not  too  dry.  The 
grass  will  get  well  set  before  winter,  so  that  it  will  not  freeze  out, 
and  will  make  a  good  crop  for  mowing  next  year.  Some  of  the 
best  seeding  we  have  known  has  been  upon  oat  stubble,  in  August 
or  early  September.  If  the  ground  is  moist  the  seed  may  be  sown 
on  the  stubble  and  lightly  harrowed,  or  brushed  over  and  rolled. 
Oats  generally  leave  the  ground  comparatively  clean  and  mellow. 
Put  on  plenty  of  seed.  If  the  grass^  does  not  occupy  the  ground 
entirely,  the  weeds  will  fill  the  vacancies. 

Manuring  Grass  Land. — There  is  probably  no  time  of  the  year 
when  top-dressings  produce  nearly  so  good  effect  upon  grass  as 
just  after  haying.  The  roots  revive  "from  the  discouragement 
caused  by  the  sythe  and  hot  sun,  and  the  result  is  very  satisfactory. 


THE  farmer's  calendar.  7(31 

Grass  seed  may  be  sown  at  the  same  time  on  spots  where  croo.1 
grasses  are  failing,  and  it  is  useful  to  go  over  the  field  with  a  ij^ush 
harrow  to  woik  in  the  manure  and  seed  with  it. 

Grass.— On  permanent  grass  land,  a  good  top-dressincr  every 
two  or  three  years  is  most  desirable ;  have  fine  muck  and  manure 
compost  prepared,  mingled  if  you  please  with  ashes,  plaster  an.l 
bone-dust,  and  apply  this  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  to  twenty  loads  to 
tiie  acre  as  soon  as  the  grass  is  cut.  Timothy,  Orcliard  Grass. 
Blue  Grass,  etc.,  do  well,  sowed  alone  on  v/ell-prepared  land,  and 
make  a  sward  much  quicker  than  if  sowed  with  grain. 

Ploiving.— August  is  the  best  month  in  the  year  for  plowing  for 
any  crop  except  Indian  corn,  sorghum,  or  some  such  rank,  g°oss 
feeder.  Any  sward  plowed  now  will  rot  before  winter  sets  in,  and 
once  or  twice  harrowing  in  autumn  will  kill  hosts  of  weeds.  This 
is  doing  spring  work,  if  thereby  we  prepare  mellow,  clean  seed 
beds  for  spring  grains,  flax,  and  roots,  or  for  a  potato  crop.  For 
these  crops  it  is  always  best  to  compromise  between  fall-plowed 
sod  and  summer  fallow.  There  remains  just  that  desirable 
quantity  of  vegetable  mold  in  the  soil,  which,  except  on  very  rich 
loams,  is  most  desirable.  Plowing  and  preparation  of  the  grouml 
should  be  done  now. 

Boot  crops  need  weeding,  but,  except  tirnips,  none  ought  to 
need  thinning.  On  spots  where  turnips  or  ruta-bagas  do  not  look 
well,  sprinkle  superphosphate  of  lime  close  to  the  rows,  and 
scratch  it  in  with  the  little  weeding  hoe.  A  small  subsoil  plow 
run  midway  between  the  rows  of  any  kind  of  roots  will  almost 
uniformly  be  found  of  decided  benefit. 

How  Turnips  can  be  raised  cheaply. — By  sowing  the  Purple- 
top  turnip  seed  at  the  last  dressing  of  the  corn,  and  covering  with 
a  light  harrow,  a  couple  hundred  bushels  of  the  best  turnips  can  be 
raised  with  A'cry  little  trouble.  The  early  sowing  will  be  compen- 
sated for  by  the  shade  aflforded  by  the  growing  corn.  This  crop 
will  take  the  place  of  the  weeds  and  will  not  be  in  the  way  of  har- 
vesting the  corn,  as  it  will  do  the  turnips  little  harm  to  treat  tliem 
as  though  you  did  not  know  the  crop  was  there.  There  will  be 
enough  left  uninjured  to  pay  all  the  expenses  a  dozen  times  over. 

Winter  Wieat. — Turn  a  clover  sod  well  under,  plowing  say  six 
inches  deep  and  laying  the  sod  perfectly  flat;  top-dress  witii  lime, 
and  harrow  ;  after  three  weeks  put  on  a  heavy  dressing  of  well- 
rotted  compost,  and  harrow  it  thoroughly,  drilling  in  the  seed  as 
soon  thereafter  as  convenient,  before  the  middle  of  September. 
Always  pickle  seed  wheat. 

Oa^s.— Cut  before  they  get  over  ripe  ;  the  straw  is  worth  mu-h 
more  for  feeding  and  the  grain  is  not  lighter;  if  lodged  or  very 
short,  mow  early  and  cure  as  hay. 


762  HOW    TO    MAKE    THE   FARM    PAY 

Pofafoe.^. — Dig,  when  ripe ;  dry,  and  keep  dry.  The  dry  rot  is 
much  prelerableto  the  wet  rot,  and  dryness  checks  the  extension 
of  both. 

Fruit- Fallen  fruit  generally  contains  the  larva  of  "an  insect 

that  should  not  be  allowed  to  perfect  itself;  gather  up  the  fruit 
every  day,  and  feed  it  to  swine,  or  let  the  hogs  have  the  run  of  the 
orchard.'  Have  a  good  suppl}'  of  self-supporting  ladders  to  facili- 
tate picking.  Remove  late  caterpillars''  nests  and  look  out  for  the 
borer. 

Grass  seed  may  often  be  saved  in  sufficient  quantity  for  one's 
own  use,  by  observing  where  any  variety  grows  unmixed  and  al- 
lowing such  to  become  ripe,  cutting  with  a  sickle,  binding  in  bun- 
dles threshed  or  rubbed  out  at  leisure.  Seeds  of  many  of  our  best 
pasture  and  meadow  grasses  can  only  be  bought  at  very  high 
prices,  while  a  little  care  in  gathering  them  would  afford  an  abun- 
dant supply  for  home  use,  if  not  for  sale. 

Huckleberry  pastures,  or  similar  land  overgrown  with  bushes, 
should  be  torn  all  to  pieces  with  a  heavy  iron  tooth  harrow  well 
loaded.  This  is  work  for  oxen.  The  roots  and  brush  may  be 
piled  together  and  burnt,  and  the  surface  again  harrowed.  Seeding 
will  hardl}^  be  necessary  except  on  barren  spots,  which  will  need 
manure  also.  The  natural  grasses  will  soon  assert  their  rights, 
the  sooner  if  the  stones  are  picked  off  and  the  land  rolled. 

Weeds  and  Bushes. — Cut  all  that  have  blossomed  first,  put  them 
in  piles  and  burn  when  dry.  Give  others  to  the  hogs,  also  all 
growths  of  wet  land  that  will  soon  decay.  The  bush  hook  and 
scythe  should  keep  the  hedge  rows  clean,  and  the  3'oung  growth 
that  starts  after  this  will  be  verj^  likely  to  winter  kill.  When 
opportunity  serves,  the  roots  may  be  torn  out  with  a  pair  of  cattle 
and  a  plow,  or  with  a  strong  iron  hook  aided  by  the  mattock  or 
grubbing  hoe. 

Swamps  and  Low  Lands. — If  the  low  lands  can  be  worked  in, 
improve  the  time  by  digging  open  ditches,  cutting  bogs,  and 
throwing  out  muck,  clearing  stumps,  etc.  If  the  swamps  are  dry 
enough  for  teams  to  work,  alders  and  other  bushes  and  trees  may 
be  hauled  out  by  the  roots,  the  surface  grubbed,  roots  laid  up 
to  dry,  and  when  dry  burned.  If  the  season  be  favorable  for 
ditching  in  low  grounds,  lay  out  the  drains  and  have  the  men  at 
work  every  spare  half  day;  get  out  as  much  muck  and  peat  as 
l)ossible  as  you  progress,  throwing  it  out  on  one  side  only  of  the 
ditch.  Even  if  the  weather  be  wet  the  ditch  will  most  likely  dry 
the  ground  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  so  that  the  muck  can  be 
hauled  out  as  soon  as  dry.  The  drying  of  peaty  land  may  be 
sometimes  facilitated  by  thrusting  smoo'th  poles  obliquely  into 
the  peaty  mass  on  either  side  as  far  as  possible,  and  at  a  level  not 
much  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  Roots,  brush,  and  tussocks 
of  grass  or  brakes,  may  be  laid  up  in  piles  to  dry  for  burning  by 
and  by.     The  ashes  will  be  an  excellent  dressing  for  the  soil. 


THE  farmer's  calendar.  763 

SEPTEMBER   WORK. 

TF^efl/.— Fiuisli  the  preparation  of  your  laud  for  wheat  and  sow 
as  early  in  the  month  as  possible. 

Bye.—Sowan  acre  or  two  after  the  wheat  is  in,  the  last  of  this 
month,  or  in  October.  This  grain,  thouo-h  it  does  not  demand  so 
good  soil  as  wheat,  is  grateful  for  good  culture,  and  is  very  re- 
munerative, especially  if  the  grain  be  consumed  in  the  family  It 
IS  often  desirable  for  long  straw,  if  for  nothing  else.  Hence  al- 
ways aim  to  sow  at  least  sufficient  rye  for  your  own  use. 

Grass.— Sow  alone  on  well  prepared  land,  using  plenty  of  seed 
Clover  may  be  sowed  now  or  in  the  spring,  the  latter  period  bein<r 
preferred  usually.  Grass  seed  may  be  sown,  of  course,  with  wheat 
or  rye,  but  on  well  prepared  land  we  prefer  sowing  it  alone  and 
in  the  spring.  The  grain  detracts  from  its  growth,  and  on  all 
small  patches  it  is  much  better  to  sow  grass  seed  by  itself.  On 
land  subject  to  heaving  by  frost  a  few  oats  may  be  sown  as  a  mulch 
and  winter  protection.  The  land  should  be  prepared  with  care, 
top-dressed  with  fine  compost,  guano,  bone  dust,  fish  manure,  or 
other  similar  fine  fertilizer,  thoroughly  harrowed  in,  and  a  liberal 
variety  of  seeds  should  be  used. 

jMeadoics  and  pastures — If  pasturage  is  short,  do  not  feed  down 
the  aftermath,  before  it  is  well  grown,"at  any  rate ;  if  possible,  rely 
upon,  green  crops,  sowed  corn  in  particular.  Top-dressings  of 
pasture  grounds  prove  the  best  at  this  season.  Pastures  should 
be  dressed  with  line  manure,  lime,  ashes,  bone-dust,  plaster  or 
oruano,  just  before  the  fall  rains — not  during  a  drouth.  Sow  grass 
and  clover  seeds  on  meadows  and  pastures,  and  give  a  thorough 
harrowing,  especially  to  thin  spots,  using  a  light  one-horse  iron- 
tooth  harrow. 

Fodder. — If  it  will  be  necessary  to  purchase  fodder,  do  so  in 
early  autumn.  Many  farmers  are  glad  to  sell  slraw  at  threshing 
time  at  a  very  low  price,  or  will  almost  give  it  away.  If  wlieat  is 
cut  as  it  should  be  when  the  stalk  begins  to  turn  yellow  at  both 
top  and  bottom,  the  straw  will  be  relished  by  stock  all  winter 
equally  with  the  best  hay.  Co7'n  Stalks  may  often  1*l-  bouirht  very 
low,  and  if  well  cured,  are  worth  nearl3^  as  much  as  good  hay — 
that  is,  if  cut  up,  soaked,  and  properly  prepared  for  feeding. 

JVheat  and  Eye  may  be  sown  this  month  for  early  feed  in  spring. 
Sow  both  crops  at  the  same  time  ;  the  rye  will  be  cut  first,  then  the 
wheat,  and  this  should  be  followed  by  late-sowed  rye,  etc. 

Boot  Crops. — Beets,  mangels,  ruta-bagas,  and  carrots,  are  mak- 
ing their  best  growth  this  month,  and  should  be  thorouglily  clear 
of  weeds,  and  the  ground  between  the  rows  kept  open.  Tiiin  out 
with  an  unsparing  hand,  using  the  thinnings  for  cow  fodder. 

Digging  Potatoes — Many  farmers  still  continue  the  custom  of 
planting   potatoes  in  hills  instead  of  drills,  thereby  greatly  iu- 


764:  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  FARM  PAY 

creasing  the  labor  of  digging  them.  When  planted  in  drills,  they 
are  readily  thrown  out  by  the  plow.  Only  every  other  row  should 
be  plowed  out  the  first  time,  and  after  these  are  picked  up,  plow 
the  intervening  rows.  Of  course,  two  horses  should  be  used, 
walking  one  on  each  side  the  rows.  Some  simple  machine  for 
this  jjurpose  is  very  much  needed. 

Threshing. — The  grain  threshing  should  be  done  as  early  after 
harvest  as  may  be  practicable,  in  order  that  advantage  may  be 
taken  of  the  market,  to  sell  when  it  is  likely  to  bring  the  best 
price.  Let  special  care  be  taken  to  guard  against  the  many  dan- 
gerous accidents  which  frequently  occur  in  threshing.  Let  the 
platform  for  the  driver  be  made  perfectly  secure,  and  see  that  the 
feeder  runs  in  no  danger  of  having  his  hands  mangled  l)y  the  teeth 
of  the  machine.  The  master's  eye  should  give  this  work  the 
closest  inspection. 

Animals. — Do  not  leave  horses  iu  the  field  by  day  to  be  tor- 
mented by  flies  and  covered  with  bott's  eggs,  but  put  in  cool 
stables.  Cows  that  come  iu  this  fall  should  be  kept  on  good  pas- 
turage, but  not  allowed  to  get  too  fat.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  let 
them  have  rock  salt  in  the  pasture  ;  if  not,  salt  regularly  f)nce  a 
week. 

Swine. — Feed  soft  corn,  or  that  which  is  broken  down,  or  old 
corn  if  on  hand,  ground  and  cooked ;  feed  regularly,  giving  a  few 
nandfuls  of  fine  charcoal  as  a  regulator,  about  twice  a  week.  A 
good  supply  of  grass  for  breeding  hogs  is  of  great  value.  The}' 
should  be  put  on  pasture  two  or  three  weeks  before  breeding  time, 
as  it  increases  the  milk  greatly.  Breeders,  on  a  good  supply'  of 
grass,  with  some  corn,  will  not  onl}^  retain  their  flesh,  but  grow 
continuall_7,  and  be  easily  fattened  in  the  fall  or  winter,  while  tlie 
pigs  will  be  large  and  health}',  and  their  growth  will  not  be 
checked  during  the  winter. 

Poultry  ought  to  have  the  range  of  stubble  and  grass  fields,  to 
feed  upon  the  m^'riads  of  insects  which  abound  at  tlijs  season. 
The  more  quiet  kinds,  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Dorkings,  as  well  as 
turkeys,  may  be  driven  off  to  the  fields  after  laying  time,  like  a 
flock  of  sheep.  They  will  thus  be  carried  rapidly  through  moulting, 
and  soon  begin  to  lay  freely.  Chickens  weighing  three  or  four 
pounds  will  usually  sell,  if  sent  to  market  alive,  at  higher  prices 
than  they  will  bring  fatted,  killed  and  dressed  at  Thanksgiving  or 
Christmas  time.  If  confined,  feed  fowls  with  animal  fuod.  They 
require  it  to  form  their  new  plumage,  and  before  the  hens  have 
moulted  they  will  not  lay. 

The  Orchard  is  now  yielding  its  harvest,  and  all  fruit  should 
be  carefully  picked  and  honestly  packed.  Apples  intended  for 
cider  may  be  shaken  from  the  tree,  but  when  intended  for  keep- 
ing; or  for  market,  never.  All  such  fruit  should  be  carefully 
pi  3ked  by  hand  and  carefully  laid,  not  thrown,  into  a  basket.     The 


THE   farmer's    calendar. 


765 


_  St  for  this  purpose  is  a  small  round  basket,  holding  not  over  one 
r  two  pecks,  and  provided  with  a  hook  for  hanging  it  on  the 
imbs  or  on  the  round  of  the  ladder.  Step  ladders  °and  foldiu'r 
ladders  are  much  better  for  this  purpose  than  those  which  rest 
against  the  limbs  of  the  tree,  often  breaking,  bruising,  and  injui;- 
ing  them.  Those  on  the  high  limbs  which  cannot  be  reached  from 
a  ladder,  should  be  picked  with  a  "fruit  picker'''  attached  to  n 
long  pole.  Tlie  pole  pruning  shears  ma}^  be  made  to  answer  the 
purpose  b}'  attaching  a  small  bag  to  them.  The  fruit  shoukl  be 
lifted  till  tlie  stem  separates  from  the  limb,  and  not  2)uUed  off. 

Assorting  and  packing  fruit,  for  market,  is  a  matter  which  re- 
ceives altogether  too  little  attention  from  ordinar^^  cultivators.  A 
crop  of  apples  assorted  into  three  different  varieties  will  briii»- 
nearly  twice  as  much  money  in  market  as  the  same  crop  without 
assorting.  A  very  few  small  or  defective  apples  in  an  otherwise 
first  class  crop  will  often  spoil  its  sale. 

This  month  and  next  are  the  months  for  fairs.  The  farmer's 
leisure  days  are  not  mau^',  but  he  sliould  make  sure  of  some,  both 
for  himself  and  his  hands  to  attend  the  fairs.  The  recreation  is 
worth  a  great  deal,  and  one  always  gets  valuable  hints  and  ideas 
that  he  would  not  part  with,  and  be  as  if  he  knew  them  not,  for  a 
great  deal.  Every  farm  might  send  something,  and  it  gives  a 
great  pleasure  to  be  a  contributor,  even  if  no  prize  be  taken. 

OCTOBER  WORK. 

Draining. — As  fast  as  hands  can  be  spared  from  the  essential 
labors  of  the  farm,  set  them  at  draining.  A  few  acres  should  be 
drained  every  fall.  There  are  few  farms  in  the  country  on  which 
this  cannot  be  done  with  profit,  and  where  needed,  no  labor  pa_\-3 
half  so  well. 

Animals. — This  is  the  fattening  time  of  the  year.  Beeves,  pigs 
and  poultry  take  on  flesh  well  at  any  other  season,  but  this  month 
and  next,  especially  before  the  very  cold  weathei  of  December 
comes,  they  fatten  rapidly.  All  stock  should  be  put  in  good  or- 
der for  winter.  Soft  corn,  nubbins,  grown  grain,  green  pumpkins, 
and  such  fruits  as  are  liable  to  decay,  ought  to  be  fed  out  to  the 
cattle  to  get  them  in  good  condition  before  cold  weather  comes  on. 
Beeves  should  have  full  feeds  of  scalded  corn  meal  and  oil-cake,  on 
corn  stalks  or  chopped  hay.  Sheep  should  have  their  allowance 
of  grain  increased,  especially  those  that  are  fattening,^  though  so 
long  as  pasturage  is  fair,  they  should  be  kept  upon  it.  Swine  mn.< 
have  the  small  potatoes,  boiled  and  mixed  with  meal;  all  then- 
food  ought  to  be  cooked.  Oil  meal  is  excellent  and  economical 
food  used  with  other  things  ;  so  is  beef,  or  even  pork  scraps  Mi.x 
finely  powdered  charcoal,  and  a  little  wood  ashes  occasiona  ly  with 
the  food  of  hogs,  especially  if  they  do  not  come  to  the  soil ;  tlieir 
fattening  and  growth  is  much  promoted  by  it. 


766  HOW   TO    MAKE    THE    FARM    PAY. 


\ 


Select  such  breeding  sows  as  are  wanted  for  furnishing  a  sup 
ply  of  pigs  for  next  spring,  and  keep  them  in  good  growing  orde& 
but  not  fat.  "^ 

The  Rams  may  be  put  with  the  ewes  for  early  market  lambs 
Select  good  long  wool  or  Southdown  rams,  for  the  lambs  of  such 
will  reward  best  the  care  which  early  lambs  demand.  It  is  not 
best  to  rear  many  February  lambs. 

Corn. — Cut  up  and  put  in  stooks,  if  not  already  done,  and  as 
soon  as  ripe,  husk,  selecting  seed  ears.  Take  medium-sized  ones, 
of  perfect  shape,  close  rowed,  well  tipped  out  and  uniform,  from 
stalks  producing  two  or  more  ears.  Sort  out  all  soft  ears  and  put 
tlie  rest  in  well  ventilated  bins.  Bind  the  stalks  in  small  bundles 
for  curing. 

Root  Crops. — Dig  potatoes  when  they  have  done  growing,  and 
preserve  in  cellars  or  pits,  covering  lightly  at  first. 

Pumpkins. — Gather  in  open  sheds,  or  cover  with  litter  before 
hard  frofets  ;  feed  to  cows  after  removing  the  seeds — the  green  ones 
first.  The  seeds  are  said  to  check  the  milk  secretion,  but  do  no 
harm  to  other  stock. 

Winter  Grain. — Rye  may  usually  be  sown  during  this  month, 
but  north  of  lat.  41°,  it  is  risky  to  delay  sowing  to  the  close.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  top  dress  winter  grains  where  they  are  thin,  with 
some  fine  rich  compost  or  hand  manure,  as  this  causes  them  to 
tiller  freely. 

Manure. — The  barn3'ards  and  manure  pits  should  be  thoroughly 
cleared  out,  and  the  manure  either  applied  to  the  land  and 
plowed  under  for  spring  crops,  or  laid  up  with  muck  in  compost 
heaps,  making  alternate  layers  of  muck  and  manure.  Lay  in  a 
good  stock  of  swamp  muck  for  composting  with  manure.  If  fiue, 
it  may  be  used  by  itself  as  a  top  dressing  for  grass. 

Plowing. — Plow  heavy  soils,  and  those  which  cannot  be  plowed 
early  in  the  spring,  especially  those  which  are  very  weedy  or  wet, 
so  as  to  expose  them  to  the  action  of  frost  during  winter.  Lay 
sod  land  over  flat ;  the  destruction  of  weeds  and  insects  is  more 
thorough.  Land  not  in  grass  may  be  plowed  rough,  or  in 
ridges  back  and  forth,  laying  two  furrows  together.  The  press 
of  other  work  should  not  cause  fall  plowing  to  be  neglected. 
Extra  hands  should  be  hired  and  the  work  pushed  on.  It  saves 
so  much  time  and  labor  in  the  spring.  Potato  ground  should 
be  thus  prepared,  and  on  very  stitf  soil  corn  does  better  on  fall- 
plowed  land.  All  land  on  which  spring  grains  are  to  be  sowed 
should  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  Fall  plowing  makes  most  lands  a 
week  or  two  earlier  in  the  spring. 

Im2Jlements. — Clean  thoroughly  all  implements  not  needed  again 
this  season ;  coat  the  steel  and  iron  parts  with  boiled  linseed  oil, 
and  put  away. 


/ 


THE   FARMER'S   CALENDAR.  7(5j 

Weeds.— Cut  m  wet  weather,  and  bring  into  heaps  for  burnin-^ 
when  so  wet  that  the  seed  will  not  shell  out.  It  does  more  harm 
thau  good  to  remove  dry  weeds. 

Leaves.— If  they  are  needed  for  bedding  for  horses  or  other 
stock,  there  is  no  better  mode  of  using  of  them.  But,  when  dry 
under  cover,  they  make  good  bedding,  and,  thrown  out  with  the 
manure,  speeddy  decay,  through  its  action  upon  them.  When 
not  required  as  litter  for  stock,  they  should  be  put  into  the  com- 
post heap  in  alternate  layers  of  manure,  leaves  and  sods.— The 
fermentation  will  soon  commence,  and  if  the  pile  is  built  up  some 
four  feet  high,  the  internal  heat  will  be  sufficient  to  keep  out  the 
frost  for  the  most  of  the  winter,  and  on  shovelling  oVer  in  the 
spring  the  whole  will  be  found  one  rich  mass,  good  foi-  the  garden, 
good  for  the  lawn,  good  everywhere. 


NOVEMBER  WORK. 

Manure. — Collect  your  stores  of  muck,  leaves,  and  litter  of  all 
kinds,  and  put  under  cover.  Clear  up  the  yards  frequently, 
throwing  all  manure  and  litter  into  heaps,  over  which  spread 
muck  or  soil.  Bring  into  the  hog  yards  all  sorts  of  litter  and 
muck.  Dust  g3'psum  over  stable  floors  and  on  fermenting  manure 
wherever  it  is.  Cut  and  stack  salt  marsh  hay  and  similar  coarse 
hay  which  is  produced  upon  upland  swamps  ;  it  is  of  great  value 
as  litter  and  manure.  Lay  up  the  manure  in  compact  heaps, 
which  can  have  liquids  pumped  over  them  as  often  as  they  get 
dry,  and  keep  all  manure  under  cover  so  far  as  possible.  Nine- 
tenths  of  the  food  of  well  fed  animals  comes  into  the  manure,  as  a 
general  rule.  Hence  the  great  value  of  fattening  animals.  Bead 
the  remarks  in  Chapter  III.  on  the  value  of  liquid  manure,  and  do 
not  let  another  month  pass  until  j'ou  have  provided  for  saviiig  it 
and  pumping  it  over  the  solid  manure  every  week.  It  icill  double 
the  value  of  your  manure  from  the  same  stock. 

Weeds Continue  the  slaughter  of  weeds  as  directed  last  month. 

Every  weed  allowed  to  go  to  seed  re-produces  thousands. 

Boot  Crops. — If  not  already  gathered  in  our  latitude,  they 
should  be  left  no  longer.  Carrots  will  bear  freezing  in  the  ground 
less  than  any.  Gather  them  first,  and  take  them  to  the  barn  or 
house-cellar  ;'  Mangels  and  Sugar  Beets  next ;  they  may  be  kept 
in  pits  or  the  cellar.  White  turnips  and  ruta-bagas  bear  mo.st 
frost,  but  hard  freezing  is  injurious  to  them.  Protect  in  i)its, 
well  covered  with  straw  and  earth  to  turn  water.  If  work  presses, 
the  roots  may  be  dug  and  laid  in  long  heaps  as  compactly  as 
possible,  and  covered  with  five  or  six  inches  of  earth,  and  when 
more  leisure  comes,  the  pits  may  be  made  systematically ;  provide 
ventilation  by  using  drain  tiles,  loosely  filled  witli  straw. 


\ 


HOW   TO    MAKE    THE   FARM   PAY. 


Animals  should  all  be  housed  before  this  month  is  out.  Attend 
to  A'entilation.  Close  stables  are  especially  injurious  to  horses, 
A  very  large  proportion  of  thfe  diseases  of  horses  are  caused  by - 
filthy  and  Hl-ventilated  stables.  The  fumes  of  the  manure  are 
destructive  to  the  eyes  and  lungs  of  the  horse.  Young  stock  if 
put  into  warm  stables,  will  improve  in  flesh,  growth  and  constitu- 
tion. Colts  need  good  care  and  warm  stables,  if  you  would  see 
them  grow  rapidly.  Cows  having  rich  feed  will  ipake  much  butter 
of  excellent  quality,  even  though  the  quantity  of  milk  falls  otf. 

Beeves  should  be  pushed  forward  now  in  cool  weather,  with 
full  feeds  of  roots,  meal  and  oil-cake,  with  care  not  to  overfeed. 
Keep  salt  before  them,  and  water  regularly ;  if  possible,  steam  the 
food  and  give  variet}'. 

Hogs  should  be  gaining  in  weight  ver}' fast ;  cook  everj^thing 
fed  to  them.  Watch  the  market  and  kill  early,  if  situated  so  that 
you  can  do  so,  and  thus  take  advantage  of  the  higher  prices  which 
usually  prevail  before  the  general  killing  time. 

Sheep  should  come  in  from  the  pastures  in  good  condition  ; 
if  not,  begin  at  once  feo  bring  them  up  with  corn  and  oil-cake  in 
small  quantities.  This  is  the  coupling  season.  Do  not  let  the 
ram  run  witli  the  flock,  but  keep  him  by  himself  and  let  him  into 
the  flock  an  hour  or  so  evciy  morning.  Keep  him  in  good  coiidi- 
tioiiy  but  not  fat,  and  do  not  tax  his  powers  too  severcl}'. 

Fruit. — Pick  all  market  and  winter  fruit  hy  hand.  In  picking 
and  marketing  apples,  too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  hand- 
ling and  assorting  the  fruit.  A  lot  that  opens  well  and  runs 
through  evenly,  brings  a  much  better  price  tlian  one  tliat  has  been 
picked  and  'lancled  carelessl3^  The  old  rule  that  apples  should 
be  handled  as  carefully  as  if  they  were  eggs  ought  to  be  always 
observed.  Instead  of  having  but  two  market  grades,  make  at 
least  three.  Gather  windfalls  for  cider.  Apples  keep  best  in 
lime-barrels. 

DECEMBER  WORK. 

The  careful  preparation  made  for  winter  tells  now.  Now  the 
well-banked  cellars,  well-covered  root-pits,  and  warm  buildings, 
stand  the  test  of  severe  cold  and  winds.  Now  the  grain,  roots, 
and  steamed  food  liberally  fed  during  the  last  thi-ee  months,  make 
their  show  on  the  account  for  pork  and  beef. 

Animals  should  have  special  care  and  attention.  Feed  steamed 
or  cooked  food  to  all  your  animals.  Feed  the  beeves  bountifully 
Give  the  calves  a  little  meal  daily  with  other  good  feed,  and  keep 
them  warmly  sheltered  in  all  inclement  weather.  Hogs  will  stop 
fattening  if  they  are  too  cold  to  be  comfortable,  no  matter  how 
well  they  may  be  fed,  and  if  you  cannot  keep  them,  warm,  you  had 
better  kill  them  early ;  steamed  food  is  of  great  advantage  in  such 
cases. 


i 


/ 


THE    farmer's    CALEN-DAR. 


769 


Horses  should  be  made  comfortable.  Don't  shut  up  several 
horses  in  a  low,  close,  dark  stable  unless  3^ou  wish  to  breed  dis- 
eases of  the  lungs.  The  horse  should  have  a  stable  high  enouffli 
for  the  circulation  of  the  air  over  him;  there  should  be^'no  cracks 
through  which  the  cold  air  can  blow  on  him.  Rub  the  horses' well 
when  they  come  warm  to  the  stable.  {See  article  on  "  Construc- 
tion OF  Stables," — page  2t6.) 

Sheep  should  ba  housed  by  this  time,  and  coupled  with  the  rams 
for  April  and  May  lambs.  Allowing  the  ram  to  run  with  the  sheep' 
is  a  miserable  practice,  but  if  it  is  followed,  no  ram  should  be  al- 
lowed to  run  with  more  than  fifty  sheep,  but  if  kept  apart  and 
allowed  but  a  single  or  once  repeated  service,  a  full  grown  ram 
may  serve  double  that  number.  Obtain  a  fuU-bloodecrram  of  the 
breed  you  desire  to  raise,  if  possible.  Poor  sheep  are  poor  prop- 
erty; good  sheap,  of  either  the  wool  or  mutton  breeds  are  o-ood 
property. 

Brood  Mares  should  be  kept  in  loose  boxes,  or  roomy  stalls,  so 
that  they  may  lie  at  ease,  and  change  their  position  at  will.  Have 
them,  and  all  norses,  sharp  shod,  so  that  they  shall  be  in  no  dan- 
ger of  slipping  upon  the  ice.  Give  regular  exercise  in  a  sunny 
yard  or  on  the  road. 

Cows  giving  milk  or  dry,  should  be  well  fed  and  kept  gaining. 
If  the  cow  is  in  good  condition,  she  may  be  milked  to  within  four 
or  five  weeks  of  calving,  without  injury  either  to  herself  or  her 
calf  If  in  poor  flesh,  and  kept  on  dr}^  hay  and  stalks,  she  should 
go  dry  two,  three,  or  four  months.  A  cow  that  has  a  hard  time  in 
calving  should  be  well  fed,  to  give  her  strength,  and  milked  until 
the  new  milk  springs,  that  the  calf  shall  not  be  too  lar,ii;e.  Throw 
no  fodder  tipon  the  ground,  but  feed  in  boxes  or  racks.  Foddei 
left  by  the  horses  and  cows,  should  be  sprinkled  with  salt  and 
water  and  fed  to  the  sheep.  Have  water  convenient  to  the  yard, 
or  in  it,  and  j^rotect  the  pipes,  now,  against  freezing. 

Manure. — Well  composted  manures  may  well  be  hauled  on  the 
fields  whenever  there  is  good  sledding,  but  ordinary  barnyard 
manure  should  be  kei)t  under  cover.  Spread  out  all  the  manure 
from  the  stables  and  yard  under  the  sheds,  and  do  not  leave  it  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  the  tVeezing,  thawing,  and  the  bleaching  which  it 
will  get  if  left  out.  Never  keep  the  manure  of  the  horse  stables 
by  itself,  but  always  mix  it  with  the  other  manures.  Horse 
manure  loses  its  ammonia  more  readily  than  any  other  manure, 
and  becomes  heated,  \\\q\\  fire  fanged,  then  dry  and  almost  worth- 
less. Nearly  one  half  the  value  of  stable  manure  is  lost  by  leaving 
it  unprotected  through  the  winter. 

Implements.— yiow  is  the  time  to  have  a  thorough  overhauling 
of  all  tools.  They  should  all  be  hunted  up,  cleaned,  and  put 
under  cover.  The  ploughs,  spades,  hoes,  and  all  iron  implements 
should  be  rubbed  over  with  an  oiled  rag  to  prevent  rust.     1  hero 


770  HOW   TO   MAKE   THE   FARM    PAY. 


\ 


should  be  a  tool  room  on  everj^  farm.  Before  tools  are  put  up  for 
the  winter,  all  those  needing  repairs  of  any  sort  should  he 
attended  to.  Large  machines  needing  any  repairs  that  caniK-l 
be  made  on  the  farm,  should  be  sent  to  the  repair  shop  now,  ami 
the  work  done.  A  nut  can  be  replaced,  a  plough  point  sharpened, 
or  a  handle  set  much  more  conveniently  now,  than  if  left  until  it  is 
wanted  again  during  the  hurry  of  the  working  season. 

An  Ice  House  is  a  great  convenience  on  every  ftirra,  and  almost 
indispensible  where  butter  is  made  for  market.  A  cheap  ice  house 
can  be  constructed  as  follows:  Draw  sawdust  and  spread  upon 
the  o-round  at  least  a  foot  deep.  Build  up  the  cakes  of  ice  upon 
this  foundation  seven  to  ten  feet  high,  and  eight  to  ten  feet  square, 
filling  the  space  between  the  cakes  with  pounded  ice.  Set  up 
scantling  and  board  it  up  about  two  feet  from  the  ice.  Fill  in 
this  space  with  sawdust,  and  put  two  or  three  feet  of  sawdust  on 
top,  covering  with  boards  and  slabs.     It  will  keep  all  summer. 


/ 


/ 


DEFIKITIOX  OF  WORDS  AS  USED  M  THIS  VOLt'ME. 


r 


Arable — Fit  for  tillage. 

Ammonia — The  alkali  of  manures. 

Abscess — A  cavity  in  the  flesh  containing  pus,  caused  by  inflam- 

Abate — To  lessen  ;  to  moderate.  1  uiatioii 

Affection — A  disease  or  disturbance  of  the  system. 

Alimentary   Canal — The  whole  passage  through  which  the  food 

passes. 
Amateur — A  person  who  cultivates  any  art  or  science  from  tasle 
Acetous — Sour  ;  acid.  [and  not  as  a  business. 

Alternate — By  turns  or  in  succession. 
Biennial — Once  in  two  years. 
Bronchial — Belonging  to  the  windpipe. 
Craniu.m — The  bones  which  enclose  the  brains. 
Coronet — The  upper  part  of  the  hoof  of  the  horse. 
Contagious — Capable  of  being  communicated  by  touch. 
Congestion — An  unnatural  accummulatiou  of  blood  in  any  part 
Clyster — An  injection.  [of  the  l)ody. 

Cutaneous — Pertaining  to  the  skin. 
Caseine — The  clieesy  portion  of  milk,  almost  identical  with  legu- 

men  in  plants. 
Decoction — A  fluid  in  which  herbs  or  other  substance  has  been 
Desider.itum — That  which  is  desired  but  not  possessed,     [boiled. 
Degenerate — To  grow  worse  or  inferior. 

Deodorize — To  remove  offensive  smells.  '^'IK 

Disinfect — To  purify  from  contagious  matter. 
Entomology — That  part  of  zoology  which  treats  of  insects. 
Excrescence — A  swelling,  tumor  or  other  enlargement. 
Exude — The  flowing  of  juices  from  the  pores  of  animals  or  j^auls. 
Febrile — Pertaining  to  or  indicating  fever.  ^jL 

Fumigate — Smoking  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  infected^art- 

ments,  clothing,  etc. 
Fomentation — The  act  of  applying  warm  liquids  to  the  bo<ly  by 
Fibres— Fine  slender  threads.  [means  of  thmncls. 

Fibrin— Tough,   elastic   fibres  formed   in    animal   and   vegetable 
Fungus — A  vegetable  growth  upon  plants.  [matter. 

Gestation — Carrying  young  in  the  womb.  ^„_ 

47  ^"  ' 


772       DEFINITION    OF   WORDS   AS    USED   IN   THIS    VOLUME. 

Generated— Begotten  ;  engendered;  produced;  forme  L 
Glands— Small,  fleshy  tubes  for  the  passage  of  fluids.  \^ 

Glandular — Consisting  of,  or  pertaining  to  glands. 
Gnarly— Crabbed  ;  misshapen  ;  as  a  gnarly  apple. 

Grade An  animal  having  a  portion  of  the  blood  of  some  distinct 

Immutable — Unaltering.  [breed. 

Infection That  which  taints  or  corrupts  by  communication  from 

Jugular A  large  vein  of  the  neck.  [one  to  another. 

Lubricate — To  make  smooth  or  slippery. 

Ligament — A   strong,   compact    substance    serving   to   bind  one 

bone  to  another. 
Larynx — The   enlarged    upper  part  of  the  windpipe    extending 
Larvae — Insects  in  the  grub  state.  [into  the  throat. 

Luscious — Very  sweet ;  delicious. 
Longitudinal — Lengthwise. 
Laxative — Loosening  ;  mildly  purgative. 
Miniature — Small ;  on  a  small  scale. 
Neurotomy — The  dissection  of  a  nerve. 
Normal — According  to  rule. 
Neutralize — To  destroy  or  limif  the  effect  of. 
Ovaries — The  depositor}'  of  the  eggs  in  the  female  body. 
PriospiiATE — A  salt. 

Purgative — Having  the  power  of  cleansing  the  intestines. 
Pustules — An  inflamed  spot  on  the  skin  underneath  which  is  pus. 
Pus — Matter  coming  from  the  blood  in  consequence  of  inflammation. 
Progeny — Off'spring  ;  descendants. 
Parturition — The  act  of  bringing  forth  young. 
Purulent — Consisting  of  pus  or  matter. 
Pupa — The  third  state  of  the  insect  or  grub. 
Propagation — The  increase  by  generation. 
Pomology — The  art  of  raising  fruit. 
Pomological — Pertaining  to  fruit  culture. 
Parasitic — Gi'owing  from  or  living  upon  some  other  body. 
Pistillate — Blossoms  having  no  stamens,  and  therefore  incapa- 
Ruminating — Chewing.the  cud.  [ble  of  fertilization 

^e.iuvenate — To  make  3'oung  again. 
Lemittant — Having  an  increase  and  then  diminishing. 
[<PHATE — A  salt. 
Sinuses — Long  cavities  containing  pus. 
SAibOHARiNE — Having  the  qualities  of  sugar. 
StAjMens — Organs  of  fruitfulness  in  plants.  ^ 

T^JIiNiCAL — Pertaining  to  the  arts.  [abdomen. 

Thorax — The  chest  or  part  of  the  body  between  the  neck  and 
Terminal — Growing  at  the  end  of  a  branch  or  stem.  , 
Vice  Versa — The  circumstances  reversed. 
Virulent — Extremely  active  in  doing  injury. 
Vinous — Having  the  sparkling  qualities  of  wine. 
Veneer — A  thin  leaf  of  superior  wood  for  overlaying  an  inferior  one. 


imakJ 


/ 


INDEX. 


AgricnUnral  fairs,  674. 
Apples,  519,  536-541. 
Apricots,  519.  557. 
Anatomy  of  the  liorse,  '292. 
Animals,  dead,  use  for,  62. 
Asparagus,  636,  644. 


Barley,  170. 

Beets,  242,  634. 

Beet  root  sugar,  242-252. 

Beans,  637.  645. 

Bees,  487-515. 

Beefcatlle,  385,  386. 

Birds,  670. 

Blackberries,  607. 

Bone  muiiure,  59-61. 

Breeding,  22,  262,  310,  369-375,  389,  400,  443. 

Bicaking  and  training  colts,  273. 

Broom  corn,  181. 

Bread,  697. 

Breakfast  cakes,  702. 

Buckwiieat,  62,  170. 

Butter  dairy,  .34.3. 

Bulls,  390,  391. 

Budding,  525.  550. 

Butter,  .343,  673,  725. 

Biscuits,  rusks,  etc.,  700. 


Cabbage,  639,  647. 

Calves,  375-381,  392. 

Cauliflower,  616. 

Canning  fruit,  715. 

Carrots,  199,  6£4. 

Cattle,  340,  384-399. 

Cattle,  diseases  of,  399-405. 

Cake,  704. 

Celery,  636. 

Cherries.  557. 

Children,  diseases  of,  731. 

Cider  mills.  142. 

Cl.'ver,  59,  155,  187. 

Clover,  alsike,  674. 

Clod  crusher,  98. 

Cleaning  g;xrinents,  723. 

Cleanins  paint,  724. 

Corn,  ?,ii.  62. 175-181, 196. 

Corn  sheller.  13S. 

Compost,  6S,  155,  213,  246,  565.  632. 

Cotton,  209-224. 

Cooking  meats,  687 

Cooking  fish,  691. 

Cooking  vegetables,  693. 

Cookies,  701 

Cows,  340,  384-389,  673. 

Crops,  two  together.  667. 

Crops,  rotation  of,  251-262. 


Cranberry  culture,  609. 

Cultivators,  97. 

Cutting  and  cooking  food  for  stock,  307. 

Currants,  608. 

Custards,  715. 

Cucumbers,  639,  648. 

D. 

Dairy  stock,  340-384. 

Diseasescf  fruit,  653. 

Diseases  of  the  horse,  294-334. 

Diseases  of  the  horse,  remedies  for,  334-33& 

Dogs,  461. 

Drills  and  drilling,  101, 161. 

Draining  swamps,  34,  43. 

Drains,  32,  44. 

Drainage,  31-46,  50,  153. 

Drowning,  742. 

Ducks,  4b7. 

E 

Eggs  by  the  pound,  671. 
E.xercise,  742. 


Farm,  making  the  most  of,  668. 

Farm,  winter  work  on,  669. 

Farm  buildings,  276,  424,  455,  475,  621-6.30. 

Fertilizers,  oJ,  64, 176,  654. 

Fevers,  736,  737. 

Fences,  660. 

Flower  culture,  617. 

Flax,  235. 

Forest  tree  culture,  660. 

Food,  685. 

Food  for  horses,  281. 

Food  for  daii-y  stock,  381-386. 

Food  for  cattle,  .392. 

Food  for  sheep,  427. 

Food  for  hogs,  452. 

F'ood  for  poultry,  476,  484. 

Fruit  culture,  519-620. 

Fruit  boxes,  612. 

Q. 

Gardens,  farmers',  631-641. 

Gardens,  market,  641-659. 

Geese,  487. 

Goats.  458. 

Gooseberries,  608. 

Grindstones,  678. 

Grain  crops,  33,  153-182. 

Grain  caps  (see  bav  caps). 

Grasses,  33,  183-195. 

Grafting,  527. 

Grape  culture,  pages  564-.'i97. 

Grape  culture,  olijections  answered,  674. 

Grape  culture,  profits  of,  577. 

(773) 


774 


INDEX. 


^ 


Grape  culture  in  the  garden,  582. 
Griipe  culture  in  the  Tineyurd,  564-582. 
Grape  culture,  traiuiug,  672,  &S4. 
Gingerbread,  710. 
Guano,  (54;  65. 
Gypsum,  67, 155. 


Harrowing,  51,  56, 161. 
Harrows,  93. 
Hay  tedder,  118. 
Hay  cutter,  138. 
Hay  cajis,  165. 
Hemp,  234. 
Hens,  475-483. 
Hen  manure,  55,  62. 
Horse  manure,  54. 
Hog  manure,  55. 
Hoes,  105. 

Horses,  262-339,  672. 
How  to  use  a  horse,  288. 
Hogs,  447-458. 
Hogs,  diseases  of,  456. 
Horse  rakes,  121. 
Horseradish,  649. 
Hops,  231. 
Hives,  496, 613. 


H. 


Implements,  70-152 


I. 


[594. 


Insects  injurious  to  vegetation,  222,  652,  569,  663 


Jellies,  719. 


Laborers,  679. 

Laborers'  cottages,  623,  679. 

Leaves,  59,  505. 

Lettuce,  630,  649. 

Lime,  59,  62,  65,  98. 

Lupine,  6o. 

Lambs,  413. 

M. 
Manures,  52-69. 

Manure,  lifpiid,  62,  55,  58,  04,  155,  254,  032. 
Manures,  application  of,  50,  155,  042,  054. 
Maple  sugar,  240. 
Melons,  650. 
Milk  dairy,  353. 
Mowing  machines,  105-118. 
Mules,  357. 
Mutton  sheep,  409, 074. 

0. 

Gate,  170. 
Orchards,  519-535. 
Onions,  635,  650. 
Oxen,  384. 

P. 
Pasture,  190, 193. 
Pastry,  702. 
Parsnip,  635. 
Peppers,  637. 
Peas,  638,  653. 
Peanuts,  667. 
Peaches,  519,  550-556. 
Pears,  510,  542-548. 
Peat,  32,  41,  53,  54,  57,  64. 
Pickles,  719. 
Pies,  703. 
Plums,  519,  556. 
Plaster  of  Paris  (see  gypsum). 
Plowing,  37,  47-51,  56,  75,  210. 
Plowing  deep,  47,  159. 
Plrwii.g  under  green  crops,  59,  63,  155. 
Plows,  37,  43,  49,  72,  75-93. 
Potatoes,  2!  13,  634. 
Poultry,  471-487, 


Prairies,  154,  193,  681. 
Pruning,  628,  652,  572. 
Preserving  meats,  etc.,  693. 
Preserving  fruits,  717. 
Pieserving  furs,  etc,  723. 
Pudding,  713. 


Quince,  644. 


Q. 


Raspberries,  607. 

Radish,  035,  053. 

Rams,  413.  421. 

Reapers,  1U6,  126-134. 

Rice,  224. 

Roots,  33,  48,  196-206. 

Root  cutter,  142. 

R<itation  i,f  crojis,  252-262. 

Rhubarb,  637,  053. 

Rollers,  51. 

Rural  architecture,  621-630. 

Rye,  170. 


Salt,  59. 

Sawdust,  tan  bark,  shayings,  chip  dirt,  etc.,  63, 

Salads,  694. 

Seeds,  garden,  657. 

Shocking  grain,  164. 

Shee]),  406-447. 

Sheep,  diseases  of,  432^47. 

Sleep,  742. 

Soiling  cattle.  54,  394-;399. 

Soap  suds,  59. 

Sorghum,  239. 

S'.wing  wheat,  100,  166. 

Sowing  grass  seed,  1S9. 

Smut,  170. 

Spurry,  63. 

Spader,  rotai  y,  90. 

Spinach,  053. 

Sciuash,  640,  654. 

Stables,  54,  280,  671. 

Stone  lifter,  75. 

Steam  plow,  90. 

Stump  puller,  74. 

Stomach,  diseases  of,  739. 

Strawberry  culture,  005,  607. 

Stacks  for  hay  and  grain,  678. 

Summer  drinks,  721. 

Sweet  potatoes,  206. 

Swamps,  32,  34,  41.  43. 

Sweet  corn,  039,  647.  f 

T. 

Timlier  growing,  660-666. 
Threshers,  134-138. 
T.ibacc),  225-231. 
Tomatoes,  037,  656. 
Turnips,  198,635.    ■ 
Turkeys,  483. 


Vetch,  62. 

Vineyard  culture,  504. 

W. 

Water  cress,  656. 

■\Vaffles,  712. 

Washing  receipts,  722. 

AVells,  681. 

Wheat,  15.V170. 

Wine  making,  597-604, 718. 


Yam,  676. 


^j5 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


Series  9482 


3   1205  00418  9609 


^  UC  SOUTHERN  REGIOrjAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

II 


AA    000  991  309    6 


